129-692: War of the Spanish Succession War of the Austrian Succession Jacobite rising of 1745 The Irish Brigade ( Irish : Briogáid Éireannach , French : Brigade irlandaise ) was a brigade in the French Royal Army composed of Irish exiles, led by Lord Mountcashel . It was formed in May 1690 when five Jacobite regiments were sent from Ireland to France in exchange for a larger force of French infantry who were sent to fight in
258-762: A clear majority for war and in May 1701, Parliament urged William to negotiate an anti-French alliance. On 7 September, Leopold, the Dutch Republic and Britain signed the Treaty of The Hague renewing the 1689 Grand Alliance . Its provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but did not refer to placing Archduke Charles on
387-456: A compromise that left the succession unresolved. Since it now seemed clear Charles would die without children, Leopold signed only with extreme reluctance, and all sides viewed Ryswick as only a temporary suspension of hostilities. Unlike the crowns of France or Austria , that of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) to pass their rights onto
516-531: A crucial role at Fontenoy, attacking the right flank of a British column and suffering 656 casualties. O'Callaghan claims the Irish Brigade captured the colours of the Coldstream Guards during this engagement, as well as fifteen cannon. McGarry, in a recently published book entitled Irish Brigades Abroad , disputes this claim. Instead stating the standard in question was the flag of Sempill's Regiment of Foot,
645-541: A desire for access to Spanish markets in the Americas. While modern economists generally assume a constantly growing market, the then dominant theory of mercantilism viewed it as relatively static. This meant increasing your own share of a market required taking it from someone else, with the state facilitating this by attacking opponents' merchant ships and colonies. As a result, the war quickly expanded to North America , India , and other parts of Asia, with tariffs used as
774-554: A mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant the others supported Archduke Charles, the most important being Catalonia. Allied victory at Vigo Bay in October 1702 persuaded Peter II of Portugal to switch sides, giving them an operational base in this area. Archduke Charles landed at Lisbon in March 1704 to begin a land campaign, while the British-Dutch capture of Gibraltar
903-456: A natural embarkation point for an attack on England, as demonstrated in 1688 . The third was to maintain a navy strong enough to protect British trade, control her waters and launch attacks on her enemies' commercial routes and coastal areas. Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession for the British throne masked differences on how to achieve them. In general,
1032-483: A navy , and as the campaigns of 1708–1710 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The Nine Years' War had shown France could not impose its objectives without support, and its new alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome more likely. However, the previous wars had left France with severe economic problems. This was recognized by the Marquis de Chamlay , who advised Louis to not take on
1161-657: A number of English and Scots serving in the Brigade, though their numbers fluctuated markedly over the years. A database being compiled by the Centre for Irish-Scottish Studies at Trinity College suggests that for every ten Irishmen, there were on average two Englishmen and one Scot. During the American War of Independence, the brigade participated in the Capture of Grenada , the Siege of Savannah ,
1290-520: A policy weapon. The 1651–1663 Navigation Acts were a major factor in the Anglo-Dutch Wars , while between 1690 and 1704, English import duties on foreign goods increased by 400%. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods such as cloth and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others. The field armies that operated in the Southern Netherlands during
1419-619: A purely offensive strategy. He argued that the combined might of the Grand Alliance forces made it highly improbable for France to launch a successful attack. The Dutch and Imperial fortresses were located far from convenient Franco-Spanish bases, and the Netherlands and Rhineland lacked easily navigable rivers for the Bourbon armies. Furthermore, besieging a major Dutch fortress demanded the commitment of two full armies. The French would thus pursue
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#17328527853151548-626: A reversal of long-standing strategic policy, with France now supporting the Spanish position in Lombardy, rather than seeking to weaken it, and Austria doing the opposite. While Victor Amadeus initially allied Savoy with France, his long-term goal was the acquisition of the Duchy of Milan , which neither Bourbons nor Habsburgs would relinquish voluntarily. As discussed elsewhere in this article, securing his borders in Italy
1677-589: A separate peace but could not agree on the terms. The Great Frost of 1709 caused widespread famine in France and Spain, forcing Louis to re-open negotiations and he hinted at his willingness to cede French fortresses to the Dutch Republic. In May 1709 the Allies presented him with the preliminaries of the Hague. Britain and Austria still insisted on an undivided Spanish monarchy for Archduke Charles. The Allies demanded that Philip
1806-723: A series of moves that combined to make war inevitable. The Tory majority in the English Parliament objected to the Partition Treaties, chiefly the French acquisition of Sicily , an important link in the lucrative Levant trade. However, a foreign diplomat observed their refusal to become involved in a European war was true "only so long as English commerce does not suffer". Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition. In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to
1935-565: A smaller Jacobite force led by Mackintosh of Borlum was defeated at Preston . Amongst the leaders of a Jacobite conspiracy in western England were three peers and six MPs. The government arrested the leaders, including Sir William Wyndham , on the night of 2 October, and on the following day easily obtained Parliament's legitimation of these arrests. The government sent reinforcements to defend Bristol , Southampton and Plymouth . Oxford , famous for its monarchist sentiment, fell under government suspicion, and on 17 October General Pepper led
2064-692: A strategy described as a "mixed war" in Europe. In this strategy, the Franco-Spanish forces would primarily assume a defensive posture to safeguard the vital fortresses they needed to retain. Offensive actions, on the other hand, were characterized by assertive posturing and strategic positioning, with an emphasis on sustaining their forces by living off enemy territory whenever feasible, while blocking enemy thrusts, and trying to engage them in battle where possible. Apart from denying an undivided Spanish monarchy to others, Louis's objectives were to secure his borders with
