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143-416: From the 15th century and earlier (and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics ) individual meant " indivisible ", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person". From the 17th century on, an individual has indicated separateness, as in individualism. In biology , the question of the individual is related to the definition of an organism , which

286-469: A population , for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is sampled from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with descriptive statistics . Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population. Consider independent identically distributed (IID) random variables with

429-439: A sane adult human being is usually considered by the state as an "individual person" in law, even if the person denies individual culpability ("I followed instructions"). An individual person is accountable for their actions/decisions/instructions, subject to prosecution in both national and international law, from the time that they have reached the age of majority , often though not always more or less coinciding with

572-626: A "Germanic" colony. Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued through cycles of conflict and reconciliation, but they met again only after his collapse. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887, Nietzsche wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morality . During the same year, he encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoyevsky , to whom he felt an immediate kinship. He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine and Georg Brandes . Brandes, who had started to teach

715-651: A 2a in Greek and Latin; a 2b in French, History, and Physics; and a "lackluster" 3   in Hebrew and Mathematics. Nietzsche was an amateur composer. He composed several works for voice, piano, and violin beginning in 1858 at the Schulpforta in Naumburg when he started to work on musical compositions. Richard Wagner was dismissive of Nietzsche's music, allegedly mocking a birthday gift of

858-596: A book each year until 1888, his last year of writing; that year, he completed five. In 1882, Nietzsche published the first part of The Gay Science . That year he also met Lou Andreas-Salomé , through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée . Salomé's mother took her to Rome when Salomé was 21. At a literary salon in the city, Salomé became acquainted with Paul Rée . Rée proposed marriage to her, but she, instead, proposed that they should live and study together as "brother and sister", along with another man for company, where they would establish an academic commune. Rée accepted

1001-522: A boys' school and then a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, all three of whom came from highly respected families. Academic records from one of the schools attended by Nietzsche noted that he excelled in Christian theology . In 1854, he began to attend the Domgymnasium in Naumburg. Because his father had worked for the state (as a pastor) the now-fatherless Nietzsche

1144-450: A brain disease in 1849, after a year of excruciating agony, when the boy was only four years old; Ludwig Joseph died six months later at age two. The family then moved to Naumburg , where they lived with Nietzsche's maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus , a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended

1287-465: A certain context; thus the mind continually revises these incomplete concepts so as to reflect a fuller reality (commonly known as the process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis). The individual comes to rise above their own particular viewpoint, and grasps that they are a part of a greater whole insofar as they are bound to family, a social context, and/or a political order. With the rise of existentialism , Søren Kierkegaard rejected Hegel's notion of

1430-505: A chaperone. Salomé reports that he asked her to marry him on three separate occasions and that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of events is questionable. Arriving in Leipzig (Germany) in October, Salomé and Rée separated from Nietzsche after a falling-out between Nietzsche and Salomé, in which Salomé believed that Nietzsche was desperately in love with her. While the three spent

1573-446: A characterisation of the human subject as the expression of competing wills , collectively understood as the will to power . He also developed influential concepts such as the Übermensch and his doctrine of eternal return . In his later work, he became increasingly preoccupied with the creative powers of the individual to overcome cultural and moral mores in pursuit of new values and aesthetic health. His body of work touched

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1716-488: A collected edition under the title Untimely Meditations . The essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. During this time in the circle of the Wagners, he met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Bülow . He also began a friendship with Paul Rée who, in 1876, influenced him into dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, he

1859-415: A colony is called a genet , and an individual in such a population is referred to as a ramet. The colony, rather than the individual, functions as a unit of selection. In other colonial organisms, individuals may be closely related to one another but may differ as a result of sexual reproduction . Although individuality and individualism are commonly considered to mature with age/time and experience/wealth,

2002-418: A decade earlier in 1795. The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages. The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of Francis Galton and Karl Pearson , who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing

2145-517: A devotee of truth, then inquire.... Nietzsche subsequently concentrated on studying philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl , whom he followed to the University of Leipzig in 1865. There he became close friends with his fellow student Erwin Rohde . Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after. In 1865, Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of Arthur Schopenhauer . He owed

