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130-501: Ivan Shuvalov and Mikhail Lomonosov promoted the idea of a university in Moscow, and Russian Empress Elizabeth decreed its establishment on 23 January [ O.S. 12 January] 1755. The first lectures were given on 7 May [ O.S. 26 April] 1755. Russians still celebrate 25 January as Students' Day . (Foundation of the University is traditionally associated with

260-453: A Gentleman-In-Waiting , and his liaison with the Empress began. Although the cousins planned to use him as a pawn in their court intrigues, Shuvalov refused to get enmeshed in their machinations. As his biographers like to point out, Shuvalov was "mild and generous to all" and "had no enemies whatsoever". His position at court grew stronger during Elizabeth's declining years, when he served as

390-449: A Russophobic nuncio at Warsaw , with the more pliant Count Giuseppe Garampi . His eventual return to Russia in 1777 occasioned Derzhavin 's well-known epistle , while the Empress made him High Chamberlain. Shuvalov's mansion was to be frequented by the new generation of Russian intellectuals: Ekaterina Dashkova , Denis Fonvizin , Mikhail Kheraskov , Ivan Dmitriev , and Aleksandr Shishkov  – many of them products of

520-612: A Russian invasion of Belgium would cause a war with France. Even before the Poles rose up, Nicholas had cancelled his plans for invading Belgium as it became clear that neither Britain nor Prussia would join in while the French openly threatened war if Nicholas should march. In 1815, Nicholas arrived in France, where he stayed with the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, who soon become one of his best friends, with

650-620: A Russian scholar who aspired to establish a university in Russia. Lomonosov found a loyal patron in Shuvalov and paid tribute to his accomplishments in his dedication of a couple of odes and "meditations" to him. On 23 January 1755 – the name-day of Shuvalov's mother Tatiana Rodionovna – the Empress endorsed their project to set up the Imperial Moscow University "for all sorts and conditions of people". Tatiana Day

780-784: A boarding school for noblemen (Благородный пансион) which in 1830 became a gymnasium for the Russian nobility . The university press , run by Nikolay Novikov in the 1780s, published the most popular newspaper in Imperial Russia: Moskovskie Vedomosti . Moscow University was transferred from the Senate to the Ministry of Education of the Russian Empire . Under the new Charter of the Imperial University of Moscow in 1804,

910-539: A chord with Nicholas, who shared Pogodin’s sense that Russia’s role as the protector of the Orthodox had not been recognized or understood and that Russia was unfairly treated by the West." Pogodin wrote: France takes Algeria from Turkey, and almost every year England annexes another Indian principality: none of this disturbs the balance of power; but when Russia occupies Moldavia and Wallachia, albeit only temporarily, that disturbs

1040-634: A competent brigade commander in the Imperial Army who proved himself out of his depth as a Navy minister. Of the Emperor's ministers, 78% were ethnic Russians, 9.6% were Baltic Germans while the rest were foreigners in Russian service. Of the men who served as ministers under Nicholas, 14 had graduated from university while another 14 had graduated from a lycée or a gymnasium , the rest had all been educated by private tutors. In foreign policy, Nicholas I acted as

1170-424: A defensive pact with Prussia. Thus, Russia found herself in a war with every Great Power of Europe either allied against her militarily or diplomatically. In 1853 Mikhail Pogodin , professor of history at Moscow University, wrote a memorandum to Nicholas. Nicholas himself read Pogodin's text and approvingly commented: "That is the whole point." According to historian Orlando Figes , "The memorandum clearly struck

1300-597: A former Byzantine Catholic priest named Joseph Semashko as his agent to force Orthodoxy upon the Eastern Rite Catholics of Ukraine , Belarus , and Lithuania . This caused Tsar Nicholas to be condemned by a succession of Roman Pontiffs , the Marquis de Custine , Charles Dickens , and many Western governments. (See also Cantonists .) Nicholas disliked serfdom and toyed with the idea of abolishing it in Russia, but declined to do so for reasons of state. He feared

1430-441: A happy marriage that produced a large family; with all of their seven children surviving childhood. Nicholas's biographer Nicholas V. Riasanovsky said that he displayed determination, singleness of purpose, and an iron will, along with a powerful sense of duty and a dedication to very hard work. He saw himself as a soldier—a junior officer consumed by spit and polish. A handsome man, he was highly nervous and aggressive. Trained as

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1560-557: A hospital clinic was open and an anatomical-pathological cabinet 1846). In 1841 the medical and surgical academy existing in Moscow merged with the Medical Faculty of the University. The forties and fifties were the heyday of the scientific activity of the Moscow University. Stepan Shevyrev and Fedor Buslaev read the history of Russian literature, Osip Bodyansky – Slavic languages, Timofey Granovsky and Pyotr Kudryavtsev –

1690-585: A matter for Russia." At the same time that Nicholas claimed the Ottoman Empire was within the Russian sphere of influence, he made it clear that he had no interest in annexing the empire. At another meeting with Ficquelmont in 1833, Nicholas, speaking with the "Greek Project" of Catherine the Great in mind said: "I know everything that has been said of the projects of the Empress Catherine, and Russia has renounced

1820-436: A mechanical cabinet, a physical cabinet with a laboratory, a cabinet of physical geography, a zoological museum, an anthropological museum, a geog an anthropological museum, an office for comparative anatomy, a geological cabinet, a mineralogical study and a laboratory, a botanical garden, an anatomy and plant physiology department, an analytical and organic department of a chemical laboratory, a laboratory for inorganic chemistry,

1950-458: A military engineer, he was a stickler for minute detail. In his public persona, stated Riasanovsky, "Nicholas I came to represent autocracy personified: infinitely majestic, determined and powerful, hard as stone, and relentless as fate." Nicholas I was instrumental in helping to create an independent Greek state and resumed the Russian conquest of the Caucasus by seizing Iğdır Province and