2193-571: A strong town on the eastern side of the Dutch Republic, and took Venlo , Roermond , Stevensweert and Liège along the Meuse . The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy. Despite capturing Bonn , they failed to take Antwerp , while a Dutch contingent narrowly escaped disaster at Ekeren in June. On the Upper Rhine , Imperial forces under Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden remained on
2322-730: A struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between supporters of the French Bourbons and the Habsburgs . Charles named his heir as Philip of Anjou , a grandson of Louis XIV of France , whose claim was backed by France and most of Spain . His rival, Archduke Charles of Austria , was supported by the Grand Alliance , whose primary members included Austria , the Dutch Republic , and Great Britain . Significant related conflicts include
2451-583: Is named for him. Their involvement and use of the motto " Semper et Ubique Fidelis " may have influenced the subsequent adoption of the motto " Semper Fidelis " by the U.S. Marines . Until the Seven Years' War the British authorities had turned a blind eye to semi-organised recruitment within Ireland itself for the regiments of the Brigade. As long as the Irish troops were not employed against Britain or its allies, this
2580-623: Is now more than ever Now or Never ". Despite receiving no commission from James to start the rising, the Earl of Mar sailed from London to Scotland, and on 27 August at Braemar in Aberdeenshire held the first council of war. On 6 September at Braemar, Mar raised the standard of "James the 8th and 3rd", acclaimed by 600 supporters. Parliament responded with the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1715 , and passed an Act that confiscated
2709-510: Is very doubtful if the regiments would also have been chanting in Irish , a language unknown to probably a majority of the brigade at the time. Others strongly dispute this, as over the course of 100 years new recruits were brought into the brigade mostly from the Irish-speaking regions of West Munster, the homeland of, among others the O'Connell family of Derrynane House . Stephen McGarry also makes
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#17328527853152838-670: The American War of Independence , though by the 1740s the number of Irishmen serving in the regiments had begun to markedly decline. The five regiments were increased to six during the War of the Austrian Succession, the sixth being Lally's, initially created by the Comte de Lally -Tollendal through drafts from the original five. Each regiment had a strength of one battalion of 685 men and Fitzjames's cavalry regiment counted 240 men. The Brigade played
2967-633: The Catholic Irish Brigade organized by William Pitt the Younger . In 1803, the Irish Legion was formed by Napoleon Bonaparte for Irishmen willing to take part in his planned invasion of Ireland. Stephen McGarry's Irish Brigades Abroad (Dublin, 2013 Kindle edition, paperback May 2014) is a new book on the subject and finally updates John Cornelius O'Callaghan's History of the Irish Brigades in
3096-578: The Dutch Republic to back those of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor . When Charles died in 1700, the Spanish Empire was no longer the dominant great power , but still included much of Italy and the Americas , the Spanish Netherlands , and colonies such as the Philippines . Negotiations between Louis and Emperor Leopold centred on dividing these territories, which the Spanish refused to allow. Since
3225-510: The Great Northern War , while Frederick I made his support dependent on Leopold recognising Prussia as a kingdom and making it an equal member of the Grand Alliance. Since George, Elector of Hanover , was also heir to the British throne, his support was more reliable, but the suspicion remained that the interests of Hanover came first. British foreign policy was based on three general principles, which remained largely consistent from
3354-692: The Invasion of Tobago , the Capture of Sint Eustatius , and the Siege of Brimstone Hill . Walsh's regiment is noted for aiding the American cause in the American Revolution, when a detachment was assigned as marines to John Paul Jones ' ship, the Bonhomme Richard . Lt. Edward Stack commanded the division in the main top of the Bonhomme Richard during her battle with HMS Serapis . The USS Stack
3483-511: The Irish Army had arrived in France in an event known as Flight of the Wild Geese . These were kept separate from the Irish Brigade and were formed into King James's own army in exile, albeit in the pay of France. Dorrington 's regiment, later Rooth or Roth, following the Treaty of Ryswick in 1698, was formed from the former 1st and 2nd battalions James II's Royal Irish Foot Guards (formerly on
3612-621: The Napoleonic Wars , the Franco-Prussian War , and both the World Wars. Gentlemen, we acknowledge the inappreciable services that France has received from the Irish Brigade, in the course of the last 100 years; services that we shall never forget, though under an impossibility on requiting them. Receive this Standard as a pledge of our remembrance, a monument of our admiration, and our respect, and in future, generous Irishmen, this shall be
3741-649: The Nine Years' War . When the Irish Army showed its weakness by failing to win the Siege of Derry and losing the minor Battle of Newtownbutler on 31 July 1689, Lauzun was sent to Ireland with a French force of 5000 men but Ireland had to send Irish troops to France in exchange. This was the Irish Brigade, formed in May 1690. It consisted of five regiments, comprising together about 5000 men. The regiments were named after their colonels: The French reformed them and disbanded Butler's and Feilding's, incorporating their men into
3870-695: The Papacy formally recognised George III of the Hanoverian dynasty as the lawful monarch of Britain and Ireland, and refused to recognise Bonnie Prince Charlie , who was now styled as King Charles III by the Jacobites. The rise of George III also saw the Tories come back to power with John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute forming a ministry – the Tories had previously included high-placed, financially powerful Jacobites. There were always
3999-523: The Rhine and Adda , while their absence limited operations in areas like Northern Spain. Better logistics, unified command, and simpler internal lines of communication gave Bourbon armies an advantage over their opponents. In 1700, Spain remained a great power in terms of territory control; recent research moreover shows that imports of bullion from the Americas reached their highest level between 1670 and 1700. However, this concealed major structural weaknesses;
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4128-592: The Tories favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the Royal Navy to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others. The Whigs argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential, while Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France. The Dutch had been engaged in
