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66-468: Her route took her from Port Essington to Hazelton , over 290 km (180 mi) of one of the most treacherous rivers that was ever used for steam navigation. The Inlander's first captain was Joseph Bucey, who had been the pilot of the Hazelton . Some of the other officers were Robert Ryder, who was the chief engineer and Jerry Cunningham, the ship's mate. Wiggs O'Neill was the purser . O'Neill became

132-437: A Haida war party generally followed that of the community itself, the only difference being that the chief took the lead during battles; otherwise his title was more or less meaningless. Medicine men were often brought along raids or before battles to "destroy the souls of enemies" and ensure victory. Battles between a group of Haida warriors and another community sometimes resulted in the annihilation of either one or both of

198-598: A deity who presides over the seas; X_yuu, the northeast wind; and Sin SG_aanuwee, a cosmological "super-being" that encompasses all others. Prior to contact with Europeans, other Indigenous communities regarded the Haida as aggressive warriors and made attempts to avoid sea battles with them. There is some archeological evidence that the Northwest coast tribes, to which the Haida belong, engaged in warfare as early as 2200 BC, although it

264-420: A majority of their work on the land. Women were responsible for all of the chores in relation to the keeping of the home. Women were also in charge of curing cedarwood to use for weaving and making clothes. It was also the duty of the women to gather berries and dig for shellfish and clams. Once a boy hit puberty, his uncles on his mothers' side would educate him on his family history and how to behave now that he

330-436: A pandemic. European public health standards at the time were well practiced and adhered-to official health standards, including vaccinations and victims isolation. Instead, as the disease spread, Victoria Police burned some one dozen homes, deliberately displacing 200 Haida on May 13. They went on to burn some 40–50 more indigenous villages the following day. First Nations from further north had been camping periodically outside

396-408: A red-light district. However, despite the appearance of prosperity, the economy of Port Essington fluctuated with the seasons. Salmon fishing was a summer activity and the river was closed for freighting in the winter so many of the residents would migrate south each fall. According to Harris (see below), in the early twentieth century Port Essington's population fluctuated between around 1,000 and, in

462-498: A rigorous coast-wide legal system called Potlatch . After the Island's wide arrival of red cedar some 7,500 years ago Haida society transformed to centre around the coastal "tree of life". Massive carved cedar monuments and cedar big houses became widespread throughout Haida Gwaii. The first recorded contact between the Haida and Europeans was in July 1774 with Spanish explorer Juan Pérez , who

528-519: A specially made military suit was prepared for chiefs if they fell in battle. The slaves belonging to the chiefs who died in battle were burned with them. The Haida used the bow and arrow until it was replaced by firearms acquired from Europeans in the 19th century, but other traditional weapons were still preferred. The weapons that the Haida used were often multi-functional; they were used not only in battle, but during other activities as well. For instance, daggers were very common and almost always

594-505: A stone pillow and only allowing her to eat and drink small amounts she would become tougher. Although not commonly practiced today, it was once customary for young boys and girls entering puberty to embark on vision quests. These quests would send them out alone for days. They would travel through the forests, in hopes of finding a spirit to guide them through their lives. It was believed that boys and girls who were destined for greatness could find unique spirit guides. A successful vision quest

660-459: A store that became known as the Skeena Post. In 1876 the first salmon cannery was built and by the turn of the century there were seven canneries near the estuary. Robert Cunningham built a hotel, a town hall as well as the first cold storage plant in the north, which began operating in 1892. The town had an active social life with dances, concerts and church activities as well as three hotels and

726-648: A tourist attraction. Captain Vancouver named it for Sir William Essington . Haida people The Haida ( English: / ˈ h aɪ d ə / , Haida : X̱aayda , X̱aadas , X̱aad , X̱aat ) are an Indigenous group who have traditionally occupied Haida Gwaii , an archipelago just off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , for at least 12,500 years. The Haida are known for their craftsmanship , trading skills, and seamanship . They are known to have frequently carried out raids and to have practiced slavery . The Haida have been compared to