2080-402: A paternal autocrat ruling his people by whatever means necessary. Nicholas I began his reign on 14 December 1825 (old style), which fell on a Monday; Russian superstition held that Mondays were unlucky days. This particular Monday dawned very cold, with temperatures of −8 degrees Celsius. This was regarded by the Russian people as a bad omen for the coming reign. The accession of Nicholas I

2210-493: A policy of closing philosophy faculties to curb destabilizing speculation. In the wake of the Decembrist revolt, the tsar moved to protect the status quo by centralizing education. He wanted to neutralize the threat of foreign ideas and "pseudo-knowledge." However, his minister of education, Sergei Uvarov , quietly promoted academic freedom and autonomy, raised academic standards, improved facilities, and opened higher education to

2340-599: A policy of repressing Polish culture beginning with suppressing the Polish Catholic Church . In the 1840s, Nicholas reduced 64,000 Polish nobles to commoner status. In 1848, when a series of revolutions convulsed Europe, Nicholas was at the forefront of reactionism. In 1849, he helped the Habsburgs to suppress the revolution in Hungary , and he also urged Prussia not to adopt a liberal constitution. While Nicholas

2470-598: A population of 60–70 million people, the army counted one million men. They had outdated equipment and tactics, but the tsar, who dressed like a soldier and surrounded himself with officers, gloried in the victory over Napoleon in 1812 and took enormous pride in its smartness on parade. The cavalry horses, for example, were only trained in parade formations, and did poorly in battle. The glitter and braid masked profound weaknesses that he did not see. He put generals in charge of most of his civilian agencies regardless of their qualifications. An agnostic who won fame in cavalry charges

2600-411: A program of " Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality " as the guiding principle of the regime. It was a reactionary policy based on orthodoxy in religion, autocracy in government, and the state-founding role of the Russian nationality and equal citizen rights for all other peoples inhabiting Russia, with the exclusion of Jews. The people were to show loyalty to the unrestricted authority of the tsar , to

2730-472: A social-democratic organization emerged at the university and called for the overthrow of the Czarist government and the establishment of a republic in Russia. The imperial government repeatedly threatened to close the university. The development of university science and teaching faced with difficulties associated with the activation of the student movement and the politicization of university life. In 1899—1907,

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2860-526: A storm of resentment among professors and teachers of Moscow University. The first applications for resignation in March 1911 were submitted by teachers of the Faculty of Law. By the end of the semester, the university had left 131 people – about a third of the teaching staff of the university, among them – world-renowned scientists. The Russian Revolution of 1917 had a direct impact on the life of Moscow University. From

2990-623: A successful war against the Ottomans in 1828–29 , but it did little to increase Russian power in Europe. Only a small Greek state became independent in the Balkans, with limited Russian influence. In 1833, Russia negotiated the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with the Ottoman Empire. The major European parties mistakenly believed that the treaty contained a secret clause granting Russia the right to transit warships through

3120-427: A technical laboratory, a normal anatomy room, a histological office, a pharmacological and pharmaceutical cabinet and laboratory, neurological museum, institute of pathological anatomy, forensic medicine room, surgical surgery room and surgical anatomy Pharmacological Institute with clinical laboratory, and t-general pathology, hygiene institute, physiological institute (laboratory), after reconstruction (1892) belonged to

3250-421: A temporary commission was established to manage the university as part of the rector and the four senior professors in Moscow. The buildings for the temporary placement of the university were found not far from Mokhovaya Street. In May 1813, the last professors and convoys with the property of the university returned from Nizhny Novgorod. In August 1813, the classes of all four faculties of the university resumed. In

3380-764: A universal story, Sergey Solovyov – Russian history, Konstantin Kavelin – the history of Russian legislation, Alexander Fischer von Waldheim – botany. In the second half of this century, Anatoly Bogdanov , Aleksandr Stoletov , August Davidov , Alexei Kozhevnikov , Nikolai Storozhenko , Leonid Kamarovsky , Alexander Chuprov , Sergei Muromtsev , Ivan Yanzhul , Vasily Klyuchevsky , Nikolai Tikhonravov , Kliment Timiryazev , Maxim Kovalevsky , Dmitry Anuchin , Nikolai Bugaev , Ivan Sechenov , Nikolai Zhukovsky , Vasili Zinger , Mikhail Menzbier , Nikolai Zograf , Friedrich Erismann , Pavel Vinogradov , Vsevolod Miller . The number of students, initially increasing, falls during

3510-414: A virtual master of petitions to her, eclipsing her previous favourite and rumoured husband, Aleksey Razumovsky . Promoted general in 1760, Shuvalov refused most other honours that the Empress wished to bestow upon him, including the title of count. Unlike the self-seeking favourites of Catherine the Great , Shuvalov determined to put his good fortune to constructive use for the advancement of education and

3640-465: Is estimated that there were 70,000 Jews conscripted. Under Nicholas I, the Jewish agricultural colonisation of Ukraine continued with the transfer of Siberian Jews to Ukraine. In Ukraine, Jews were offered the opportunity to buy land, which left very little to support their families. On the other hand, these Jews were exempt from forced military conscription. Under Nicholas I there were attempts to reform

3770-574: Is still celebrated in Russia as "Students Day" (now falling on 25 January because of the increased difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars). Shuvalov became the university's first curator and attracted the finest scholars to teach there. He came up with the idea of establishing The Moscow News ( Московские ведомости ), a newspaper published by the university press, which was also founded at Shuvalov's instigation. Apart from two colleges affiliated with Moscow University, he also helped establish

3900-508: The Balkans , still largely under Ottoman control in the 1820s. In fact, Nicholas was deeply committed to upholding the status quo in Europe and feared any attempt to devour the decaying Ottoman Empire would both upset his ally Austria, which also had interests in the Balkans, and bring about an Anglo-French coalition in defense of the Ottomans. Furthermore, in the war of 1828–29, the Russians defeated