2288-449: A diagnosis of " manic-depressive illness with periodic psychosis followed by vascular dementia " was put forward by Cybulska prior to Schain's study. Leonard Sax suggested the slow growth of a right-sided retro-orbital meningioma as an explanation of Nietzsche's dementia; Orth and Trimble postulated frontotemporal dementia while other researchers have proposed a hereditary stroke disorder called CADASIL . Poisoning by mercury ,

2431-430: A fondness for aphorism and irony . Prominent elements of his philosophy include his radical critique of truth in favour of perspectivism ; a genealogical critique of religion and Christian morality and a related theory of master–slave morality ; the aesthetic affirmation of life in response to both the " death of God " and the profound crisis of nihilism ; the notion of Apollonian and Dionysian forces; and

2574-458: A given probability distribution : standard statistical inference and estimation theory defines a random sample as the random vector given by the column vector of these IID variables. The population being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters. A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but not a function of unknown parameters . The probability distribution of

2717-484: A given probability of containing the true value is to use a credible interval from Bayesian statistics : this approach depends on a different way of interpreting what is meant by "probability" , that is as a Bayesian probability . In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because

2860-471: A given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the method of moments , the maximum likelihood method, the least squares method and the more recent method of estimating equations . Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a null hypothesis which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time. The best illustration for

3003-518: A higher estimation of his own status and "fate". He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, however, especially to the recent polemic, The Case of Wagner . On his 44th birthday, after completing Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist , he decided to write the autobiography Ecce Homo . In its preface—which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, "Hear me! For I am such and such

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3146-539: A kind of bundle theory . Instead of an atomic, indivisible self distinct from reality, the individual in Buddhism is understood as an interrelated part of an ever-changing, impermanent universe (see Interdependence , Nondualism , Reciprocity ). Empiricists such as Ibn Tufail in early 12th century Islamic Spain and John Locke in late 17th century England viewed the individual as a tabula rasa ("blank slate"), shaped from birth by experience and education. This ties into

3289-405: A lecturing post at the University of Leipzig . According to a letter he wrote to Peter Gast, this was due to his "attitude towards Christianity and the concept of God". In 1886, Nietzsche broke with his publisher Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions. Nietzsche saw his own writings as "completely buried and in this anti-Semitic dump" of Schmeitzner—associating the publisher with

3432-548: A mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in Jacob Bernoulli 's posthumous work Ars Conjectandi . This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis. The method of least squares was first described by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, though Carl Friedrich Gauss presumably made use of it

3575-1028: A meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with longitude and temperature measurements in Celsius or Fahrenheit ), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as categorical variables , whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as quantitative variables , which can be either discrete or continuous , due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with data type in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with

3718-511: A more coherent perspective. Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, if rather slowly and imperceptibly to him. During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis , Carl Spitteler , and Gottfried Keller . In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the antisemite Bernhard Förster and travelled to Paraguay to found Nueva Germania ,

3861-401: A movement that should be "utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind". He then printed Beyond Good and Evil at his own expense. He also acquired the publication rights for his earlier works and over the next year issued second editions of The Birth of Tragedy , Human, All Too Human , Daybreak , and of The Gay Science with new prefaces placing the body of his work in

4004-515: A music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important grounding in languages— Greek , Latin , Hebrew , and French—so as to be able to read important primary sources ; he also experienced for the first time being away from his family life in a small-town conservative environment. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German;

4147-499: A novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H 0 , asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H 1 , asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H 0 (status quo) stands in opposition to H 1 and is maintained unless H 1 is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H 0 " in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that

4290-510: A number of weeks together in Leipzig in October 1882, the following month Rée and Salomé left Nietzsche, leaving for Stibbe (today Zdbowo in Poland) without any plans to meet again. Nietzsche soon fell into a period of mental anguish, although he continued to write to Rée, stating "We shall see one another from time to time, won't we?" In later recriminations, Nietzsche would blame on separate occasions

4433-401: A person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else." In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with August Strindberg and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation Nietzsche contra Wagner and of

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4576-522: A piano composition sent by Nietzsche in 1871 to Wagner's wife Cosima . German conductor and pianist Hans von Bülow also described another of Nietzsche's pieces as "the most undelightful and the most anti-musical draft on musical paper that I have faced in a long time". While at Schulpforta, Nietzsche pursued subjects that were considered unbecoming. He became acquainted with the work of the then almost-unknown poet Friedrich Hölderlin , calling him "my favorite poet" and writing an essay in which he said that