4257-636: The West Indies , which produced sugar , then a hugely profitable commodity. Also, there were minor trade conflicts in South America, India, and Asia; the financial strains of war particularly affected the Dutch East India Company , as it was a huge drain on scarce naval resources. Related conflicts include Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary , which was funded by France and a serious concern for
4386-567: The Williamite War in Ireland . The regiments comprising the Irish Brigade retained their special status as foreign units in the French Army until nationalised in 1791. When King James II went to Ireland in March 1689, Ireland was ruled by his viceroy Tyrconnell and was held by the Irish Army , which was loyal to King James. There seemed to be no need for the deployment of French troops in Ireland and Louis XIV needed his troops elsewhere during
4515-527: The capture of Menorca in 1708 allowed the Royal Navy to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Since many British politicians considered this their primary objective, they became reluctant to approve further expensive land campaigns in this theatre. The close links between war and trade meant conflict extended beyond Europe, particularly in North America, where it is known as Queen Anne's War , and
4644-459: The cross of St George and the four crowns of England, Ireland, Scotland and France. Nearly all the regiments' flags carried a crown over an Irish harp in the centre, one exception being Roth's regiment of former Foot Guards, whose official title in the 1690s was the King of England's Foot Guards; their flag was a red cross of St George with a crown in the centre surmounted by a crowned lion. They carried
4773-499: The new British government argued it was pointless to continue. By now, only British subsidies kept their allies in the war, and their withdrawal led to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, followed by the treaties of Rastatt and Baden in 1714. Philip was confirmed as king of Spain but renounced his claim and those of his descendants to the French throne. The Spanish Empire ceded much of its Italian territories to Savoy and Austria, along with
4902-556: The strategic depth needed to protect their commercial and demographic heartlands around Amsterdam against attack from the south. However, with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, the Dutch garrison troops had been replaced by French troops by 1701. Dutch priorities were to re-establish and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the economically vital Scheldt estuary, and gain access to trade in
5031-463: The 'Protestant Succession.' This act of friendship forced George I to back the Dutch against the Emperor on the implementation of the Barrier, something George had sought to avoid. With both Maritime Powers drawing a unified line against Austria, the barrier negotiations were quickly concluded to the Dutch Republic 's satisfaction. Dutch troops took part in some minor actions in Scotland. On 22 December, James landed in Scotland at Peterhead , but by
5160-411: The 16th through the 20th centuries. The first, overriding all others, was to preserve a balance of power in Europe, an objective threatened by French expansion under Louis XIV. The second was to prevent the Low Countries from being controlled by a hostile power or one stronger than Britain; this included both the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, whose deep harbours and prevailing winds made her
5289-416: The 1700 to 1721 Great Northern War , and Queen Anne's War . Although by 1701 Spain was no longer the predominant European power, its global empire still included the Spanish Netherlands , large parts of Italy , and the Americas . Its acquisition by either France or Austria threatened the European balance of power , and Philip's proclamation as king of Spain on 16 November 1700 led to war. The French held
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5418-407: The 1707 Convention of Milan Emperor Joseph gave French troops in Lombardy free passage to Southern France. A combined Savoyard-Imperial attack on the French base of Toulon planned for April was postponed when Imperial troops were diverted to seize the Spanish Bourbon Kingdom of Naples . By the time they besieged Toulon in August, the French were too strong, and they were forced to withdraw. By
5547-406: The Act named her successor as the distantly related, but Protestant, Sophia of Hanover , who died two months before Anne in August 1714. This made Anne's heir presumptive Sophia's eldest son, George I of Great Britain (who therefore had maternal descent from the House of Stuart ), and gave the pro-Hanoverian Whigs control of government for the next 30 years. French support had been crucial for
5676-432: The Allies would still have to exhaust themselves in Spain, while France, after a period of recuperation, might once again lend support to Phillip. Jacobite rising of 1715 The Jacobite rising of 1715 ( Scottish Gaelic : Bliadhna Sheumais [ˈpliən̪ˠə ˈheːmɪʃ] ; or 'the Fifteen') was the attempt by James Edward Stuart (the Old Pretender) to regain the thrones of England , Ireland and Scotland for
5805-427: The Bourbons or the Habsburgs from doing so. This divergence and Austria's financial collapse in 1703 meant the campaign in Spain was reliant on Anglo-Dutch naval support and after 1706, British funding. Particularly during the reign of Joseph I , the priority for the Habsburgs was to secure their southern borders from French intervention in northern Italy and suppress Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary. Much of
5934-427: The British Army. By the eve of the French Revolution in 1789 direct Irish recruitment into the Irish Brigade had diminished to a limited number having the motive and opportunity to make their own way to France. Irishmen serving in the British Army and taken prisoner during the French wars might find themselves being encouraged to literally change their coats and enlist in the Brigade. The shortfall in numbers
6063-402: The Castilian elite. The Spanish Netherlands had been governed by prince-elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria since 1692, while links with Italy, traditionally the major source of Spanish recruits and funding, had been weakened by decades of neglect and heavy taxation. It was widely, if reluctantly, accepted in Madrid that preserving an independent Spanish Empire required comprehensive reforms, including
6192-471: The Flags of the French army. Fitzjames's cavalry regiment standard had a French design of a yellow field with a central radiant sun surmounted by a ribbon with the motto: Nec Pluribus Impar , [Not Unequal to Many]. Some officers of the Irish Brigade are believed to have cried out Cuimhnígí ar Luimneach agus ar fheall na Sasanach! ("Remember Limerick and Saxon perfidy") at the battle of Fontenoy in 1745. Modern research by Eoghan Ó hAnnracháin claims that it
6321-447: The French behind the Adda River . Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme , one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the Battle of Luzzara but the French recovered most of the territory and lost the year before. In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except Turin while victories at Cassano and Calcinato forced