4030-619: The Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits. This misconception led to the London Straits Convention of 1841, which affirmed Ottoman control over the straits and forbade any power, including Russia, from sending warships through them. Buoyed by his role in suppressing the revolutions of 1848 as well as his mistaken belief he could rely on British diplomatic support, Nicholas moved against the Ottomans, who declared war on Russia on 8 October 1853. On 30 November, Russian Admiral Nakhimov caught

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4160-554: The November Uprising broke out, in 1831 the Polish parliament deposed Nicholas as king of Poland in response to his repeated curtailment of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland and brutally crushed the rebellion. Nicholas then proceeded to abrogate the Polish constitution in virtual entirety and reduced Poland to the status of a province called Vistula Land . Soon after, Nicholas embarked on

4290-533: The November Uprising in Poland. Russia's first railway was opened in 1837, a 26 km (16 mi) line between St. Petersburg and the suburban residence of Tsarskoye Selo . The second was the Saint Petersburg–Moscow railway , built-in 1842–51. Nevertheless, by 1855 there were only 920 km (570 mi) of Russian railways. In 1833, Sergey Uvarov , of the Ministry of National Education , devised

4420-492: The Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. He reigned for 30 years, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. There have been many damning verdicts on Nicholas' rule and legacy, despite occasional efforts to revive his reputation. At the end of his life, one of his most devoted civil servants, Aleksandr Nikitenko , opined, "the main failing of the reign of Nicholas Pavlovich was that it

4550-480: The false claims of a miserable Jew and burns its fleet: that is a lawful action; but Russia demands a treaty to protect millions of Christians, and that is deemed to strengthen its position in the East at the expense of the balance of power. We can expect nothing from the West but blind hatred and malice... Austria offered the Ottomans diplomatic support, and Prussia remained neutral, thus leaving Russia without any allies on

4680-450: The 1870s the number of students did not change significantly: The Charter limited the autonomy of the university, the role of the trustee of the educational district and the rector of the university, who was now elected Minister of Public Education, was significantly increased. The rights of the Councils of professors were minimized. The choice of the deans of the faculties was now assigned to

4810-565: The Academy and the Hermitage Museum . He also commissioned copies of the finest Roman sculptures in Rome, Florence and Naples and later presented these to the Academy of Arts. As regards politics, Shuvalov's life abroad was not as exciting as the previous period of his career. On Catherine II's request, he would go on diplomatic errands; thus it was he who persuaded Pope Pius VI to replace Durini,

4940-491: The Academy his own collection of Western drawings and paintings, which formed the nucleus of its formidable holdings of fine art. At the time, his palace also hosted performances by Russia's first theatrical troupe, led by Fyodor Volkov and Ivan Dmitrievsky . Upon Elizabeth's death and the ascension of Catherine II , Shuvalov set off for Europe, ostensibly with the purpose of improving his frail health. During fourteen years of foreign travels, he acquired choice works of art for

5070-491: The Army] there is order. ... All things flow logically from one another. No one here commands without first learning to obey. No one rises above anyone else except through a clearly defined system. Everything is subordinated to a single, defined goal and everything has its precise designations. That is why I shall always hold the title of soldier in the highest esteem. I regard human life as service because everybody must serve." Nicholas

5200-572: The Charter of 1884, which caused the greatest public protest, were revised in them. The rules provided for "pending the introduction of new statutes of higher education institutions in legislation" a number of new rights: faculty councils (faculty meetings)—elect deans and their secretaries from faculty professors and faculty with the subsequent approval of elected persons by the Ministry of Education. The councils of universities were responsible for "maintaining

5330-531: The Conference, referring to the first years of the university). The road to Nizhny Novgorod, where Moscow University received a temporary shelter, took 19 days. At the beginning of September, the main building of the University on Mokhovaya burned to ashes, as well as almost all university buildings in the adjacent territory. After the French retreat in December 1812, the rector of the university returned to Moscow and

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5460-470: The Council of the University was expanded. The rector and deans were again elected, although the persons elected for their replacement had to be approved: the rector was the emperor, the deans were the minister of public education. The new university charter created more favorable conditions for the development of science and education in Russia. According to the new statute, the staff of the Moscow University and

5590-489: The Council, I petition for measures to clean the classrooms and some laboratories from these organizations and gatherings» (there was no reaction to the telegram). After the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II from the name of the Imperial Moscow University, the word "Imperial" disappeared (the corresponding inscription was knocked down from the pediment of the main building of the university on Mokhovaya). In 1917,

5720-618: The Decembrist revolt on the first day of his reign, Nicholas I was determined to restrain Russian society. The Third Section of the Imperial Chancellery ran a huge network of spies and informers with the help of Gendarmes . The government exercised censorship and other forms of control over education, publishing, and all manifestations of public life. Nicholas appointed Alexander Benckendorff to head this Chancellery. Benckendorff employed 300 gendarmes and 16 staff in his office. He began collecting informers and intercepting mail. Soon,

5850-433: The Faculty of Law, the teaching of natural, folk and Roman rights was introduced. In total, according to the statute of 1804, 28 chairs were laid. By the time Napoleon invaded the university, there were 215 students. Napoleon 's invasion was a serious test for the Moscow University, which lost buildings, museum collections, scientific equipment, a library, and an archive that had lost many professors and students during

5980-683: The Middle East. The Russian Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode wrote in letter to his ambassador in Constantinople Nikolai Muravyov that the victory of Muhammad Ali of Egypt over Mahmud II would lead to a new dynasty ruling the Ottoman Empire. Nesselrode continued that if the able Muhammad Ali became sultan then it "could, with the elevation of a new personage to the Turkish throne, revive new strength in that declining empire and distract our attention and forces from European affairs, and thus

6110-522: The Minister of Education. The university was divided into four departments (faculty): moral and political sciences, physical and mathematical sciences, verbal sciences, medical sciences. Each department held its own meetings, on which a schedule was drawn up, tests were conducted for those wishing to obtain a degree, economic and financial issues were considered. The Faculty of Medicine was divided into departments: clinical (therapy), surgical , obstetrics . At

