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66-481: In the United States, an American Indian tribe , Native American tribe , Alaska Native village , Indigenous tribe , or Tribal nation may be any current or historical tribe , band, or nation of Native Americans in the United States . Modern forms of these entities are often associated with land or territory of an Indian reservation . " Federally recognized Indian tribe " is a legal term in United States law with

132-494: A Hegelian "end of history". Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. Postnationalism is the process or trend by which nation states and national identities lose their importance relative to supranational and global entities. Several factors contribute to

198-517: A national consciousness . In contrast to other thinkers such as Ernest Gellner , who considered the spread of nationalism in connection with industrialism in Western Europe, and Elie Kedourie , who construed nationalism as a European phenomenon carried around the world by colonization, Anderson sees the European nation state as a response to the rise of nationalism in the European diaspora beyond

264-471: A defined territory and organized under an independent government; a sovereign political state.... The word "nation" is sometimes used as synonym for: Thus the phrase "nations of the world" could be referring to the top-level governments (as in the name for the United Nations ), various large geographical territories, or various large ethnic groups of the planet. Depending on the meaning of "nation" used,

330-445: A fully modern political nationalism rooted in the model of biblical nationalism . In a 2013 article "Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states", Diana Muir Appelbaum expands Gorski's argument to apply to a series of new, Protestant, sixteenth-century nation states. A similar, albeit broader, argument was made by Anthony D. Smith in his books, Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity and Myths and Memories of

396-534: A group of non-Native individuals seeking recognition as a tribe for other reasons. Some federally recognized tribes are confederacies of more than one tribe. Historically, the State of California formed rancherias and Nevada formed Indian Colonies . Multiethnic entities were formed by the U.S. federal government or by treaty with the U.S. government for the purpose of being assigned to reservations. For example, 19 tribes that existed in 1872 combined at that time to form

462-601: A nation as "an imagined political community [that is] imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign". Anderson was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1994. In 1998, Anderson's return trip to Indonesia was sponsored by the Indonesian publication Tempo , and he gave a public speech in which he criticized the Indonesia opposition for "its timidity and historical amnesia—especially with regard to

528-565: A national community is fake, but rather refers to Anderson's position that any community so large that its members do not know each another on a face-to-face basis must be imagined to some degree. According to Anderson, previous Marxist and liberal thinkers did not fully appreciate nationalism's power, writing in his book that "Unlike most other isms, nationalism has never produced its own grand thinkers: no Hobbeses , Tocquevilles , Marxes or Webers ." Anderson begins his work by bringing up three paradoxes of nationalism that he would address in

594-448: A national identity is also a political action with political consequences, like the need to redraw the geopolitical map or alter the composition of political regimes and states". There are three notable perspectives on how nations developed. Primordialism (perennialism), which reflects popular conceptions of nationalism but has largely fallen out of favour among academics, proposes that there have always been nations and that nationalism

660-612: A particular landbase and share a language and culture. Nation A nation is generally more overtly political than an ethnic group . Benedict Anderson defines a nation as "an imagined political community […] imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion", while Anthony D Smith defines nations as cultural-political communities that have become conscious of their autonomy , unity and particular interests. The consensus among scholars

726-526: A process that he called the "willed merger of nation and dynastic empire". Anderson considered the empire as solely a pre-modern, "dynastic realm" and focused his attention on the official nationalism in multiethnic empires (e.g. the Russian Official Nationality ), programs that he described as "reactionary, secondary modelling". Whereas previously the legitimacy of European dynasties had nothing to do with nationalness, Anderson argued that after

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792-503: A restriction that lasted until 1998 when Suharto resigned to be replaced by B. J. Habibie as president. Anderson was fluent in many languages relevant to his Southeast Asian field, including Indonesian , Javanese , Thai and Tagalog , as well as the major European languages. After the American experience in the Vietnam War and the subsequent wars between Communist nations such as

858-441: A specific meaning. A Native American tribe recognized by the United States government possesses tribal sovereignty , a "domestic dependent, sovereign nation" status with the U.S. federal government that is similar to that of a state in some situations, and that of a nation in others, holding a government-to-government relationship with the federal government of the United States . Many terms used to describe Indigenous peoples of

924-432: A term coined by Benedict Anderson . A nation is an imagined community in the sense that the material conditions exist for imagining extended and shared connections and that it is objectively impersonal, even if each individual in the nation experiences themselves as subjectively part of an embodied unity with others. For the most part, members of a nation remain strangers to each other and will likely never meet. Nationalism