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792-790: The Northwest . By 1912, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway had reached Hazelton from Prince Rupert and sternwheelers were no longer required on the Skeena River. One by one they departed until the Inlander was the last one left. Some like the Operator , Conveyor and Skeena went on to work on the Fraser River, while others like the Hazelton were dismantled. The Inlander left Hazelton for

858-461: The Puget Sound communities, a battle ensued in which 26 natives and one government soldier were killed. In the aftermath of this, Colonel Isaac Ebey , a U.S. military officer and the first settler on Whidbey Island , was shot and beheaded on August 11, 1857, by a small Tlingit group from Kake, Alaska , in retaliation for the killing of a respected Kake chief in the raid the year before. Ebey's scalp

924-648: The USS ; Massachusetts was sent from Seattle to nearby Port Gamble, where indigenous raiding parties made up of Haida (from territory claimed by the British) and Tongass (from territory claimed by the Russians) had been attacking and enslaving the Coast Salish people there. When the Haida and Tongass (sea lion tribe Tlingit ) warriors refused to acknowledge American jurisdiction and to hand over those among them who had attacked

990-744: The Vikings of Scandinavia by Diamond Jenness , an early anthropologist at the Canadian Museum of Civilization . In Haida Gwaii, the Haida government consists of a matrix of national and regional hereditary, legislative, and executive bodies including the Hereditary Chiefs Council, the Council of the Haida Nation (CHN) , Old Massett Village Council , Skidegate Band Council , and the Secretariat of

1056-499: The 18th century as evidenced by Captain James Cook 's discovery of one such hilltop fortification in a Haida village. Numerous other sightings of such fortifications were recorded by other European explorers during this century. There were multiple motivations for the Haida people to engage in warfare. Various accounts explain that the Haida went to battle more for revenge than anything else, and would acquire slaves from their enemies in

1122-512: The 21st century, younger people are also making art in a popular expression such as Haida manga . The Haida also created "notions of wealth", and Jenness credits them with the introduction of the totem pole (Haida: ǥyaagang ) and the bentwood box. Missionaries regarded the carved poles as graven images rather than representations of the family histories that wove Haida society together. Chiefly families showed their histories by erecting totems outside their homes, or on house posts forming

1188-735: The Haida Nation. The Kaigani Haida live north of the Canadian and U.S. border which cuts through the Dixon Entrance south of Prince of Wales Island ( Tlingit : Taan ) in Southeast Alaska , United States; Haida from K'iis Gwaii in the Duu Guusd region of Haida Gwaii migrated north in the early 18th century. Federally recognized Haida tribes in the United States include the Central Council of

1254-606: The Haida across Canada. In 1987, the governments of Canada and British Columbia signed the South Moresby Agreement, establishing the Gwaii Haanas National Park , which is cooperatively managed by the Canadian government and the Haida Nation. The blockade was profiled in Christopher Auchter 's 2024 documentary film The Stand . In December 2009, the government of British Columbia officially renamed

1320-401: The Haida families as they would identify with one or the other and this would signify what side on the village they would reside on. The family would also own their own property, had specific areas for food gathering. These categories of Eagles and Ravens divided them on an even larger scale, specifying their land, history, and customs. The Haida social system changed significantly by the end of

1386-400: The Haida in 1787. The Haida did well for themselves in this industry and until the mid-1800s they were at the centre of the profitable China sea-otter trade. Although they had gone on expeditions as far as Washington State , at first they had minimal confrontations with Europeans. Between 1780 and 1830, the Haida came into conflict with European and American traders. Among the dozens of ships

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1452-489: The Haida matrilineages in Haida Gwaii some 14,000 to 19,000 years ago. These include SGuuluu Jaad (Foam Woman), Jiila Kuns (Creek Woman), and KalGa Jaad (Ice woman). The Haida canon of oral histories and archaeological findings agree that Haida ancestors lived alongside glaciers and were present at the time of the arrival of the first tree, a lodgepole pine, on Haida Gwaii. For thousands of years since Haida have participated in

1518-491: The Knife ( Haida : SG̲aawaay Ḵʹuuna ), was released, with an all-Haida cast. The actors learned Haida for their performances in the film, with a two-week training camp followed by lessons throughout the five weeks of filming. Haida artist Gwaai Edenshaw and Tsilhqot'in filmmaker Helen Haig-Brown directed, with Edenshaw and his brother being co-screenwriters, with Graham Richard and Leonie Sandercock . Christopher Auchter ,