6240-402: The Moscow University was repeatedly forced to stop studying in connection with student rallies and gatherings. Measures of the Ministry of Public Education to curb the student movement, aimed at limiting the university autonomy, caused a negative reaction of the liberal-minded part of the professors. Temporary rules – a legislative act, supplementing the Charter of 1884, liberalizing the order of

6370-406: The Ottomans in every battle fought in the field and advanced deep into the Balkans, but the Russians discovered that they lacked the necessary logistical strength to take Constantinople. Nicholas' policy towards the Ottoman Empire was to use the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca which gave Russia a vague right as protector of Orthodox peoples in the Balkans, as a way of placing the Ottoman Empire into

6500-407: The Russian sphere of influence, which was felt to be a more achievable goal than conquering the entire Ottoman Empire. Nicholas actually wanted to preserve the Ottoman Empire as a stable but weak state that would be unable to stand up to Russia, which was felt to serve Russia's interests. Nicholas always thought of Russia as first and foremost a European power and regarded Europe as more important than

6630-517: The Shuvalov brothers arranged his meeting with the Empress, who was making a pilgrimage to the Monastery of St. Sabbas . The Shuvalovs were not disappointed in their calculations: the 40-year-old Empress took notice of the handsome page, who was 18 years her junior, and bid him accompany her in the upcoming pilgrimage to the New Jerusalem Monastery . Three months later, Shuvalov was appointed

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6760-585: The Turkish fleet in the harbor at Sinope and destroyed it. Fearing the results of a total Ottoman defeat by Russia, in 1854 Britain , France , the Kingdom of Sardinia formed a military coalition and joined forces with the Ottoman Empire against Russia. The preceding conflict became known as the Crimean War in the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe, but was labelled in Russia the "Eastern War" (Russian: Восточная война, Vostochnaya Vojna ). In April 1854, Austria signed

6890-417: The West . The Slavophiles viewed Slavic philosophy as a source of wholeness in Russia and were sceptical of Western rationalism and materialism. Some of them believed that the Russian peasant commune, or Mir , offered an attractive alternative to Western capitalism and could save Europe from social and moral revolution, thus representing a form of Russian messianism . However the ministry of education had

7020-755: The administrative structure of universities. The decree "On the Enactment of the Provisional Rules for the Management of Higher Educational Institutions of the Ministry of Public Education" was approved by Emperor Nicholas II in August 1905. The appearance of the decree was connected with the events of the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907 . Temporary rules were issued in connection with the termination of studies at universities due to student unrest. The norms of

7150-528: The age of 18. Before that many of them were forcibly conscripted into Cantonist schools from the age of 12, while being a Cantonist did not count into the time of military service. They were sent far away from their families to serve in the military so that they would have difficulty practising Judaism and become Russified , and sometimes compelled to convert to Christianity . The poorer village Jews, those without families, and unmarried Jews were especially targeted for military service. Between 1827 and 1854 it

7280-1072: The age of four years, Nicholas was named Grand Prior of Russia and entitled to wear the Maltese cross . Nicholas grew up to be a fine young man. Riasanovsky says of him that he is "the most handsome man in Europe, but also a charmer who enjoyed feminine company and was often at his best with the men." On 13 July 1817, Nicholas married Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1798–1860), who took the name Alexandra Feodorovna when she converted to Orthodoxy. Charlotte's parents were Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz . Nicholas and Charlotte were third cousins, as they were both great-great-grandchildren of Frederick William I of Prussia . With two older brothers, it initially seemed unlikely Nicholas would ever become Tsar. However, as Alexander and Constantine both failed to produce legitimate sons, Nicholas first came to attention as being likely to rule one day, or at least that his children may succeed. In 1825, when Tsar Alexander died suddenly of typhus , Nicholas

7410-649: The aristocracy and believed they might turn against him if he abolished serfdom. However, he did make some efforts to improve the lot of the Crown Serfs (serfs owned by the government) with the help of his minister Pavel Kiselyov . During most of his reign he tried to increase his control over the landowners and other influential groups in Russia. In 1831, Nicholas restricted the votes in the Noble Assembly to those with over 100 serfs, leaving 21,916 voters. In 1841, landless nobles were banned from selling serfs separate from

7540-487: The armies hindered his generals, as did his misguided strategy. Several historians have concluded that "the reign of Nicholas I was a catastrophic failure in both domestic and foreign policy." On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its geographical zenith, spanning over 20 million square kilometers (7.7 million square miles), but had a desperate need for reform. Nicholas was born at Gatchina Palace in Gatchina ,

7670-479: The balance of power. France occupies Rome and stays there several years during peacetime: that is nothing; but Russia only thinks of occupying Constantinople, and the peace of Europe is threatened. The English declare war on the Chinese, who have, it seems, offended them: no one has the right to intervene; but Russia is obliged to ask Europe for permission if it quarrels with its neighbor. England threatens Greece to support

7800-468: The beginning of 1917, university students participated in the activities of legal and illegal parties, went to street demonstrations, used the university for political demonstrations. In February 1917 in the classrooms there were continuous rallies. A lot of different organizations emerged: the health organization of medical students, who took on themselves the duty to help the wounded, the student militia, who distributed arms and declared herself independent of

7930-476: The boy was ten, and Tatiana Rodionovna. The Shuvalov family fortunes changed drastically in 1741, when Empress Elizabeth Petrovna ascended to the Russian throne with help from Ivan's powerful cousins – Peter Shuvalov and Alexander Shuvalov . The following year, they had the fourteen-year-old Ivan attached to the imperial court as a page . In July 1749, when Ivan was visiting his brother-in-law Prince Galitzine at his country estate near Moscow,

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8060-535: The circular of the Minister of Education, banned the holding of meetings. However, the meetings continued. Minister of Education Lev Kasso demanded from the rector of Moscow University Alexander Manuilov to resolve the conflict by force. The Ministry publishes in January 1911 a circular "On temporary exclusion of public and private student institutions", which prohibits meetings at the university, which makes it obligatory for rectors to prevent unauthorized persons from entering