6450-513: The French throne with the Parlement of Paris , raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will, though Philip was only third in the French succession. In February, the Spanish-controlled Duchy of Milan and allied Duchy of Mantua in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in Swabia and Franconia , these were challenges Leopold could not ignore. Helped by
6579-417: The French would prevent the Allies from making a decisive breach in their frontiers. British involvement was primarily driven by the need to protect their trade routes in the Mediterranean. By putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, they also hoped to gain commercial privileges within the Spanish Empire. Despite their dynastic claim, the Austrian Habsburgs viewed securing Northern Italy and suppressing
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#17328527853156708-437: The Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved, but success in 1708 made them overconfident. French diplomats focused on the Dutch, whom they considered were more likely to favour peace than their allies, for victory at Ramillies removed any direct military threat to the Republic, while highlighting differences with Britain on the Spanish Netherlands. Peace talks broke down in late 1708 because the Allies had agreed not to negotiate
6837-404: The Habsburgs throughout the war. In South-Eastern France, Britain funded the Huguenot 1704-1710 Camisard rebellion; one objective of the 1707 campaign in Northern Italy and Southern France was to support this revolt, one of a series that began in the 1620s. By the end of 1708, the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, while the maritime powers controlled the Spanish Netherlands, and secured
6966-414: The Hanoverian commander, the Duke of Argyll , time to increase his strength with reinforcements from the Irish Garrison . On 22 October, Mar received his commission from James appointing him commander of the Jacobite army. His forces outnumbered Argyll's Hanoverian army by three to one, and Mar decided to march on Stirling Castle. On 13 November the two forces joined battle at Sheriffmuir . The fighting
7095-415: The Highland clansmen. Many other exiled Jacobites in the French army were captured en route to Scotland in late 1745 and early 1746, including Charles Radcliffe, 5th Earl of Derwentwater , a captain in Dillon's regiment who was executed in London in 1746. In the interim, however, the Brigade found itself briefly opposed to its Spanish counterpart in the War of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718–20, as France
7224-400: The Holy Roman Empire, weaken his rival Austria, and increase French commercial strength through access to trade with the Americas. Despite being the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian and Imperial interests did not always coincide. The Habsburgs wanted to put Archduke Charles on the throne of an undivided Spanish monarchy, while their Allies were fighting to prevent either
7353-470: The Hungarian revolt as higher priorities. With the Dutch focusing on Flanders post-1704, this theatre was largely dependent on British naval and military support. Spain at the time was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon . The latter was further divided into the separate entities of Catalonia , Aragon , Valencia , Majorca , Sicily , Naples , and Sardinia . In 1701, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia declared for Philip, while
7482-412: The Imperialists into the Trentino valley. However, in July 1706, Vendôme and any available forces were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at Ramillies . Reinforced by German auxiliaries led by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau , Prince Eugene broke the siege of Turin in September; despite a minor French victory at Castiglione , the war in Italy was over. To the fury of his allies,
7611-441: The Irish Brigade regiments had to be Irish, half of whom had to be born in Ireland and the other half born of Irish descent in France. In practice by the outbreak of the French Revolution most serving officers of the Brigade fell into the second category. Seamus MacManus shows in his book The Story of The Irish Race (1921): "In truth, it was not the "Wild Geese" who forgot the tongue of the Gael or let it perish. We are told that
7740-449: The Irish Brigade took part in the rising of 1715 and the rising of 1745 . For the latter, a composite battalion of infantry ("Irish Picquets") comprising detachments from each of the regiments of the Irish Brigade, plus one cavalry regiment, Fitzjames' horse, was sent to Scotland and landed with Richard Warren at Stonehaven in October 1745. This trained and disciplined force saw action at the second Battle of Falkirk (where they cemented
7869-443: The Irish establishment) of Britain. With the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, King James's army in exile was disbanded, though many of its officers and men were reformed into new regiments. Having been merged into the original Irish Brigade these units served the French well until the French Revolution . Other Irishmen – such as Peter Lacy – proceeded to enter the Austrian service on an individual basis. The Irish Brigade became one of
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#17328527853157998-474: The Irish regiments in France continued to hope for decades that their cause would eventually succeed. After its early years however the Brigade increasingly became a professional force made up of Irish soldiers who enlisted for reasons of family tradition or in search of opportunities denied them at home, rather than for directly political motives. Irish regiments served in the War of the Austrian Succession , Seven Years' War , both in Europe and India, and during
8127-498: The Jacobite surrender at Preston (14 November), the rebellion was over. The 1688 Glorious Revolution deposed James II and VII , who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her Dutch husband William III , ruling as joint monarchs. Shortly before William's death in March 1702, the Act of Settlement 1701 definitively excluded Catholics from the throne, among them James's son, James Francis Edward Stuart . Since his Protestant half-sister Anne had no surviving children,
8256-434: The King's Botanist and brother-in-law of prominent Scottish Whig, Unionist, and Hanoverian Sir John Clerk, Baron Clerk . By October, Mar's force, numbering nearly 20,000, had taken control of all Scotland above the Firth of Forth , apart from Stirling Castle . However, Mar was indecisive, and the Jacobite capture of Perth and the move south by 2,000 men were probably at the initiative of subordinates. Mar's hesitation gave
8385-432: The National Assembly. This involved their being assimilated into the regular French Army as line infantry; losing their traditional titles, practices, regulations and uniforms. The initial (early 1791) restructuring of the army had already seen the Dillon Regiment become the 87e Regiment, Berwick the 88e , and Walsh the 92e . The 92nd Infantry Regiment remains in active service the French Army today, having seen action in