4719-404: A population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value. Confidence intervals allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if

4862-718: A position in philosophy at Basel. In 1873, Nietzsche began to accumulate notes that would be posthumously published as Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks . Between 1873 and 1876, he published four separate long essays: " David Strauss : the Confessor and the Writer", " On the Use and Abuse of History for Life ", "Schopenhauer as Educator", and "Richard Wagner in Bayreuth". These four later appeared in

5005-412: A problem, it is common practice to start with a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a census ). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize

5148-502: A profound effect on the young man. In addition, Ludwig Feuerbach 's The Essence of Christianity influenced young Nietzsche with its argument that people created God, and not the other way around. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith. This letter contains the following statement: Hence the ways of men part: if you wish to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then believe; if you wish to be

5291-401: A right derived from their nature as a rational being. Individualism and Objectivism hold that a civilized society, or any form of association, cooperation or peaceful coexistence among humans, can be achieved only on the basis of the recognition of individual rights  — and that a group, as such, has no rights other than the individual rights of its members. The principle of individual rights

5434-497: A sample using indexes such as the mean or standard deviation , and inferential statistics , which draw conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation). Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population): central tendency (or location ) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while dispersion (or variability ) characterizes

5577-645: A scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people or objects such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments . When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples . Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can reasonably extend from

5720-460: A statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., difference in differences estimation and instrumental variables , among many others) that produce consistent estimators . The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous Hawthorne study examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of

5863-637: A test and confidence intervals . Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling. Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern computers has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on

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6006-609: A time when he was considering giving up philology for science, he accepted. To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics professors on record. Nietzsche's 1870 projected doctoral thesis , "Contribution toward the Study and the Critique of the Sources of Diogenes Laertius" (" Beiträge zur Quellenkunde und Kritik des Laertius Diogenes "), examined the origins of the ideas of Diogenes Laërtius . Though never submitted, it

6149-399: A transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer." A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of information , while descriptive statistics in the mass noun sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics

6292-498: A treatment for syphilis at the time of Nietzsche's death, has also been suggested. In 1898 and 1899, Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes. They partially paralysed him, leaving him unable to speak or walk. He likely suffered from clinical hemiparesis /hemiplegia on the left side of his body by 1899. After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900, he had another stroke during the night of 24–25 August and died at about noon on 25 August. Elisabeth had him buried beside his father at

6435-547: A tutor to help her to understand her brother's philosophy. Steiner abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declaring that it was impossible to teach her anything about philosophy. Nietzsche's insanity was originally diagnosed as tertiary syphilis , in accordance with a prevailing medical paradigm of the time. Although most commentators regard his breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, Georges Bataille wrote poetically of his condition ("'Man incarnate' must also go mad") and René Girard 's postmortem psychoanalysis posits

6578-419: A value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the p-value ). The standard approach is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A critical region is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis

6721-987: A wide range of topics, including art , philology , history , music , religion , tragedy , culture , and science , and drew inspiration from Greek tragedy as well as figures such as Zoroaster , Arthur Schopenhauer , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Richard Wagner , Fyodor Dostoevsky , and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . After his death, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth became the curator and editor of his manuscripts. She edited his unpublished writings to fit her German ultranationalist ideology, often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism . Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism . 20th-century scholars such as Walter Kaufmann , R. J. Hollingdale , and Georges Bataille defended Nietzsche against this interpretation, and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available. Nietzsche's thought enjoyed renewed popularity in

6864-659: A worshipful rivalry with Richard Wagner . Girard suggests that Nietzsche signed his final letters as both Dionysus and the Crucified One because he was demonstrating that by being a god (Dionysus), one is also a victim (Crucified One) since a god still suffers by overcoming the law. Nietzsche had previously written, "All superior men who were irresistibly drawn to throw off the yoke of any kind of morality and to frame new laws had, if they were not actually mad, no alternative but to make themselves or pretend to be mad." (Daybreak, 14) The diagnosis of syphilis has since been challenged and