990-511: Is a Nation? ", argues that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget as on what they remember. Carl Darling Buck argued in a 1916 study, "Nationality is essentially subjective, an active sentiment of unity, within a fairly extensive group, a sentiment based upon real but diverse factors, political, geographical, physical, and social, any or all of which may be present in this or that case, but no one of which must be present in all cases." In

1056-610: Is a natural phenomenon. Ethnosymbolism explains nationalism as a dynamic, evolving phenomenon and stresses the importance of symbols, myths and traditions in the development of nations and nationalism. Modernization theory , which has superseded primordialism as the dominant explanation of nationalism, adopts a constructivist approach and proposes that nationalism emerged due to processes of modernization , such as industrialization , urbanization, and mass education, which made national consciousness possible. Proponents of modernization theory describe nations as " imagined communities ",

1122-416: Is and whether there are viable or developing alternatives. The theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington , people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post– Cold War world. The theory

1188-685: Is called the Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire transformed into a nation-state in the Middle Ages . Azar Gat also argues China , Korea and Japan were nations by the time of the European Middle Ages . In contrast, Geary rejects the conflation of early medieval and contemporary group identities as a myth, arguing it is a mistake to conclude continuity based on the recurrence of names. He criticizes historians for failing to recognize

1254-501: Is consequently seen an " invented tradition " in which shared sentiment provides a form of collective identity and binds individuals together in political solidarity. A nation's foundational "story" may be built around a combination of ethnic attributes, values and principles, and may be closely connected to narratives of belonging. Scholars in the 19th and early 20th century offered constructivist criticisms of primordial theories about nations. A prominent lecture by Ernest Renan, " What

1320-469: Is his stress on the role of printed literature and its dissemination. Thinkers like McLuhan, Elizabeth Eisenstein , and Anderson did not believe that nationalism came about because of a vaguely-defined "European" way of thinking, but because of the social, economic, and cultural practices associated with the rise of the printing press and the mass reproduction of printed material. According to Anderson, "the revolutionary vernacularizing thrust of capitalism"

1386-409: Is that nations are socially constructed , historically contingent, organizationally flexible, and a distinctly modern phenomenon. Throughout history, people have had an attachment to their kin group and traditions , territorial authorities and their homeland, but nationalism – the belief that state and nation should align as a nation state – did not become a prominent ideology until the end of

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1452-687: The Anderson family of Ardbrake, Bothriphnie , Scotland, who settled in Ireland in the early 1700s. His mother's family descended from Lancaster . Anderson's maternal grandfather Trevor Bigham was the Deputy Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police from 1914 to 1931. One of Anderson's grandmothers, Lady Frances O'Gorman, belonged to the Gaelic Mac Gormáin clan of County Clare and

1518-535: The Cambodian–Vietnamese War and the Sino-Vietnamese War , he began studying the origins of nationalism while continuing his previous work on the relationship between language and power. Anderson is best known for his 1983 book Imagined Communities , in which he described the major factors contributing to the emergence of nationalism in the world during the past three centuries. Anderson defined

1584-780: The Internet . However attachment to citizenship and national identities often remains important. Jan Zielonka of the University of Oxford states that "the future structure and exercise of political power will resemble the medieval model more than the Westphalian one" with the latter being about "concentration of power, sovereignty and clear-cut identity" and neo-medievalism meaning "overlapping authorities, divided sovereignty, multiple identities and governing institutions, and fuzzy borders". Benedict Anderson Benedict Richard O'Gorman Anderson (August 26, 1936 – December 13, 2015)

1650-477: The September 1965 coup attempt that led to Suharto taking power in Indonesia disillusioned Anderson, who wrote that it "felt like discovering that a loved one is a murderer". Therefore, while Anderson was still a graduate student at Cornell, he anonymously co-wrote the " Cornell Paper " with Ruth T. McVey that debunked the official Indonesian government accounts of the abortive coup of the 30 September Movement and

1716-461: The Suez Crisis , which influenced his later work as a Marxist and anti-colonialist thinker. He earned a classics degree from Cambridge in 1957 before attending Cornell University , where he concentrated on Indonesia as a research interest and in 1967 received his Ph.D. in government studies. His doctoral advisor at Cornell was Southeast Asian scholar George Kahin . The violence following