1584-555: The Santiago was ultimately unable to dock and they were forced to depart without having set foot on Haida Gwaii. The Haida conducted regular trade with Russian, Spanish, British, and American maritime fur traders and whalers. According to sailing records, they diligently maintained strong trade relationships with Westerners, coastal people, and among themselves. Trade for sea-otter pelts was initiated by British Captain George Dixon with

1650-602: The Tlingit & Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska and the Hydaburg Cooperative Association. Some citizens of the Sitka Tribe of Alaska are of Haida heritage. In a first-of-its-kind deal negotiated over the preceding decades, British Columbia in 2024 transferred the title over more than 200 islands off Canada's west coast to the Haida nation. Haida history begins with the arrival of the primordial ancestresses of

1716-590: The Tsimshian language , the site of Port Essington is called Spaksuut or, in English spelling, "Spokeshute", which means "autumn camping place". This also became the Tsimshian name for the town of Port Essington, and was conferred on Spokeshute Mountain, which stands above and behind the community. It sits on the traditional territory of the Gitzaxłaał tribe, one of the nine Tsimshian tribes based at Lax Kw'alaams . In 1888,

1782-642: The anthropologist Franz Boas visited Port Essington, interviewing Haida and Tsimshian individuals and establishing a working relationship with Odille Morison , the Tsimshian linguist, who lived in Port Essington. In 1871, at the height of the Omineca Gold Rush , one route to the new goldfields led up the Skeena River to Hazelton , overland to Babine Lake and on to the Omineca River . The Provincial Government granted Robert Cunningham and Thomas Hankin

1848-424: The archipelago from Queen Charlotte Islands to Haida Gwaii . The Haida Nation asserts Haida title over all of Haida Gwaii and is pursuing negotiations with the provincial and federal governments. Haida authorities continue to pass legislation and manage human activities in Haida Gwaii, which includes making formal agreements with the Canadian communities established on the islands. Haida efforts are largely directed at

1914-427: The building. Well known contemporary Haida artists include Bill Reid , Robert Davidson , Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas , and Freda Diesing amongst others. Transformation masks were worn ceremonially, used by dancers and represented or illustrated the connection between various spirits. The masks usually depicted an animal transforming into another animal or a spiritual or mythical being. Masks were representations of

1980-588: The city limits of Victoria to take advantage of trade, and at the time of the epidemic numbered almost 2000, many of whom were Haida. The colonial government made no effort to vaccinate the First Nations in the region nor to quarantine anyone infected. In June, the encampments were forcibly cleared by police, and 20 canoes of Haidas, many of whom were likely already infected with smallpox, were forced back to Haida Gwaii, escorted by gunboats HMS Grappler and Forward . Those infected did not make it home, according to

2046-535: The community's lifeblood. By the 1940s, all of Port Essington's canneries were inactive. Through the 1950s the population plummeted. Port Essington burned down in a series of fires in 1961 and 1965 and is now a ghost town (despite its continuing to appear as a populated settlement in many maps and atlases). It sits today on an Indian reserve jointly administered by the Kitselas and Kitsumkalum bands. Currently, there are attempts to shape what remains of Port Essington into

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2112-487: The confluence of the Skeena and Ecstall Rivers. It was founded in 1871 by Robert Cunningham and Thomas Hankin (father of the interpreter Constance Cox ) and was for a time the largest settlement in the region. During its heyday it was home to an ethnic mix of European-Canadians, Japanese-Canadians, and members of First Nations from throughout the region, especially Tsimshians from the Kitselas and Kitsumkalum tribes. In

2178-447: The disease was spread throughout Haida Gwaii. The disease quickly spread throughout Haida Gwaii, devastating entire villages and families, and creating an influx of refugees. The pre-epidemic population of Haida Gwaii was estimated to be 6,607, but was reduced to 829 in 1881. The only two remaining villages were Massett and Skidegate . The population collapse caused by the epidemic weakened Haida sovereignty and power, ultimately paving