8514-473: The Nine Years' War had often reached 100,000 men. The size of armies continued to grow during the War of the Spanish Succession. Between 1702 and 1707, the field armies in the Southern Netherlands had a strength of 60,000 to 80,000 men, and from 1708 onwards, over 120,000 men. These extensive armies placed immense strain on pre-industrial economies. Armies were restricted by their dependence on water-borne transport for supplies, so campaigns focused on rivers like
8643-489: The October 1698 Treaty of the Hague between France, Britain and the Dutch Republic, five-year-old Joseph was designated heir to Charles II; in return, France and Austria would receive parts of Spain's European territories. Charles refused to accept this; on 14 November 1698, he published a will leaving an undivided Spanish monarchy to Joseph Ferdinand. However, the latter's death from smallpox in February 1699 undid these arrangements. In 1685, Maria Antonia passed her claim to
8772-417: The Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene, and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at Blenheim on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the Treaty of Ilbersheim placed it under Austrian rule. Allied efforts to exploit their victory in 1705 floundered on poor coordination, tactical disputes, and command rivalries. A diplomatic crisis between the Dutch Republic and England
8901-444: The Service of France (London, 1870). Mark McLaughlin's The Wild Geese , (London, 1980) was published by Osprey as part of their Men-at-Arms series and provides an introduction to the subject. War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict fought between 1701 and 1714. The immediate cause was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, which led to
9030-443: The Spanish Empire. Although the English Duke of Marlborough was Allied commander in the Low Countries , the Dutch provided most of the manpower and supplies. Strategy in this theatre was thus subject to the approval of their field deputies and generals. When Dutch forces operated outside the Spanish Netherlands this was often a concession to their English allies. Throughout the 17th century, Savoy sought to replace Spain as
9159-424: The Spanish Netherlands, although it remained largely intact outside Europe. Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca and acquired major trade concessions in the Spanish Americas . For the Dutch, despite attaining their long sought-after Barrier Treaty , the war is seen as marking the beginning of their decline as a significant European power. Although Louis succeeded in placing his grandson on the Spanish throne, France
9288-455: The Spanish nobility resented what they considered to be the arrogance of the Austrians, a key factor in the selection of Philip as their preferred candidate in 1700. In return for British support, Charles agreed to major commercial concessions within the empire, as well as accepting British control of Gibraltar and Menorca . These made him widely unpopular at all levels of Spanish society, and he
9417-399: The Spanish throne onto Leopold's sons, Joseph and Archduke Charles. Her right to do so was doubtful, but Louis and William used this to devise the 1700 Treaty of London . Archduke Charles became the new heir, while France, Savoy and Austria received territorial compensation; however, since neither Leopold nor Charles agreed, the treaty was largely pointless. By early October 1700, Charles
9546-576: The Spanish throne. When the exiled James II of England died on 16 September 1701, Louis reneged on his recognition of the Protestant William III as king of England and Scotland and supported the claim of James' son, James Francis Edward Stuart . War became inevitable and when William himself died in March 1702, his successor Queen Anne confirmed her support for the Treaty of the Hague. The Dutch now led by Grand Pensionary Anthonie Heinsius did
9675-682: The Stuart exiles, but their acceptance of the Protestant succession in Britain was part of the terms that ended the 1701–1714 War of the Spanish Succession . This ensured a smooth inheritance by George I in August 1714, and the Stuarts were later banished from France by the terms of the 1716 Anglo-French Treaty . The 1710–1714 Tory government had actively prosecuted their Whig opponents, who now retaliated, accusing
9804-450: The Tories of corruption: Robert Harley was imprisoned in the Tower of London while Lord Bolingbroke escaped to France and became James' new Secretary of State. On 14 March 1715, James appealed to Pope Clement XI for help with a Jacobite rising: "It is not so much a devoted son, oppressed by the injustices of his enemies, as a persecuted Church threatened with destruction, which appeals for
9933-514: The Treaty of London meant he might achieve his territorial aims without fighting. However, his son the Dauphin rejected the idea; French diplomats also advised Austria would fight regardless, while neither the British nor Dutch would go to war for a settlement intended to avoid war. Louis therefore accepted on behalf of his grandson, who was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700. With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made
10062-499: The acquisition of an undivided empire by either Austria or France would make them too powerful, its inheritance led to a war that involved most of Europe. The 1700–1721 Great Northern War is considered a connected conflict since it affected the involvement of states such as Sweden , Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Russia . Armies in the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War frequently numbered over 100,000, requiring expenditure unsustainable for pre-industrial economies. The 1690s also marked
10191-449: The advantage in the early stages but were forced onto the defensive after 1706. Although the Allies continued to advance in northern France, by 1709 Philip had cemented his position in Spain, the ostensible cause of the war. When Emperor Joseph I died in 1711, Archduke Charles succeeded his brother as Holy Roman Emperor . Since a union of Spain and Austria was as unwelcome as one with France,
10320-518: The borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, the maritime powers had achieved naval supremacy, and Britain acquired permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, as Marlborough himself pointed out, the French frontiers remained largely intact, their army showed no signs of being defeated, while Philip proved far more popular with the Spanish than his rival. Many of the objectives set out by
10449-466: The central importance of James III's claim to the Crown of England. Details of individual regiments were: The 1791 provisional regulations, on the eve of the disestablishment of the Irish Brigade, gave black facings to all four regiments with only minor distinctions to distinguish each unit. Most of their Colours were representative of their British Jacobite origins, with every regimental colour carrying