1782-630: The United States . The BIA, part of the US Department of the Interior, issues Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood , which tribes use as a basis for tribal enrollment in most cases. Federally recognized tribes are "unique governmental entities and are not extensions of State or local governments." Some tribes, such as the United Houma Nation , do not have federal recognition, but are recognized at

1848-444: The state level using procedures defined by various states, without regard to federal recognition. Other organizations self-identify as Native American tribes for a variety of reasons; they may be a scattered tribe who no longer exist as an organized nation, or they have not completed the certification process established by the government entities in question, they may have lost their recognition through termination , or they may be

1914-428: The "deep horizontal comradeship" that despite its socially constructed origins, was also genuine and deep-seated, explaining why nationalism can drive people to fight, die, and kill for their countries. Anderson also studied how the 19th century European dynasties that represented retention of power over huge polyglot domains, underwent naturalization at the same time as they developed programs of official nationalism in

1980-741: The 18th century. The English word nation from Middle English c. 1300, nacioun "a race of people, large group of people with common ancestry and language," from Old French nacion "birth ( naissance ), rank; descendants, relatives; country, homeland" (12c.) and directly from Latin nationem (nominative natio (nātĭō), supine of verb nascar « to birth » ( supine  : natum) ) "birth, origin; breed, stock, kind, species; race of people, tribe," literally "that which has been born," from natus , past participle of nasci "be born" ( Old Latin gnasci ), from PIE root *gene- "give birth, beget," with derivatives referring to procreation and familial and tribal groups. In Latin, natio represents

2046-713: The Colville Confederated Tribes, which is now the single federally recognized tribe, Colville Indian Reservation in Washington state . The international meaning of the English word tribe is a people organized with a non– state government, who typically claim descent from a common founder and who speaks the same language . In addition to their status as legal entities, tribes have political, social, and historical rights and responsibilities. The term also refers to communities of Native Americans who historically inhabit

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2112-592: The Great , in particular, drew on biblical language in his law code and that during his reign selected books of the Bible were translated into Old English to inspire Englishmen to fight to turn back the Norse invaders. Hastings argues for a strong renewal of English nationalism (following a hiatus after the Norman conquest ) beginning with the translation of the complete bible into English by

2178-564: The Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the nation ... perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." Susan Reynolds has argued that many European medieval kingdoms were nations in the modern sense, except that political participation in nationalism was available only to a limited prosperous and literate class, while Hastings claims England's Anglo-Saxon kings mobilized mass nationalism in their struggle to repel Norse invasions. He argues that Alfred

2244-520: The Nation . In her book Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity , Liah Greenfeld argued that nationalism was invented in England by 1600. According to Greenfeld, England was “the first nation in the world". For Smith, creating a 'world of nations' has had profound consequences for the global state system, as a nation comprises both a cultural and political identity. Therefore, he argues, "any attempt to forge

2310-644: The United Kingdom) that were inherently more prestigious than sub-regional vernacular dialects. Print capitalism also meant a culture in which people were required to be socialized as part of a literate culture, in which the standardized language of their nation became both the language of printed material and education for the masses. Fellow nationalism scholar Steven Kemper described the role of print technology in Anderson's theory as making it "possible for enormous numbers of people to know of one another indirectly, for

2376-748: The United States are contested but have legal definitions that are not always understood by the general public. The term tribe is defined in the United States for some federal government purposes to include only tribes that are federally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and those Alaska Native tribes established pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act [43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.]. Such tribes, including Alaska Native village or regional corporations recognized as such, are known as "federally recognized tribes" and are eligible for special programs and services provided by

2442-614: The Wycliffe circle in the 1380s , positing that the frequency and consistency in usage of the word nation from the early fourteenth century onward strongly suggest English nationalism and the English nation have been continuous since that time. However, John Breuilly criticizes Hastings's assumption that continued usage of a term such as 'English' means continuity in its meaning. Patrick J. Geary agrees, arguing names were adapted to different circumstances by different powers and could convince people of continuity, even if radical discontinuity

2508-442: The children of the same birth and also a human group of same origin. By Cicero , natio is used for "people". Black's Law Dictionary defines a nation as follows: nation , n. (14c) 1. A large group of people having a common origin, language, tradition, and usage constitutes a political entity. • When a nation is coincident with a state, the term nation-state is often used.... ... 2. A community of people inhabiting

2574-653: The cousin of Major Purcell O'Gorman, Richard O'Gorman, who was one of the leaders of the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 . Anderson's family moved to California in 1941 to avoid the invading Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War and then to Ireland in 1945. He studied at Eton College , where he won the Newcastle Scholarship , and went on to attend King's College, Cambridge . While at Cambridge, he became an anti-imperialist during