8190-521: The conflict between the Ministry of Education, headed by Lev Kasso , and the University of Moscow resulted in the collective resignation of more than a third of the faculty, including many outstanding scientists. The immediate cause of the conflict was the decision of the student meeting in November 1910 on the occasion of the death of Leo Tolstoy about the termination for 3 days of classes in connection with mourning. The rector of Moscow University, according to

8320-520: The continent. The European allies landed in Crimea and laid siege to the well-fortified Russian Sevastopol Naval Base . The Russians lost battles at Alma in September 1854 and then at Inkerman. After the prolonged Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55) the base fell, exposing Russia's inability to defend a major fortification on its own soil. On the death of Nicholas I, Alexander II became emperor. On 15 January 1856,

8450-412: The correct course of study life at the university." Proceedings on student affairs, as in the Charter of 1863, were entrusted to the university court. Student affairs were entirely the responsibility of the university, and not officials of the Ministry of Education. The new university charter prepared in the ministry was never put into effect because of subsequent revolutionary events in 1917. In 1911,

8580-458: The dismissal of the rector, who in his opinion did not implement the government's decisions with sufficient vigor. Under the ban was put the teaching of philosophy at the university, resumed only in 1845. The Emperor's dissatisfaction with the appearance of the Moscow students he met near the Kremlin entailed the introduction of a compulsory wearing of student uniforms, which students had to wear outside

8710-506: The district trustee instead of the faculty meeting. By the beginning of 1896, the following educational institutions have been attached to the Moscow University: the library (236,630 volumes and 135,763 titles), student libraries at the Faculty of History and Philology, at the mathematical and natural departments of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, at the law and medical faculties, arts and antiquities), an astronomical observatory,

8840-567: The education of Jews with the object of Russification . Study of the Talmud was disfavored. Nicholas I further toughened censorship of Jewish books in Yiddish and Hebrew by allowing these to be printed only in Zhitomir and Vilna . Nicolas' aggressive foreign policy involved many expensive wars, having a disastrous effect on the empire's finances. Nicholas lavished attention on his very large army; of

8970-410: The education of the most gifted boys from all strata of society. At first no formal examination was required to enter the Academy; even peasants' children – like Fyodor Rokotov and Fedot Shubin  – were admitted on Shuvalov's personal recommendation. Shuvalov served as the Academy's first president until 1763, when he was succeeded by Ivan Betskoy . In 1758, he donated to

9100-477: The emperor of the benefits of inviting Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt to Russia to investigate regions that could produce mineral wealth. The Russian government financed Humboldt's eight-month expedition through Russia in 1829, which resulted in diamond finds in the Ural mountains. Humboldt published multiple volumes on his Russian expedition, which he dedicated to Nicholas despite his increasing disapproval of

9230-460: The end of the XIX century, the Medical Faculty of Moscow University had 13 clinics and 12 research institutes. Despite the tightening of rules since the beginning of the 1880s, the number of students has grown steadily: By the beginning of 1896, the university had 4,147 students, 111 third-party students, and 153 pharmacist assistants. Of the 4,147 students at the Faculty of Law there were 1,587 people, on

9360-538: The feast of Saint Tatiana , celebrated by the Russian Orthodox Church on 12 January Julian, which corresponds to 25 January Gregorian in the 20th–21st centuries.) The present Moscow State University originally occupied the Aptekarskij dom on Red Square from 1755 to 1787. Catherine the Great transferred the University to a Neoclassical building on the other side of Mokhovaya Street; that main building

9490-692: The first Russian college outside Moscow – in Kazan . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1758. In 1757, Shuvalov submitted to the Governing Senate his project for establishing the Academy of Three Noble Arts at his own palace in Saint Petersburg . This institution – later transformed into the Imperial Academy of Arts  – was envisioned by him for

9620-585: The first class facilities of this kind). In 1884–1897, the medical faculty for private donations and with the financial support of the government built a «Clinical Town» at Devichye Pole , between the Garden Ring and the Novodevichy Convent. The buildings were designed by the architect Konstantin Bykovsky. The consultants of the project were such university doctors as Nikolai Sklifosovsky and Fyodor Erisman. By

9750-561: The goal she had set out. I wish to maintain the Turkish empire... It if falls, I do not desire its debris. I need nothing." Ultimately, Nicholas's policies in the Near East proved to be both costly and largely futile. In 1826–28, Nicholas fought the Russo-Persian War (1826–28) , which ended with Persia forced to cede its last remaining territories in the Caucasus . Russia had conquered all

9880-503: The grand duke being impressed with duke's personal warmth, intelligence, manners and grace. For Nicholas the worst sort of characters were nobility who supported liberalism, and when the duc d'Orleans become the king of the French as Louis Philippe I in the July revolution of 1830, Nicholas took this as a personal betrayal, believing his friend had gone over as he saw it to the dark side of revolution and liberalism. Nicholas hated Louis-Philippe,

10010-433: The historian and geographer Khariton Chebotarev . At the meetings of the council, not only the appointment of professors, honorary members, and adjuncts of the university was decided, but also the appointment of teachers in the gymnasium and the school of the district, and even the annual test of students. The meetings were to be held at least once a month. Annually the Council elected deans of faculties, which were approved by

10140-561: The land. From 1845, attainment of the 5th highest rank (out of 14) in the Table of Ranks was required to be ennobled, previously it had been the 8th rank. Nicholas was crowned King of Poland in Warsaw on 12 (24) May 1829, per the Polish Constitution, a document he would not respect thereafter. He is the only Russian monarch ever crowned King of Poland —although not the only one bestowed with

10270-671: The liberties that existed under the constitutional monarchy in Congress Poland . Nicholas was outraged when he learned of the Belgian revolt against the Dutch in 1830 and ordered the Imperial Russian Army to mobilize. Nicholas then petitioned the Prussian ambassador for Russian troops to be granted transit rights in order to march across Europe and restore Dutch hegemony over Belgium. But at