10578-418: The children of their respective marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. Louis sought to avoid conflict over the issue through direct negotiation with his main opponent William III of England while excluding the Spanish. Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia (1669–1692) married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria in 1685, and on 28 October 1692, they had a son, Joseph Ferdinand . Under
10707-458: The continued existence of the empire was not due to Spanish strength but to maintain a balance between the powers competing for a share of its markets. Despite fighting a series of wars against Spain from 1667 to 1697, France was also its most significant economic partner, supplying labour and controlling a large proportion of its foreign trade. This consideration was an important factor in the decision to name Philip his heir. Its dependence on others
10836-579: The defensive, although they took Landau in 1702. Supported by the Bavarians, during the 1703 campaign French forces retook Landau, won victories at Friedlingen , Höchstädt and Speyerbach , then captured Kehl and Breisach . With Austrian resources absorbed by Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary, the Franco-Bavarian plan for 1704 was to march on Vienna. To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up
10965-708: The dominant power in Northern Italy . Savoy consisted of two main geographic segments; Piedmont , which contained the capital Turin , and the Duchy of Aosta on the Italian side of the Alps , with the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice in Transalpine France. The latter were almost impossible to defend and combined with the anti-Habsburg policy pursued by Louis XIV and his predecessors, this meant Savoy generally sided with France. However, Piedmont provided foreign powers access to
11094-617: The dragoons into the city and arrested some leading Jacobites without resistance. Though the main rising in the West had been forestalled, a planned secondary rising in Northumberland went ahead on 6 October 1715, including two peers of the realm, James Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Derwentwater , and William Widdrington, 4th Baron Widdrington , and a future peer, Charles Radclyffe , later de jure 5th Earl of Derwentwater . Another future English peer, Edward Howard , later 9th Duke of Norfolk , joined
11223-500: The eighteenth century with different facing colours to distinguish each regiment. It has been suggested that the red coat was an expression of their loyalty to the Stuart claimants to the throne of Britain and Ireland. However, uniforms of this colour were widely worn by foreign regiments in the French service, notably those recruited in Switzerland. The use of Saint George's Cross on all the Brigade's flags reflected their acceptance of
11352-504: The elimination of the privileges or Fueros held by the Aragonese states. It was no coincidence Archduke Charles had strong support in areas that were part of the Crown of Aragon, including Catalonia and Valencia . Under Louis XIV , France was the most powerful state in Europe, with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded those of its rivals. Its geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility; unlike Austria, it had
11481-659: The elite units of the French Army. While increasingly diluted by French and foreign recruits from elsewhere in Europe, its Irish-born officers and men often aspired to return to aid Ireland and regain their ancestral lands, as some did during the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745. Irish regiments participated in most of the major land battles fought by the French between 1690 and 1789, particularly Steenkirk (1692), Neerwinden (1693), Marsaglia (1693), Blenheim (1704), Almansa (1707), Malplaquet (1709), Fontenoy (1745), Battle of Lauffeld (1747); and Rossbach (1757). Units of
11610-425: The end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased, apart from small-scale attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover Nice and Savoy. The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria, and Joseph Clemens of Bavaria , ruler of Liège and Cologne . During 1702, the Grand Alliance repelled an assault on Nijmegen , captured Kaiserswerth ,
11739-556: The exiled Stuarts . At Braemar , Aberdeenshire , local landowner the Earl of Mar raised the Jacobite standard on 27 August. Aiming to capture Stirling Castle, he was checked by the much-outnumbered Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Argyll , at Sheriffmuir on 13 November. There was no clear result, but the Earl appeared to believe, mistakenly, that he had won the battle, and left the field. After
11868-577: The first day of the battle, killing large numbers of Government forces, but Government reinforcements arrived the next day and the Jacobites eventually surrendered. On 15 November 3,000 Dutch troops arrived on the Thames and some time later another 3,000 landed in Hull . With this act of support, the Dutch fulfilled their part of the Barrier Treaty , which stated that the Dutch would provide 6,000 troops to defend
11997-426: The flow of Irish recruits to French service. Individual recruiters for the Irish Brigade were hanged if caught and during the Seven Years' War all British subjects in French service were declared traitors by Parliament and liable to execution if taken prisoner. This draconian measure does not, however, appear to have been implemented, except where individual prisoners of war were identified as having first deserted from
12126-467: The following day. Many Jacobite prisoners were tried for treason and sentenced to death. On 14 May 1716, Henry Oxburgh was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn . The Indemnity Act of July 1717 pardoned all those who had taken part in the Rising, but the whole of Clan Gregor , including Rob Roy MacGregor , was specifically excluded from the benefits of that Act. In later years, James, now known as
12255-707: The forerunner of the King's Own Scottish Borderers . The Irish suffered even higher casualties of around 1400 men, at the Battle of Lauffeld when they led the assault which drove the Pragmatic Army from the village of Lauffeld and secured victory. During the Seven Years' War the Irish Regiments in French service were: Bulkeley, Clare, Dillon, Rooth, Berwick and Lally as well as one regiment of cavalry (Fitzjames's). From January 1766
12384-526: The government stored arms for up to 10,000 men and £100,000 paid to Scotland when she entered the Union with England. Lord Drummond, with 80 Jacobites, tried under the cover of night to take the Castle, using a ladder. However, the ladder proved to be too short, leaving them stranded until morning, at which point they were discovered and arrested. It was subsequently alleged that this plot was organised by William Arthur ,
12513-547: The governor, Max Emanuel of Bavaria , French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in the 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands , granted at Ryswick. It also threatened the Dutch monopoly over the Scheldt granted by the 1648 Peace of Münster , while French control of Antwerp and Ostend would allow them to blockade the English Channel at will. Combined with other French actions that threatened English trade, this produced