7007-496: Is also central to Sartre 's philosophy, which emphasizes individual authenticity, responsibility, and free will . In both Sartre and Nietzsche (and in Nikolai Berdyaev ), the individual is called upon to create their own values, rather than rely on external, socially imposed codes of morality. Ayn Rand 's Objectivism regards every human as an independent, sovereign entity that possesses an inalienable right to their own life,

7150-427: Is an important question in biology and the philosophy of biology , despite there having been little work devoted explicitly to this question. An individual organism is not the only kind of individual that is considered as a "unit of selection ". Genes , genomes , or groups may function as individual units. Asexual reproduction occurs in some colonial organisms so that the individuals are genetically identical. Such

7293-575: Is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected. Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of levels of measurement . The psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have

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7436-465: Is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not

7579-834: Is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in polynomial least squares , which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ( bias ), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Most studies only sample part of

7722-428: Is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a sample , rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to deduce properties of an underlying probability distribution . Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of

7865-418: Is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a cohort study , and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group. A case-control study

8008-451: Is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets, an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: Type I errors (null hypothesis

8151-408: Is rejected when it is in fact true, giving a "false positive") and Type II errors (null hypothesis fails to be rejected when it is in fact false, giving a "false negative"). Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis. Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to

8294-407: Is the only moral base of all groups or associations. Since only an individual man or woman can possess rights, the expression "individual rights" is a redundancy (which one has to use for purposes of clarification in today's intellectual chaos), but the expression " collective rights " is a contradiction in terms. Individual rights are not subject to a public vote; a majority has no right to vote away

8437-402: Is true ( statistical significance ) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The statistical power of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that

8580-449: Is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning games of chance among mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano , Blaise Pascal , Pierre de Fermat , and Christiaan Huygens . Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of Juan Caramuel ), probability theory as

8723-760: The Boolean data type , polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned integers in the integral data type , and continuous variables with the real data type involving floating-point arithmetic . But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977) distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990) described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998), van den Berg (1991). ) The issue of whether or not it

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8866-536: The University of Bonn in the hope of becoming a minister . For a short time, he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia . After one semester (and to the anger of his mother), he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith. As early as his 1862 essay "Fate and History", Nietzsche had argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity, but David Strauss 's Life of Jesus also seems to have had

9009-477: The Western Electric Company . The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the assembly line workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under

9152-546: The forecasting , prediction , and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied. It can include extrapolation and interpolation of time series or spatial data , as well as data mining . Mathematical statistics is the application of mathematics to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include mathematical analysis , linear algebra , stochastic analysis , differential equations , and measure-theoretic probability theory . Formal discussions on inference date back to

9295-432: The limit to the true value of such parameter. Other desirable properties for estimators include: UMVUE estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and consistent estimators which converges in probability to the true value of such parameter. This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in

9438-707: The mathematicians and cryptographers of the Islamic Golden Age between the 8th and 13th centuries. Al-Khalil (717–786) wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages , which contains one of the first uses of permutations and combinations , to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels. Al-Kindi 's Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave a detailed description of how to use frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages, providing an early example of statistical inference for decoding . Ibn Adlan (1187–1268) later made an important contribution on

9581-421: The 1960s and his ideas have since had a profound impact on 20th- and early 21st-century thinkers across philosophy—especially in schools of continental philosophy such as existentialism , postmodernism , and post-structuralism —as well as art, literature, music, poetry, politics, and popular culture. Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the town of Röcken (now part of Lützen ), near Leipzig , in

9724-602: The Italian cities of Genoa , Rapallo , and Turin and the French city of Nice . In 1881, when France occupied Tunisia , he planned to travel to Tunis to view Europe from the outside but later abandoned that idea, probably for health reasons. Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister Elisabeth had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. While in Genoa , Nietzsche's failing eyesight prompted him to explore

9867-479: The Prussian Province of Saxony . He was named after King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia , who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth (Nietzsche later dropped his middle name Wilhelm). Nietzsche's great-grandfather, Gotthelf Engelbert Nietzsche  [ ja ] (1714–1804), was an inspector and a philosopher. Nietzsche's grandfather, Friedrich August Ludwig Nietzsche  [ de ] (1756–1826),

10010-534: The art of running after women!" Nietzsche enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Bayreuth Festival . In 1870, he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of "The Genesis of the Tragic Idea" as a birthday gift. In 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy . However, his colleagues within his field, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work in which Nietzsche eschewed