10400-399: The main source of recognition and support for artists. Nicholas I decided to control it personally, reserving the final say on artistic honors. As the tsar reprimanded and humiliated artists whose works he found distasteful, the result was fear, insecurity, and artistic mediocrity. Despite the repressions of this period, Russians outside official control produced a flowering of literature and

10530-428: The medical faculty – 1,380, on the physico-mathematical – 929, on the historical and philological – 251. As of the beginning of 1896, the teaching staff of the university included 233 teachers, including: 1 professor of theology, 56 ordinary professors, 37 extraordinary professors, 5 reviewers, 4 lecturers, 130 privat-docents. The roots of student unrest in the university reach deep into the nineteenth century. In 1905,

10660-405: The men who served as a minister under him had seen action in the wars against France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sweden. This proved to be something of a handicap in the sense that the sort of qualities that could make a man distinguished on the battlefields such as bravery did not necessarily make a man capable of running a ministry. The most notorious case was Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov ,

10790-423: The middle classes. By 1848 the tsar, fearing that political upheavals in the West might spread to Russia, ended Uvarov's innovations. The universities were small and closely monitored, especially the potentially dangerous philosophy departments. Their main mission was to train a loyal, vigorous, manly senior bureaucracy unspoiled by effeminate office work. The Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg became

10920-517: The monarch [Nicholas] is especially concerned to keep the sultan on his tottering throne." At the same time, Nicholas argued that because of the economic importance to Russia of the Turkish straits, through which Russia exports its grain, that Russia had the "right" to intervene in Ottoman affairs. In 1833, Nicholas told the Austrian ambassador Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont that "Oriental affairs are above all

11050-609: The new emperor took Russia out of the war on very unfavorable terms, which included the loss of a naval fleet on the Black Sea. Nicholas died on 2 March 1855, during the Crimean War, at the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg . He caught a chill, refused medical treatment and died of pneumonia , although there were rumors he was committing a passive suicide by refusing treatment. He was buried in

11180-448: The ninth child of Grand Duke Paul , heir to the Russian throne, and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna of Russia (née Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg ). He had six older sisters and two older brothers, namely the future Emperor Alexander I of Russia and Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia . Four months after Nicholas's birth, his grandmother, Catherine the Great , died and his parents became Emperor and Empress of Russia. In 1800, at

11310-524: The number of departments in its faculties were enlarged. There were 11 chairs at the Faculty of History and Philology, 10 in the Physics and Mathematics Department, 11 in the law faculty, and 23 at the medical school. If in the original structure of the Imperial University of Moscow in the 18th century three faculties were provided for only 10 departments, in 1804 there were 28, in 1835 there were 35, then in 1863 their number increased to 53, and by 1884 to 56. In

11440-606: The number of students and, correspondingly, a decrease in the level of teaching. During the All-Russian competition (1919), many professors lost their seats at the university, whose views were assessed as counter-revolutionary. A number of eminent representatives of university science were expelled from Russia (1922). The directors and rectors of the university played an important role in its development. Ivan Shuvalov Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov (Russian: Иван Иванович Шувалов ; 1 November 1727 – 26 November 1797)

11570-403: The performing arts. Through the works of Aleksandr Pushkin , Nikolai Gogol , Ivan Turgenev and numerous others, Russian literature gained international stature and recognition. Ballet took root in Russia after its importation from France , and classical music became firmly established with the compositions of Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857). Minister of Finance Georg von Cancrin persuaded

11700-481: The persecution of non-Russian languages and non-Orthodox religions. Taras Shevchenko , later to become known as the national poet of Ukraine , was exiled to Siberia by a direct order of Tsar Nicholas after composing a poem that mocked the Tsar, his wife, and his domestic policies. By order of the Tsar, Shevchenko was kept under strict surveillance and prevented from writing or painting. From 1839, Tsar Nicholas also used

11830-446: The promotion of fine arts in his country. A model of the enlightened courtier, he maintained correspondence with the leading French thinkers – Helvetius , d'Alembert , Diderot , and Voltaire . He supplied the latter with materials necessary for his Histoire de l'empire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand and was later instrumental in publishing it in Russia. Shuvalov's activity brought him in touch with Mikhail Lomonosov ,

11960-589: The protector of ruling legitimism and as guardian against revolution. It has often been noted that such policies were linked with the Metternich counter-revolutionary system through the Austrian ambassador Count Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont . Nicholas's offers to suppress revolution on the European continent, trying to follow the pattern set by his eldest brother, Alexander I, earned him the label of "gendarme of Europe". Immediately on his succession Nicholas began to limit

12090-549: The reaction period: Student excitements of the 1860s were reflected in Moscow University, but they did not lead to its closure, as happened in St. Petersburg. In April 1855, the decree of Emperor Alexander II "On the admission to take an unlimited number of students to universities" was followed. The Charter of 1863 is the most liberal of the university statutes of the Russian Empire. The statute restored autonomy to universities and weakened government custody of them. The scope of

12220-628: The remainder of modern-day Armenia and Azerbaijan from Qajar Iran during the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) . He ended the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) successfully as well. He crushed the November Uprising in Poland in 1831 and decisively aided Austria during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Later on, however, he led Russia into the Crimean War (1853–1856), with disastrous results. Historians emphasize that his micromanagement of

12350-560: The same time, a cholera epidemic was decimating Russian troops and the revolt in Poland tied down Russian soldiers which might have been deployed against the Belgians. It seems likely that Nicholas's hawkish stance was not a sincere prelude towards invasion of the Low Countries, but rather an attempt to apply pressure on the other European powers. Nicholas made it clear he would only act if Prussia and Britain also participated as he feared that

12480-545: The same year, 129 students were accepted. The final restoration of the university was completed in 1819 with the completion of the reconstruction of the main building on Mokhovaya. University buildings were rebuilt again by 1819. By 1826 the library (up to 30,000 volumes) and the Mint-cabinet (3731 coins) had been restored. Since the beginning of the 1820s, the number of students has constantly increased: The visit of Emperor Nicholas I to Moscow University in 1826 resulted in