2244-656: The dominant culture. In 1911, Canada and British Columbia rejected a Haida offer whereby in exchange for full rights of British citizenship Haidas would formally join the Dominion of Canada . In November 1985, members of the Haida nation protested the ongoing logging of old-growth forests on Haida Gwaii, establishing a blockade to prevent the logging of Lyell Island by Western Forest Products . A standoff between protesters, police and loggers lasted two weeks, during which 72 Haidas were arrested. Images of elders being arrested gained media traction, which raised awareness and support for

2310-619: The fall of 1912, the Inlander was piloted by Captain John Bonser . It was fitting that Bonser piloted the last sternwheeler on the Skeena River, as he had pioneered it twenty years earlier in 1892 for the Hudson's Bay Company in the Caledonia , naming many of the rapids and canyons along the route. The Inlander was the last of many notable riverboats under Bonser's command, among them, the Nechacco and

2376-484: The final time at noon on September 10, 1912. Captain Bonser blew the Inlander 's whistle as a final farewell to the crowd that had gathered on the shore. When she reached Port Essington, the Inlander was pulled up onto her slipway and simply left to rot. Like the Inlander , Captain Bonser had also made his final voyage. He died the following year on December 26, 1913. The Inlander 's paddlewheel shaft (or axle)

2442-568: The foremost historian on the Skeena River sternwheelers and in his later years wrote Steamboat Days on the Skeena River and Whitewater Men of the Skeena . Wiggs Creek near Smithers is named in his honour. Captain Bucey left the Inlander in 1911 and appeared the following year as the captain of the BC Express on the Fraser River . For the rest of the 1911 season and through to her final voyage in

2508-419: The form and antics of a Raven. Ne-kilst-lass revealed the world and was an active player in the creation of life. While Ne-kilst-lass has a generous inclination, they also includes a darker, indulgent, and trickster quality. Nang Kilsldaas is merely one of many dozens of supernatural beings who personify a wide variety of forces, objects, places, and phenomena. A few of the most prevalent include K_ing.gii,

2574-506: The form of gifts. They are often held when a citizen wishes to commemorate an event of importance. For example, deaths of a loved one, marriages, and other civil proceedings. The more important potlatches take years to prepare and can continue for days. Haida society continues to produce a robust and highly stylized art form, a leading component of Northwest Coast art . While artists frequently have expressed this in large wooden carvings ( totem poles ), Chilkat weaving , or ornate jewellery, in

2640-477: The groups involved. Villages would be burned down during a battle which was a common practice during Northwest coast battles. The Haida burned their warriors who died in battles, though it is not known if this act was done after each battle or only after battles in which they were victorious. The Haida believed that fallen warriors went to the House of Sun, which was considered a highly honorable death. For this reason,

2706-604: The late Archaic period and early Formative period show that Northwest coast nations, particularly in the North where most Haida communities were situated, began more frequently engaging in battles of some sort from 1800 BC to AD 500, though the number of battles is unknown. This rise in the incidence of battles during the Middle Pacific period also correlates with the erection of the first defensive fortifications in Haida communities. These fortifications continued to be in use during

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2772-543: The nephew of Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas , has created a number of Haida centered films. In 2017 he directed the animated film The Mountain of SGaana , inspired by Haida mythology. His short documentary Now Is the Time premiered at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival . The Haida nation was split between two moieties , the Raven and the Eagle. Marriages between two people from

2838-428: The nineteenth century. At this point a majority of the Haida had taken nuclear family forms, and members of families belonging in the same moiety (Ravens and Eagles) were permitted to marry each other. The roles of the family varied between men and women. Men were responsible for all of the hunting and fishing, building homes and carving canoes and totem poles. The women's responsibilities were to stay close to home doing

2904-661: The plans of the colonial governments, and passed on at Bones Bay near Alert Bay. Later on a group of copper miners travelled from Bella Coola aboard the Leonede under command of Captain McAlmond. The boat took 12 passengers in December. One of these passengers carried smallpox to Haida Gwaii. This might not have been a disaster should the infected miner have stayed in isolation at the mining site on Sḵʼin G̱aadll , or Skincuttle Island. Instead