12642-542: The land of rebelling Jacobite landlords in favour of their tenants who supported the London government. Some of Mar's tenants travelled to Edinburgh to prove their loyalty to the Hanoverian crown and acquire title to Mar's land. In northern Scotland, the Jacobites were successful. They took Inverness , Gordon Castle , Aberdeen and further south, Dundee , although they were unable to capture Fort William . In Edinburgh Castle ,
12771-529: The low point of the Little Ice Age , a period of cold and wet weather that drastically reduced crop yields across Europe. The Great Famine of 1695–1697 killed an estimated 15–25% of the population in present-day Scotland , Scandinavia and the Baltic states , plus another two million in France and Northern Italy . This combination of financial exhaustion and famine led to the October 1697 Treaty of Ryswick ,
12900-454: The motto In Hoc Signo Vinces . Another was the Earl of Clancarty's, whose flag became that of the Duke of Berwick's regiment when the latter was founded in 1698 following the abolition and merger of Clancarty's and several other regiments to form Berwick's, later, in 1743, Fitzjames's infantry. A correct representation of the flag carried by Berwick's regiment can be seen by following the link below to
13029-477: The motto of your spotless flag: 1692–1792, Semper et ubique Fidelis. Count de Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII) The members of the Irish Brigade had historically sworn loyalty to the King of France, not to the French people or their new republic of 1792. In 1792 some elements of the Brigade, who had rallied to the émigré Royalist forces, were presented with a "farewell banner" bearing the device of an Irish Harp embroidered with shamrocks and fleurs-de-lis. Of
13158-516: The point in his book Irish Brigades Abroad that Irish was widely spoken in the Irish regiments of France. Daniel Charles O'Connell was the uncle of The Liberator Daniel O'Connell and was the last Colonel of the French Irish Brigade in 1794 and rose to general rank. The O'Connells were native Munster Irish speakers and members of the dispossessed Gaelic nobility of Ireland . According to official French Royal Army regulations, officers of
13287-458: The popularity of the motto "Gallicus amicus non vicinus" (France is a good friend, not a good neighbour) within the Dutch Republic. The War of Devolution (1667–68) and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78) showed the Spanish could not defend the Southern Netherlands, and so the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick allowed the Dutch to place garrisons in eight key cities. They hoped this barrier would provide
13416-504: The protection and help of its worthy pontiff". On 19 August, Bolingbroke wrote to James that "..things are hastening to that point, that either you, Sir, at the head of the Tories, must save the Church and Constitution of England or both must be irretrievably lost for ever". Believing the great general Marlborough would join him, on 23 August James wrote to the Duke of Berwick , his illegitimate brother and Marlborough's nephew, that; "I think it
13545-436: The remaining three regiments, which were: These three regiments formed the first Irish Brigade in France and were known as Lord Mountcashel's Irish Brigade and served the French with distinction during the remainder of the Nine Years' War (1689–97). Under the terms of the Treaty of Limerick in 1691, which ended the war between King James II and VII and King William III in Ireland, a separate force of 12,000 Jacobites of
13674-546: The restive southern French provinces of the Dauphiné and Vaunage , former Huguenot strongholds with a long history of rebellion. This provided Victor Amadeus II with a degree of leverage, allowing him to manoeuvre between opposing parties to expand his territories. During the Nine Years' War in 1690, Savoy joined the Grand Alliance before agreeing to a separate peace with France in 1696. The accession of Philip V in 1701 led to
13803-620: The rising later in Lancashire , as did other prominent figures, including Robert Cotton, one of the leading gentlemen in Huntingdonshire . The English Jacobites joined with a force of Scottish Borderer Jacobites, led by William Gordon, 6th Viscount Kenmure , and this small army received Mackintosh's contingent. They marched into England, where the Government forces caught up with them at the Battle of Preston on 12–14 November. The Jacobites won
13932-593: The same, despite French hopes that without a Stadtholder the republic would be torn apart internally. On 8 May the Dutch Republic declared war on France, followed by the British and the Emperor on 15 May and the Imperial Diet on 30 September. The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often underestimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by
14061-454: The struggle to contain France since the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) of 1672, when the Dutch Republic had nearly been overrun by the French army. Apart from the worry about the balance of power, the Dutch had long been concerned with the fate of the Spanish Netherlands, viewing it as a strategic buffer against France. This perception endured even during periods of alliance with France, as evidenced by
14190-417: The time he arrived at Perth on 9 January 1716, the Jacobite army numbered fewer than 5,000. In contrast, Argyll's forces had acquired heavy artillery and were advancing quickly. Mar decided to burn a number of villages between Perth and Stirling to deprive Argyll's army of supplies . On 30 January, Mar led the Jacobites out of Perth; on 4 February James wrote a farewell letter to Scotland, sailing from Montrose
14319-535: The two senior Dillon officers who remained in the French Revolutionary Army , Theobald was killed by his soldiers when in retreat in 1792 and Arthur was executed in 1794 during The Terror . In 1793 the former Dillon Regiment was split into the 157th and 158th Line regiments. By 1794 some officers felt that the Government of the French First Republic had become too anti-Catholic , and joined
14448-482: The vast majority of these imports were used to fund debt or pay foreign merchants. When the new Bourbon administration took over in 1701, they found the empire bankrupt and effectively defenceless, with fewer than 15,000 troops in Spain itself and a navy consisting of 20 ships in total. Almost constant warfare during the 17th century made the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression, and largely reliant upon others for its prosperity. In many ways,
14577-572: The victory by driving off the Hanoverians causing the clans to waver) and Culloden , alongside the regiment of Royal Scots ( Royal Ecossais ) which had been raised the year before in French service. As serving soldiers of the French King the Irish Picquets were able to formally surrender as a unit after Culloden with a promise of honourable treatment and were not subjected to the reprisals suffered by