12610-484: The saying that "it was impossible to sneeze in one's house before it is reported to the emperor" became Benckendorff's creed. Tsar Nicholas abolished several areas of local autonomy. Bessarabia's autonomy was removed in 1828, Poland's in 1830 and the Jewish Qahal was abolished in 1843. As an exception to this trend, Finland was able to keep its autonomy partly due to Finnish soldiers' loyal participation in crushing

12740-539: The self-styled Le roi citoyen ("the Citizen King") as a renegade nobleman and an "usurper," and his foreign policy starting in 1830 was primarily anti-French , based upon reviving the coalition that had existed during the Napoleonic era of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Britain, to isolate France. Nicholas detested Louis-Philippe to the point that he refused to use his name, referring to him merely as "the usurper". Britain

12870-436: The soldiers for six months of the year. Curtiss finds that "The pedantry of Nicholas's military system, which stressed unthinking obedience and parade ground evolutions rather than combat training, produced ineffective commanders in time of war." His commanders in the Crimean War were old and incompetent, and indeed so were his muskets as the colonels sold the best equipment and the best food. For much of Nicholas' reign, Russia

13000-434: The structure of universities: the range of subjects studied was expanded, the number of departments increased, which allowed to increase their scientific level. The charter of 1835 introduced a four-year course of study, and the number of chairs was increased to 35. Auxiliary institutions at the university continued to develop: an astronomical observatory (1828) was founded, an office of comparative anatomy and physiology (1834),

13130-512: The territories of Iran in both the North Caucasus and South Caucasus , comprising modern-day Georgia , Dagestan , Armenia , and Azerbaijan , through the course of the 19th century. The treaty further conceded extraterritoriality to Russian subjects in Iran (capitulation). As Professor Virginia Aksan adds, the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay "removed Iran from the military equation." Russia fought

13260-560: The throne. That manifesto retroactively named 1 December (19 November Old Style ), the date of Alexander I's death, as the beginning of his reign. During this confusion, a plot was hatched by some members of the military to overthrow Nicholas and seize power. This led to the Decembrist Revolt on 26 (14 Old Style ) December 1825, an uprising Nicholas quickly suppressed. Defunct Nicholas completely lacked his brother's spiritual and intellectual breadth; he saw his role simply as that of

13390-482: The title. The official emphasis on Russian nationalism fueled a debate on Russia's place in the world, the meaning of Russian history, and the future of Russia. One group, the westernizers , believed that Russia remained backward and primitive and could progress only through adopting European culture and institutions. Another group, the Slavophiles , enthusiastically favored Slavic culture and customs, and disdained

13520-513: The traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church , and the Russian language . These romantic and conservative principles outlined by Uvarov were also espoused by Vasily Zhukovsky , one of the tutors of the Grand Duke Alexander. The results of these Slavophile principles led, broadly speaking, to increasing repression of all classes, excessive censorship, and surveillance of independent-minded intellectuals like Pushkin and Lermontov and to

13650-521: The tsar's policies. In 1851 the Jewish population numbered at 2.4 million, including 212,000 in Russian-controlled Poland . This made them one of the largest inorodtsy (non-Slavic) minorities in the Russian Empire. On 26 August 1827 the edict of military conscription ( Ustav rekrutskoi povinnosti ) was introduced, which required Jewish boys to serve in the Russian military for 25 years from

13780-421: The universities and their pets for their unreliability, the emperor issued a decree reducing the number of students. The number of students of the three main faculties was limited to three hundred people (1848). An exception was made only for the medical faculty. The rector was appointed Minister of Public Education and approved by the emperor. At the same time, the charter also introduced changes that pertained to

13910-454: The university and to report to the police about alleged gatherings; the mayor was charged with closing the university with the help of the police in case of unrest. The circular violated the provisions of the provisional rules of 1905, according to which the petition for the closure of the university belonged to the rights of the council. The student meeting takes a decision on the strike. Immediately afterwards, police forces were introduced into

14040-481: The university court that existed since the opening of the university, strengthened the general dependence of universities on administrative bodies. The powers of the rector and the competence of the University Council were significantly reduced. Inspector control over students was toughened. The tuition fee was raised (1841), which led to a general reduction in students, and a change in their composition. Suspecting

14170-652: The university he had established. While living at his palace, the poet Ermil Kostrov produced the first Russian translation of the Iliad . After his imperial lover's demise, Shuvalov never married and had no children. He died at the Shuvalov Mansion in Saint Petersburg on 14 November 1797. His tomb is in the Annunciation Church of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery . In 2003, a memorial statue of Shuvalov

14300-404: The university was simply called Moscow State University . The revolutionary transformations of 1917–1921 in the sphere of Russian public education, which began in the first years of Soviet power, led to a complete change in the structure of the university, its teaching and student staff. The adopted policy of "democratization" and "proletarianization" of higher education led to a sharp increase in

14430-461: The university was to be run by the University Council , which included ordinary and distinguished professors headed by the rector. The rector was annually elected by a professorial assembly (closed voting with the help of white and black balls) and was approved personally by the Emperor of the Russian Empire. The deans of the faculties were also subject to election. The first elected rector was

14560-558: The university's administration. However, the voices of other students were also heard, especially at the Physics and Mathematics Faculty, which demanded the resumption of classes. In March 1917, the rector of the Moscow University telegraphed to the Minister of Education: «The university encounters obstacles for the resumption of classes, for its audiences are occupied with the organization of student militia, which considers itself autonomous, arbitrarily occupies premises, rents them for rallies and requisition university property. Upon receipt of

14690-490: The university, without the knowledge of the council, to prevent the beginning of the strike. Police actions paralyzed the training sessions. At an emergency meeting of the council, all the leaders of the Moscow University resigned. This decision was approved by the council. In response, the Ministry publishes the highest decree on the dismissal of university leaders, while at the same time prohibiting them from engaging in scientific and teaching activities. Cassault's decision caused