2970-410: The preceding decades, British Columbia in 2024 transferred the title of more than 200 islands off Canada's west coast to the Haida people, recognizing the nation's aboriginal land title across all of Haida Gwaii. The Haida language is considered to be an isolate . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Haida was de facto banned with the introduction of residential schools and the enforcement of

3036-489: The process. According to the anthropologist Margaret Blackman , warfare on Haida Gwaii was primarily motivated by revenge. Many Northwest coast legends tell of Haida communities raiding and fighting with neighbouring communities because of insults or other disputes. Other causes included conflicts over property, territory, resources, trade routes, and even women. However, a battle between a Haida community and another often did not have simply one cause. In fact, many battles were

3102-405: The protection of land and water and functioning ecosystems and this is expressed in the protected status for nearly 70% of the million-hectare archipelago. The protected status applies to the landscape and water as well as smaller culturally significant areas. They have also forced a reduction of large-scale industrial activity and the careful regulation of access to resources. In British Columbia,

3168-728: The result of decades old disputes. The Haida, like several other Northwest coast Indigenous communities, engaged in slave raiding as slaves were highly sought after for their use as labor as well as bodyguards and warriors. During the 19th century, the Haida fought physically with other Indigenous communities to ensure domination of the fur trade with European merchants. Haida groups also had feuds with these European merchants that could last years. In 1789, some Haidas were accused of stealing items from Captain Kendrick , most of which included drying linen. Kendrick seized two Haida chiefs and threatened to kill them via cannon-fire if they did not return

3234-449: The right to build a toll road from Hazelton to Babine Lake, while William Moore was placed in charge of the running pack mules on the trail. Cunningham and Hankin took out a pre-emption on the south bank of the Skeena River and set aside a portion of the property for the use of the local First Nations, while subdividing the rest for into lots which were sold to settlers. The Hudson's Bay Company bought three lots that summer and built

3300-450: The same moiety were prohibited. Due to this any children that were born after the marriage would officially become part of the moiety that the mother had come from. Each group provided its members with entitlement to a vast range of economic resources such as fishing spots, hunting or collecting areas, and housing sites. Each group also had rights to their own myths and legends, dances, songs, and music. Eagles and Ravens were very important to

3366-504: The souls of the mask owner's family waiting in the afterlife to be reborn. Masks worn during ceremonial dances were designed with strings to open the mask, transforming the spiritual animal into a carving of the ancestor underneath. There was also an emphasis on the idea of metamorphosis and reincarnation. With the banning of potlatches by the Canadian government in 1885, many masks were confiscated. Masks and many other objects are considered sacred and designed only for specific people to see. It

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3432-416: The stolen items. Though the Haida community complied at the time, less than two years later 100 to 200 of its people attacked the same ship. The missionary William Collison describes having seen a Haida fleet of around forty canoes. However, he does not provide the number of warriors in these canoes, and there are no other known accounts that describe the number of warriors in a war party. The structure of

3498-547: The term "Haida Nation" often refers to the Haida people as a whole however, it also refers to their government, the Council of the Haida Nation . All people of Haida ancestry are entitled to Haida citizenship, including the Kaigani, who as Alaskans are also part of the Central Council Tlingit Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska government. In a deal negotiated between the government and the Haida nation over

3564-476: The thighs and lower back and slats (a long strip of wood) in the side pieces to allow for more flexibility during movement. They wore elk hide tunics under their armour and wooden helmets. Arrows could not penetrate this armour, and Russian explorers found that bullets could penetrate the armour only if shot from a distance of less than 6.1 metres (20 ft). The Haida rarely used shields because of their developed armour. Historical Haida villages were: This

3630-769: The tribe captured were the Eleanor and the Susan Sturgis . The tribe made use of European weapons they acquired, using cannons and canoe-mounted swivel guns . British colonial authorities formally annexed Haida Gwaii in 1853 by establishing the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands. It was later integrated into the Colony of British Columbia in 1858. Colonial authorities backed their claims using gunboat diplomacy, both in Haida Gwaii and more broadly throughout northeastern Pacific coastal indigenous title territories. Also in 1857,

3696-415: The use of English language. Haida language revitalization projects began in the 1970s and continue to this day. It is estimated that there are only 3 or 4 dozen Haida-speaking people with almost all of them being the age of 70 or older. Haida host Potlatches which were intricate economic and social-political processes that include acquisition of incorporeal wealth like names and the circulation of property in