14706-402: The watchwords and the words of command in the "Brigade" were always in Irish and that officers who did not know the language before they entered the service found themselves of necessity compelled to learn it." The Brigade ceased to exist as a separate and distinct entity on 21 July 1791. Along with the other non-Swiss foreign units, the Irish regiments underwent "nationalization" at the orders of
14835-535: Was a significant blow to Bourbon prestige. An attempt to retake it was defeated in August , with a land siege being abandoned in April 1705. The 1705 Pact of Genoa between Catalan representatives and Britain opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of Barcelona and Valencia left Toulon as the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean. Philip tried to retake Barcelona in May 1706 but
14964-462: Was allied to the Jacobites' Hanoverian rivals. As a result, it was Spain who assisted the Highland Jacobites in their rising that ended in the Battle of Glen Shiel in 1719. The 1716 Anglo-French alliance had effectively secured the Hanoverian succession in Ireland and Britain. Despite the alliance France continued to recognize James III as legitimate, and therefore individual Jacobites amongst
15093-435: Was dying; his final will left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou ; if he refused, the offer would pass to his younger brother the Duke of Berry , followed by Archduke Charles. Charles died on 1 November 1700, and on the 9th, Spanish ambassadors formally offered the throne to Philip. Louis briefly considered refusing; although it meant the succession of Archduke Charles, insisting William help him enforce
15222-459: Was given two months to cede his throne to Charles, while France was required to remove him by force if he did not comply, besides having to cede the strongholds, Thionville , Cambrai and Valenciennes as collateral. Although Spain was of less importance to them, the Dutch negotiators, led by Heinsius, considered these strict conditions necessary to ensure that peace conditions were honoured, as they doubted Louis' sincerity. They were concerned that
15351-511: Was illustrated in 1703; despite the presence of an invading Allied army, the French ambassador urged Louis to allow Dutch and English merchants to purchase wool from Spanish farmers, "otherwise the flocks cannot be maintained". Enacting political or economic reform was extremely complex since Habsburg Spain was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon , each with very different political cultures. Most of Philip's support came from
15480-457: Was indecisive, but near the end the Jacobites numbered 4,000 to Argyll's 1,000. Mar's force began to advance on Argyll, who was poorly protected, but Mar did not close in, possibly believing that he had won the battle already (Argyll had lost 660 men, three times as many as Mar). Instead, Mar retreated to Perth. On the same day as the Battle of Sheriffmuir, Inverness surrendered to Hanoverian forces, and
15609-469: Was initially successful when the French surprised the Allied garrisons at Ghent and Bruges , it failed after the Allies defeated them at the Battle of Oudenaarde . In its aftermath the Allies managed to capture Lille , the strongest fortress of the French fortress belts, while a French assault on Brussels was reppelled and Ghent and Bruges recaptured. But despite losses like Lille and other strongpoints,
15738-412: Was left financially exhausted. Charles II of Spain succeeded his father Philip IV at the age of four in 1665. Subject to extended periods of ill-health for much of his life, the issue of his successor was a matter of diplomatic debate for decades. For example, in 1670 Charles II of England agreed to support the rights of Louis XIV of France , while the 1689 Grand Alliance committed England and
15867-468: Was made up by the increasing substitution of German, Swiss and other foreigners, plus some Frenchmen. The officers, however, were mainly drawn from Franco-Irish families which might have existed for several generations since their founders had migrated to France. Distinguished military service led to such families being accepted into the French aristocracy while retaining their Irish names and consciousness of origin. The Irish Brigade wore red coats throughout
15996-606: Was never able to sustain himself outside the coastal regions, which could be supplied by the Anglo-Dutch navies. The Wittelsbach -controlled states of Bavaria , Liège , and Cologne allied with France, but the vast majority of the Empire remained neutral, or limited their involvement to the supply of mercenaries. Like Bavaria, the larger entities pursued their own policies; his claim to the Polish crown meant Augustus of Saxony focused on
16125-870: Was of greater concern to Emperor Leopold than Spain itself. This meant Britain was the only power inclined to help Victor Amadeus achieve this objective and he changed sides in 1703 after the Anglo-Dutch navies won control of the Western Mediterranean. The war in Italy primarily involved the Spanish-ruled Duchy of Milan and the French-allied Duchy of Mantua , considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French troops occupied both cities and Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter Maria Luisa marrying Philip V. In May 1701, an Imperial army under Prince Eugene of Savoy moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at Carpi , Chiari , and Cremona forced
16254-473: Was only averted by the dismissal of General Slangenburg , while the imposition of Austrian rule in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious peasant revolt . In May 1706, the French were comprehensively defeated at Ramillies by an Allied army under Marlborough, which then occupied much of the Spanish Netherlands in under two weeks. France assumed a largely defensive posture for the rest of the war. The 1707 campaign
16383-495: Was repulsed, while his absence allowed an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and Zaragoza . However, lack of popular support and logistical issues meant the Allies could not hold territory away from the coastline, and by November, Philip controlled Castile, Murcia , and parts of Valencia. Allied efforts to regain the initiative ended with defeat at Almansa in April 1707, followed by an unsuccessful siege of Toulon in August. Despite these failures, control of Gibraltar and
16512-468: Was seen as a useful way of removing potentially discontented men of military age. In 1729 a confidential treaty between the French and British governments made provision for the engagement of 750 Irish recruits provided that this activity remained unpublicized. After the employment of the Irish Picquets in support of the Jacobite rising in Scotland showed the danger of such a policy, measures were taken to reduce
16641-508: Was without any significant events, as both parties focussed on other fronts. The French, now under Marshal Vendôme, avoided battle and Marlborough did little to force one upon them. By 1708, the focus of both sides was again almost entirely on the fighting in the Low Countries. The allies once more set their sights on breaking French fortification belts, while the French themselves planned a major counteroffensive . Although this counteroffensive
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