2640-445: The differences between earlier ways of perceiving group identities and more contemporary attitudes, stating they are "trapped in the very historical process we are attempting to study". Similarly, Sami Zubaida notes that many states and empires in history ruled over ethnically diverse populations, and "shared ethnicity between ruler and ruled did not always constitute grounds for favour or mutual support". He goes on to argue ethnicity

2706-506: The diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post– Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights , liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama , in The End of History and the Last Man , argued that the world had reached

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2772-506: The eve of the 10th century. Hugh Poulton argues the development of Old Church Slavonic literacy in the country had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the South Slavs into neighboring cultures and stimulated the development of a distinct ethnic identity. A symbiosis was carried out between the numerically weak Bulgars and the numerous Slavic tribes in that broad area from the Danube to

2838-480: The first such states to emerge and therefore inevitably provided the first real model of what such states should look like. According to Anderson, this phenomenon led to the rise of nations: communities that were limited by their borders and were sovereign . Anderson conceived nationalism as having come about in different "waves." Like other thinkers such as Marshall McLuhan in his The Gutenberg Galaxy , of particular importance to Anderson's theory on nationalism

2904-523: The invention of the printing press under a system of capitalism (or as Anderson calls it, print capitalism ). Anderson's view of nationalism places the roots of the notion of "nation" at the end of the 18th century when a replacement system began, not in Europe, but in the Western Hemisphere, when countries such as Brazil, the United States, and the newly freed Spanish colonies became the first to develop

2970-561: The late 20th century, many social scientists argued that there were two types of nations, the civic nation of which French republican society was the principal example and the ethnic nation exemplified by the German peoples. The German tradition was conceptualized as originating with early 19th-century philosophers, like Johann Gottlieb Fichte , and referred to people sharing a common language, religion, culture, history, and ethnic origins , that differentiate them from people of other nations. On

3036-480: The majority thought and felt was likely to have been minor". A significant early use of the term nation , as natio , occurred at Medieval universities to describe the colleagues in a college or students, above all at the University of Paris , who were all born within a pays , spoke the same language and expected to be ruled by their own familiar law. In 1383 and 1384, while studying theology at Paris, Jean Gerson

3102-472: The massacres of 1965–1966". Anderson taught at Cornell until his retirement in 2002, when he became a professor emeritus of International Studies. After his retirement, he spent most of his time traveling throughout South East Asia. Anderson died in Batu , a hill town near Malang , Indonesia, in his sleep on December 13, 2015. According to close friend Tariq Ali , Anderson died of heart failure. He had been in

3168-593: The middle of correcting the proofs of his memoir A Life Beyond Boundaries, which had initially been published in Japanese translation. He was survived by two adopted sons of Indonesian origin. Anderson is best known for his 1983 book, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism , in which he examined how nationalism led to the creation of nations, or as the title puts it, imagined communities. In this case, an " imagined community " does not mean that

3234-745: The north, to the Aegean Sea to the south, and from the Adriatic Sea to the west, to the Black Sea to the east, who accepted the common ethnonym " Bulgarians ". During the 10th century the Bulgarians established a form of national identity that was far from modern nationalism but helped them to survive as a distinct entity through the centuries. Anthony Kaldellis asserts in Hellenism in Byzantium (2008) that what

3300-556: The oceans, especially in the Western Hemisphere, which was then retransmitted to Africa and Asia through colonization. Anderson considers nation state building as an imitative and transportable action, in which new political entities were copying the model of the nation state. As Anderson sees it, the large cluster of political entities that sprang up in North America and South America between 1778 and 1838, almost all of which self-consciously defined themselves as nations, were historically

3366-504: The official story of Indonesia's 30 September Movement and the subsequent anti-Communist purges of 1965–1966 , led to his expulsion from that country. He was the elder brother of the historian Perry Anderson . Anderson was born on August 26, 1936, in Kunming , China, to an Irish and Anglo-Irish father and English mother. His father, James Carew O'Gorman Anderson, was an official with Chinese Maritime Customs . The family descended from

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3432-483: The other hand, the civic nation was traced to the French Revolution and ideas deriving from 18th-century French philosophers. It was understood as being centred in a willingness to "live together", this producing a nation that results from an act of affirmation. This is the vision, among others, of Ernest Renan . There is an ongoing debate about the future of nations − about whether this framework will persist as