10153-483: The awakening of his philosophical interest to reading Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation and later admitted that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers whom he respected, dedicating the essay " Schopenhauer as Educator " in the Untimely Meditations to him. In 1866, he read Friedrich Albert Lange 's History of Materialism . Lange's descriptions of Kant 's anti-materialistic philosophy,

10296-473: The church in Röcken near Lützen . His friend and secretary Gast gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: "Holy be your name to all future generations!" Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled The Will to Power from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks and published it posthumously in 1901. Because his sister arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines and took liberties with

10439-526: The classical philologic method in favour of a more speculative approach. In his polemic Philology of the Future , Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff damped the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde (then a professor in Kiel ) and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defence. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted unsuccessfully to transfer to

10582-695: The clinic and, in May 1890, brought him to her home in Naumburg. During this process Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In February, they ordered a fifty-copy private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner , but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing The Antichrist and Ecce Homo because of their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge. In 1893, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Nueva Germania in Paraguay following

10725-439: The collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data , or as a branch of mathematics . Some consider statistics to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is generally concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty. In applying statistics to

10868-535: The concepts of standard deviation , correlation , regression analysis and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others. Pearson developed the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient , defined as a product-moment, the method of moments for the fitting of distributions to samples and the Pearson distribution , among many other things. Galton and Pearson founded Biometrika as

11011-538: The concepts of sufficiency , ancillary statistics , Fisher's linear discriminator and Fisher information . He also coined the term null hypothesis during the Lady tasting tea experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation". In his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , he applied statistics to various biological concepts such as Fisher's principle (which A. W. F. Edwards called "probably

11154-425: The data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ( bias ), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to

11297-516: The direction of Otto Binswanger . In January 1889, they proceeded with the planned release of Twilight of the Idols , by that time already printed and bound. From November 1889 to February 1890, the art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness discredited him. In March 1890, Franziska removed Nietzsche from

11440-406: The effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements with different levels using

11583-414: The end of On the Genealogy of Morality a new work with the title The Will to Power : Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values , he seems to have abandoned this idea and, instead, used some of the draft passages to compose Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist in 1888. His health improved and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the autumn of 1888, his writings and letters began to reveal

11726-495: The evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily accept H 0 but fails to reject H 0 . While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a power test , which tests for type II errors . What statisticians call an alternative hypothesis is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis. Working from a null hypothesis , two broad categories of error are recognized: Standard deviation refers to

11869-478: The expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction). Mean squared error is used for obtaining efficient estimators , a widely used class of estimators. Root mean square error is simply the square root of mean squared error. Many statistical methods seek to minimize the residual sum of squares , and these are called " methods of least squares " in contrast to Least absolute deviations . The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while

12012-474: The experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a control group and blindness . The Hawthorne effect refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed. An example of an observational study

12155-402: The extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while Standard error refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean. A statistical error is the amount by which an observation differs from its expected value . A residual is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of

12298-450: The extent to which members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences made using mathematical statistics employ the framework of probability theory , which deals with the analysis of random phenomena. A standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to a test of the relationship between two statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized model. A hypothesis

12441-446: The failure in his attempts to woo Salomé on Salomé, Rée, and on the intrigues of his sister (who had written letters to the families of Salomé and Rée to disrupt the plans for the commune). Nietzsche wrote of the affair in 1883, that he now felt "genuine hatred for my sister". Amidst renewed bouts of illness, living in near-isolation after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo, where he wrote

12584-432: The first journal of mathematical statistics and biostatistics (then called biometry ), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London . The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by William Sealy Gosset , and reached its culmination in the insights of Ronald Fisher , who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around

12727-495: The first part of Also Sprach Zarathustra in only ten days. By 1882, Nietzsche was taking huge doses of opium and continued to have trouble sleeping. In 1883, while staying in Nice, he was writing out his own prescriptions for the sedative chloral hydrate , signing them "Dr. Nietzsche". He turned away from the influence of Schopenhauer , and after he severed his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with

12870-507: The first time later that year. In 1869, with Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received an offer to become a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland. He was only 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor received a teaching certificate (" habilitation "). He was awarded an honorary doctorate by Leipzig University in March 1869, again with Ritschl's support. Despite his offer coming at