14820-507: The university. From the reaction of the 1820s, Moscow University suffered less than other universities of the Russian Empire. In 1833, a second building was purchased for the University of Moscow, located next to the main building on Mokhovaya Street, which was rebuilt in 1835 and named Auditor Corps. The University Statute of 1835 was the first general statute for all universities that introduced uniform rules for their existence. The new charter severely restricted university autonomy, abolished

14950-502: The war in the Moscow fire that destroyed Moscow. In August 1812, Moscow University was evacuated to Nizhny Novgorod . 42 boxes with the most valuable exhibits of the Museum of Natural History, books, instruments and instruments were sent. Also in the evacuation were sent to the professors, students and students, the university treasury, the most valuable books and things (including the minutes of

15080-543: The war's end, Russia's leaders were determined to reform their military and society. As Fuller notes, "Russia had been beaten on the Crimean Peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless steps were taken to surmount its military weakness." An intensely militaristic man, Nicholas regarded the Army as the best and greatest institution in Russia and as a model for society, saying: "Here [in

15210-521: Was Emperor of Russia , King of Congress Poland , and Grand Duke of Finland . He was the third son of Paul I and younger brother of his predecessor, Alexander I . Nicholas's thirty-year reign began with the failed Decembrist revolt . He is mainly remembered as a reactionary whose controversial reign was marked by geographical expansion, centralisation of administrative policies, and repression of dissent both in Russia and among its neighbors. Nicholas had

15340-489: Was all a mistake." In 1891 Lev Tolstoy popularised the nickname Николай Палкин (Nicholas the Stick) in reference to the late emperor's passion for military discipline. Historian Barbara Jelavich points to many failures, including the "catastrophic state of Russian finances", the badly-equipped army, the inadequate transportation system, and a bureaucracy "characterized by graft, corruption, and inefficiency". Kiev University

15470-473: Was attempting to maintain the status quo in Europe, he followed a somewhat more aggressive policy toward the neighbouring empires to the south, the Ottoman Empire and Persia . Nicholas was widely believed at the time to be following the traditional Russian policy of resolving the so-called Eastern Question by seeking to partition the Ottoman Empire and establish a protectorate over the Orthodox population of

15600-549: Was called the Maecenas (patron) of the Russian Enlightenment , the first Russian Minister of Education and Active Privy Councillor (1773). Russia's first theatre, university, and academy of arts were instituted with his active participation. A favorite of Elizaveta Petrovna of Russia ; friend of the scientist M.V. Lomonosov . He was born in Moscow, the only son of Ivan Menshoi Shuvalov, an army captain who died when

15730-475: Was caught between swearing allegiance to Constantine and accepting the throne for himself. The interregnum lasted until Constantine, who was in Warsaw at that time, officially forfeited his right to succession. This had been required by Tsar Alexander as a condition of Constantine's marriage to his second wife Joanna Grudzinska . On 25 (13 Old Style ) December, Nicholas issued the manifesto proclaiming his accession to

15860-460: Was constructed between 1782 and 1793 in the Neo-Palladian style, to a design by Matvei Kazakov , and rebuilt by Domenico Giliardi after the fire consumed much of Moscow in 1812 . In the 18th century, the university had three departments: philosophy , medicine , and law . A preparatory college was affiliated with the university until its abolition in 1812. In 1779, Mikhail Kheraskov founded

15990-490: Was founded in 1834 by Nicholas. In 1854, there were 3600 university students in Russia, 1000 fewer than in 1848. Censorship was omnipresent; historian Hugh Seton-Watson writes: "the intellectual atmosphere remained oppressive until the end of the reign." The Frenchman Marquis de Custine wrote the widely-read travel book La Russie en 1839 ( Empire of the Czar: A Journey Through Eternal Russia ). He speculated that Nicholas had

16120-482: Was made supervisor of Church affairs. The army became the vehicle of upward social mobility for noble youths from non-Russian areas, such as Poland, the Baltic, Finland, and Georgia. On the other hand, many miscreants, petty criminals, and undesirables were punished by local officials by being enlisted for life in the Army. The conscription system was highly unpopular with people, as was the practice of forcing peasants to house

16250-457: Was marred by a demonstration of 3000 young army officers and other liberal-minded citizens. This demonstration was an attempt to force the government to accept a constitution and a representative form of government. Nicholas ordered the Imperial Russian Army to smash the demonstration. The "uprising" was quickly put down and became known as the Decembrist revolt . Having experienced the trauma of

16380-453: Was often exasperated by the slow pace of the Russian bureaucracy and had a marked preference for appointing generals and admirals to high government rank because of their perceived efficiency, overlooking or ignoring whether or not they were actually qualified for the role. Of the men who served as Nicholas's ministers, 61% had previously served as a general or an admiral. Nicholas liked to appoint generals who had seen combat, and at least 30 of

16510-442: Was seen as a major military power, with considerable strength. The Crimean War, fought shortly before Nicholas' death, demonstrated to both Russia and the world what few had previously realized: Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his grand ambitions toward the south and Turkey, Russia had not built railroad network in that direction, and communications were bad. The bureaucracy

16640-429: Was unprepared for war being riddled with graft, corruption, and inefficiency. The Navy had few competent officers, the rank and file were poorly trained and most importantly of its vessels were outdated; the army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology as developed by Britain and France . By

16770-493: Was unveiled in the inner court of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. Its sculptor is Zurab Tsereteli , the current president of the Academy that Shuvalov founded. Another commemorative statue was erected in front of the Moscow State University Library in 2004. Nicholas I of Russia Nicholas I (6 July [ O.S. 25 June] 1796 – 2 March [ O.S. 18 February] 1855)

16900-406: Was unwilling to join the anti-French coalition, but Nicholas was successful in cementing existing close ties with Austria and Prussia and the three imperial states regularly held joint military reviews during this time. For much of the 1830s, a sort of "cold war" existed between the liberal "western bloc" of France and Britain vs. the reactionary "eastern bloc" of Austria, Prussia and Russia. After

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