3762-704: The way for colonization. In 1885, the Haida potlatch ( Haida : waahlgahl ) was outlawed under the potlatch ban . The elimination of the potlatch system destroyed financial relationships and seriously interrupted the cultural heritage of coastal people. As the islands were christianized, many cultural works such as totem posts were destroyed or taken to museums around the world. This significantly undermined Haida's self-knowledge and further diminished morale. The government began forcibly sending some Haida children to residential schools as early as 1911. Haida children were sent as far away as Alberta to live among English-speaking families where they were to be assimilated into

3828-525: The weapon of choice for hand-to-hand combat, and were also used during hunting and to create other tools. One medicine man's dagger that Alexander Mackenzie came across during his exploration of Haida Gwaii, was used both for fights and to hold the medicine man's hair up. Another dagger that Mackenzie obtained from a Haida village was said to be connected to a Haida legend; many daggers had individual histories which made them unique from one another. The Haida wore rod-and-slat armour . This meant greaves for

3894-473: The winter months, about a quarter of that. The town was almost wiped out by fire in 1899, with only one building remaining. In January 1909, fire destroyed much of the town. Port Essington's importance as a town began to wane when the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway along the Skeena was completed in 1914, on the opposite bank from Port Essington. Rail supplanted the riverboat commerce that had been

3960-449: Was a man. It was believed that a special diet would increase his abilities. For example, duck tongues helped him hold his breath under water, whereas blue jay tongues helped him to be a strong climber. The aunts on the father's side of a young Haida woman would teach her about her duties to her tribe once she first began to menstruate. The young woman would go to a secluded space in her family home. They believed that by making her sleep on

4026-623: Was celebrated by the wearing of masks, face paints, and costumes. Haida beliefs are varied and diverse. Modern Haida ascribe to a wide variety of faiths including Protestantism, Catholicism, and Bahá'i. Nihilist, atheist, agnostic, and absurdist perspectives also attend the nation's post-colonial context. Pre-colonial beliefs, however, may still be most popular, and potlatch maintains its elevated situation in Haida society. Many Haida believe in an ultimate being called Ne-kilst-lass , spelt Nang Kilsdlaas in Skidegate dialect, which can manifest through

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4092-472: Was not a regular occurrence in the archeological record until the subsequent millennium. Though the Haida were more likely to participate in sea battles, it was not uncommon for them to engage in hand-to-hand combat or long-range attacks. Hostilities were not always violent, often ritualized and some resulting in Peace Treaties still in force hundreds of years later. Analyses of skeletal injuries dating from

4158-570: Was purchased from the Kake by an American trader in 1860. The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic began on March 26 when a steamship called Brother Jonathan arrived in Victoria from San Francisco containing a passenger infected with smallpox . At the time thousands of indigenous people lived in villages outside the walls of Fort Victoria. The disease broke out amongst Tsimshian people in their community near Fort Victoria. This quickly spread into

4224-586: Was recovered years after she had perished in Port Essington. The shaft is now on public display in Halezeton. A large scale replica model of the Inlander was built by Lyle Krum ( Terrace, British Columbia ). It is on display at a museum near Terrace. Port Essington, British Columbia Port Essington was a cannery town on the south bank of the Skeena River estuary in northwestern British Columbia , Canada , between Prince Rupert and Terrace , and at

4290-402: Was sailing north on an expedition to find and claim new territory for Spain . For two days in a row, the Santiago sat off the shore of Haida Gwaii waiting for the currents to settle down enough to allow them to dock and set foot on land. While they waited, several canoes of Haida sailed out to greet them, and ultimately to trade with Pérez and his men. After two days of poor conditions, however,

4356-456: Was unknown who the wearer of the mask was as each mask was made for each individual's soul and spirit animal. Due to the confiscation of the masks and the sacred meaning to each individual who wore the mask, it is unknown if the masks in museums are truly meant to be seen or if they are an aspect of European colonialism and the rejection of Haida religious and spiritual traditions. In 2018, the first feature-length Haida-language film, The Edge of

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