3498-570: The others, and a Knight has charge of each one of these hostels, and provides for the necessities of the inmates according to their religion", as the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur noted in 1436. In his article, "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism", Philip S. Gorski argues that the first modern nation-state was the Dutch Republic , created by

3564-418: The printing press [to] become the middleman to the imagination of the community." Kemper also stated that for Anderson the "very existence and regularity of newspapers caused readers, and thus citizens-in-the-making, to imagine themselves residing in a common time and place, united by a print language with a league of anonymous equals." Therefore, for Anderson, the rise of print technology was essential to create

3630-519: The sole exception. He viewed them as the "true proto-nation" that provided the original model of nationhood through the foundational example of ancient Israel in the Hebrew Bible , despite losing their political sovereignty for nearly two millennia. The Jews, however, maintained a cohesive national identity throughout this period, which ultimately culminated in the emergence of Zionism and the establishment of modern lsrael. Anthony D. Smith wrote that

3696-426: The subsequent anti-Communist purges of 1965–66 . The "Cornell Paper" was widely disseminated by Indonesian dissidents. One of two foreign witnesses at the show trial of Communist Party of Indonesia general secretary Sudisman in 1971, Anderson published a translated version of the latter's unsuccessful testimony. As a result of his actions, Anderson was in 1972 expelled from Indonesia and banned from reentering,

3762-487: The term " nation state " could be used to distinguish larger states from small city states , or could be used to distinguish multinational states from those with a single ethnic group. The broad consensus amongst scholars of nationalism is that nations are a recent phenomenon. However, some historians argue that their existence can be traced to the medieval period. Adrian Hastings argued that nations and nationalism are predominantly Christian phenomena, with Jews being

3828-467: The trend Huntington identifies, including economic globalization , a rise in importance of multinational corporations , the internationalization of financial markets, the transfer of socio-political power from national authorities to supranational entities, such as multinational corporations, the United Nations and the European Union and the advent of new information and culture technologies such as

3894-548: The work: In Anderson's theory of nationalism, the phenomenon only came about as people began rejecting three key beliefs about their society: Anderson argued that the prerequisites for the rejection of these beliefs began in Western Europe through the numerous factors that led to the Age of Enlightenment , such as the power of economics, the Scientific Revolution , and the advent of improvements in communication brought about by

3960-534: Was an Anglo-Irish political scientist and historian who lived and taught in the United States. Anderson is best known for his 1983 book Imagined Communities , which explored the origins of nationalism . A polyglot with an interest in Southeast Asia , he was the Aaron L. Binenkorb Professor of International Studies, Government & Asian Studies at Cornell University . His work on the " Cornell Paper ", which disputed

4026-466: Was central to the creation of imagined communities, as the mass mechanical reproduction of printed works united people that would otherwise have found it difficult to imagine themselves as part of the same community, mainly because of extreme linguistic differences. With the advent of the printing press, languages became more stable and certain dialects became "languages of power" (such as the Queen's English in

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4092-605: Was elected twice as a procurator for the French natio . The University of Prague adopted the division of students into nationes : from its opening in 1349 the studium generale which consisted of Bohemian, Bavarian, Saxon and Polish nations . In a similar way, the nationes were segregated by the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem , who maintained at Rhodes the hostels from which they took their name "where foreigners eat and have their places of meeting, each nation apart from

4158-554: Was never the primary basis of identification for the members of these multinational empires. Paul Lawrence criticises Hastings's reading of Bede, observing that those writing so-called 'national' histories may have "been working with a rather different notion of 'the nation' to those writing history in the modern period". Lawrence goes on to argue that such documents do not demonstrate how ordinary people identified themselves, pointing out that, while they serve as texts in which an elite defines itself, "their significance in relation to what

4224-557: Was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute , which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?", in response to Francis Fukuyama 's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man . Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order . Huntington began his thinking by surveying

4290-691: Was the daughter of the Irish Home Rule MP Major Purcell O'Gorman . Major Purcell O'Gorman was in turn the son of Nicholas Purcell O'Gorman who had been involved with the Republican Society of United Irishmen during the 1798 Rising , later becoming Secretary of the Catholic Association in the 1820s. Anderson also had roots in County Waterford through his O'Gorman side. Benedict Anderson took his middle names from

4356-513: Was the lived reality. Florin Curta cites Medieval Bulgarian nation as another possible example. Danubian Bulgaria was founded in 680-681 as a continuation of Great Bulgaria . After the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav on

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