13013-497: The following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and afterward a complete loss of his mental faculties, with paralysis and probably vascular dementia . He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche . Nietzsche died in 1900, after experiencing pneumonia and multiple strokes . Nietzsche's work spans philosophical polemics , poetry, cultural criticism , and fiction while displaying

13156-402: The former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also differentiable , which provides a handy property for doing regression . Least squares applied to linear regression is called ordinary least squares method and least squares applied to nonlinear regression is called non-linear least squares . Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model

13299-478: The galleys for almost all of Nietzsche's work. On at least one occasion, on 23 February 1880, the usually poor Gast received 200 marks from their mutual friend, Paul Rée. Gast was one of the very few friends Nietzsche allowed to criticise him. In responding most enthusiastically to Also Sprach Zarathustra ("Thus Spoke Zarathustra"), Gast did feel it necessary to point out that what were described as "superfluous" people were in fact quite necessary. He went on to list

13442-605: The given parameters of a total population to deduce probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction— inductively inferring from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate causality , and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or independent variables on dependent variables . There are two major types of causal statistical studies: experimental studies and observational studies . In both types of studies,

13585-470: The granting of voting rights , responsibility for paying tax , military duties , and the individual right to bear arms (protected only under certain constitutions). In Buddhism , the concept of the individual lies in anatman , or "no-self." According to anatman, the individual is really a series of interconnected processes that, working together, give the appearance of being a single, separated whole. In this way, anatman, together with anicca , resembles

13728-582: The horse, threw his arms around its neck to protect it, then collapsed to the ground. In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings—known as the Wahnzettel or Wahnbriefe (literally "Delusion notes" or "letters")—to a number of friends including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt . Most of them were signed " Dionysus ", though some were also signed "der Gekreuzigte" meaning "the crucified one". To his former colleague Burckhardt, Nietzsche wrote: I have had Caiaphas put in fetters . Also, last year I

13871-786: The idea and suggested that they be joined by his friend Nietzsche. The two met Nietzsche in Rome in April 1882, and Nietzsche is believed to have instantly fallen in love with Salomé, as Rée had done. Nietzsche asked Rée to propose marriage to Salomé, which she rejected. She had been interested in Nietzsche as a friend, but not as a husband. Nietzsche nonetheless was content to join with Rée and Salomé touring through Switzerland and Italy together, planning their commune. The three travelled with Salomé's mother through Italy and considered where they would set up their "Winterplan" commune. They intended to set up their commune in an abandoned monastery, but no suitable location

14014-470: The idea of the liberty and rights of the individual, society as a social contract between rational individuals, and the beginnings of individualism as a doctrine. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel regarded history as the gradual evolution of the Mind as it tests its own concepts against the external world. Each time the mind applies its concepts to the world, the concept is revealed to be only partly true, within

14157-399: The individual as subordinated to the forces of history. Instead, he elevated the individual's subjectivity and capacity to choose their own fate. Later Existentialists built upon this notion. Friedrich Nietzsche , for example, examines the individual's need to define his/her own self and circumstances in his concept of the will to power and the heroic ideal of the Übermensch . The individual

14300-512: The letter he had received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day, Overbeck received a similar letter and decided that Nietzsche's friends had to bring him back to Basel. Overbeck travelled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of a serious mental illness, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in Jena under

14443-465: The material, the scholarly consensus has been that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent. (For example, Elisabeth removed aphorism 35 of The Antichrist , where Nietzsche rewrote a passage of the Bible.) Indeed, Mazzino Montinari , the editor of Nietzsche's Nachlass , called it a forgery. Yet, the endeavour to rescue Nietzsche's reputation by discrediting The Will to Power often leads to scepticism about

14586-424: The most celebrated argument in evolutionary biology ") and Fisherian runaway , a concept in sexual selection about a positive feedback runaway effect found in evolution . The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between Egon Pearson and Jerzy Neyman in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of " Type II " error, power of

14729-460: The new style of Zarathustra , his work became even more alienating, and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness. Nietzsche recognised this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained. His books remained largely unsold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra and distributed a fraction of them among close friends, including Helene von Druskowitz . In 1883, he tried and failed to obtain

14872-548: The number of people Epicurus , for example, had to rely on to supply his simple diet of goat cheese. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic Carl Fuchs. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with Human, All Too Human in 1878, Nietzsche published one book or major section of

15015-412: The overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably. Although in principle the acceptable level of statistical significance may be subject to debate, the significance level is the largest p-value that allows

15158-491: The philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to read Kierkegaard , to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copenhagen and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this promise, Nietzsche slipped too far into illness. At the beginning of 1888, Brandes delivered in Copenhagen one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy. Although Nietzsche had previously announced at

15301-481: The poems that made up his collection Dionysian-Dithyrambs . On 3 January 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental breakdown . Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin . What happened remains unknown, but an often-repeated tale from shortly after his death states that Nietzsche witnessed the flogging of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to

15444-400: The poet raised consciousness to "the most sublime ideality". The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a good mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid, and more "German" writers. Additionally, he became acquainted with Ernst Ortlepp , an eccentric, blasphemous , and often drunken poet who was found dead in a ditch weeks after meeting

15587-415: The population data. Numerical descriptors include mean and standard deviation for continuous data (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing categorical data (like education). When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a sample is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for

15730-544: The population. Sampling theory is part of the mathematical discipline of probability theory . Probability is used in mathematical statistics to study the sampling distributions of sample statistics and, more generally, the properties of statistical procedures . The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from

15873-494: The problem of how to analyze big data . When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples . Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through statistical models . To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from

16016-468: The publication in 1878 of Human, All Too Human (a book of aphorisms ranging from metaphysics to morality to religion), a new style of Nietzsche's work became clear, highly influenced by Afrikan Spir 's Thought and Reality and reacting against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer. Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel and

16159-466: The publication of Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt . Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat- etymology . The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics

16302-443: The rights of a minority ; the political function of rights is precisely to protect minorities from oppression by majorities (and the smallest minority on earth is the individual). Statistics Statistics (from German : Statistik , orig. "description of a state , a country" ) is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data . In applying statistics to

16445-490: The rise of European Materialism , Europe's increased concern with science, Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , and the general rebellion against tradition and authority intrigued Nietzsche greatly. Nietzsche would ultimately argue the impossibility of an evolutionary explanation of the human aesthetic sense. In 1867, Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg. He

16588-461: The same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation . Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from randomized studies , they are also applied to other kinds of data—like natural experiments and observational studies —for which

16731-439: The sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data ( hypothesis testing ), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ( estimation ), describing associations within the data ( correlation ), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using regression analysis ). Inference can extend to

16874-399: The sample members in an observational or experimental setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population, inferential statistics are needed. It uses patterns in

17017-405: The sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about

17160-482: The sample to the population as a whole. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation. Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis : descriptive statistics , which summarize data from

17303-412: The sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does not imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the frequentist perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a random variable . Either

17446-408: The statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an estimator is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include sample mean , unbiased sample variance and sample covariance . A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution does not depend on

17589-548: The suicide of her husband. She studied Nietzsche's works and, piece by piece, took control of their publication. Overbeck was dismissed and Gast finally co-operated. After the death of Franziska in 1897, Nietzsche lived in Weimar , where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed visitors, including Rudolf Steiner (who in 1895 had written Friedrich Nietzsche: A Fighter Against His Time , one of the first books praising Nietzsche), to meet her uncommunicative brother. Elisabeth employed Steiner as

17732-426: The test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the test statistic . Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900)

17875-500: The traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery . Walter Kaufmann speculates that he also contracted syphilis at a brothel along with his other infections at this time. On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and Otto von Bismarck 's subsequent policies as an outsider and with a degree of scepticism regarding their genuineness. His inaugural lecture at

18018-420: The true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed random variables . One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having

18161-416: The two sided interval is built violating symmetry around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds. Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of

18304-875: The university was " Homer and Classical Philology ". Nietzsche also met Franz Overbeck , a professor of theology who remained his friend throughout his life. Afrikan Spir , a little-known Russian philosopher responsible for the 1873 Thought and Reality and Nietzsche's colleague, the historian Jacob Burckhardt , whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to exercise significant influence on him. Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868 and later Wagner's wife, Cosima. Nietzsche admired both greatly and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner's house in Tribschen in Lucerne . The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle—which included Franz Liszt , of whom Nietzsche colloquially described: "Liszt or

18447-485: The unknown parameter is called a pivotal quantity or pivot. Widely used pivots include the z-score , the chi square statistic and Student's t-value . Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower mean squared error is said to be more efficient . Furthermore, an estimator is said to be unbiased if its expected value is equal to the true value of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at

18590-570: The use of sample size in frequency analysis. Although the term statistic was introduced by the Italian scholar Girolamo Ghilini in 1589 with reference to a collection of facts and information about a state, it was the German Gottfried Achenwall in 1749 who started using the term as a collection of quantitative information, in the modern use for this science. The earliest writing containing statistics in Europe dates back to 1663, with

18733-473: The use of typewriters as a means of continuing to write. He is known to have tried using the Hansen Writing Ball , a contemporary typewriter device. In the end, a past student of his, Peter Gast , became a private secretary to Nietzsche. In 1876, Gast transcribed the crabbed, nearly illegible handwriting of Nietzsche's first time with Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. He subsequently transcribed and proofread

18876-420: The value of his late notes, even of his whole Nachlass . However, his Nachlass and The Will to Power are distinct. General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether emphasising his cultural background or his language, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a "German philosopher." Others do not assign him a national category. While Germany had not yet been unified into a single sovereign state, Nietzsche

19019-462: The world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance (which was the first to use the statistical term, variance ), his classic 1925 work Statistical Methods for Research Workers and his 1935 The Design of Experiments , where he developed rigorous design of experiments models. He originated

19162-475: The young Nietzsche but who may have introduced Nietzsche to the music and writing of Richard Wagner . Perhaps under Ortlepp's influence, he and a student named Richter returned to school drunk and encountered a teacher, resulting in Nietzsche's demotion from first in his class and the end of his status as a prefect . After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche began studying theology and classical philology at

19305-526: Was a German classical scholar , philosopher , and critic of culture , who became one of the most influential of all modern thinkers. He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest person to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland in 1869, at the age of 24, but resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life; he completed much of his core writing in

19448-408: Was a theologian. Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher; and Franziska Nietzsche  [ de ] ( née Oehler) (1826–1897), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth. They had two other children: a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche , born in 1846; and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848. Nietzsche's father died from

19591-557: Was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm , Bismarck , and all anti-Semites abolished. Additionally, he commanded the German emperor to go to Rome to be shot and summoned the European powers to take military action against Germany, writing also that the pope should be put in jail and that he, Nietzsche, created the world and was in the process of having all anti-Semites shot dead. On 6 January 1889, Burckhardt showed

19734-406: Was deeply disappointed by the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the banality of the shows and baseness of the public repelled him. He was also alienated by Wagner's championing of "German culture", which Nietzsche felt a contradiction in terms, as well as by Wagner's celebration of his fame among the German public. All this contributed to his subsequent decision to distance himself from Wagner. With

19877-620: Was found. On 13 May, in Lucerne, when Nietzsche was alone with Salomé, he earnestly proposed marriage to her again, which she rejected. He nonetheless was happy to continue with the plans for an academic commune. After discovering the relationship, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth became determined to get Nietzsche away from the "immoral woman". Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in Tautenburg in Thuringia, often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as

20020-582: Was later published as a Gratulationsschrift ('congratulatory publication') in Basel . Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless . Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) as a medical orderly . In his short time in the military, he experienced much and witnessed

20163-455: Was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognised Schulpforta . The claim that Nietzsche was admitted on the strength of his academic competence has been debunked: his grades were not near the top of the class. He studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff (1844–1904), who later became a jurist. He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led "Germania",

20306-796: Was pensioned. Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, including moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical. Living on his pension from Basel along with aid from friends, Nietzsche travelled frequently to find climates more conducive to his health. He lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities. He spent many summers in Sils Maria near St. Moritz in Switzerland, and many of his winters in

20449-483: Was regarded as one of the finest riders among his fellow recruits, and his officers predicted that he would soon reach the rank of captain . However, in March 1868, while jumping into the saddle of his horse, Nietzsche struck his chest against the pommel and tore two muscles in his left side, leaving him exhausted and unable to walk for months. Consequently, he turned his attention to his studies again, completing them in 1868. Nietzsche also met Richard Wagner for

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