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108-579: Imitation (from Latin imitatio , "a copying, imitation") is a behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of that leads to the "development of traditions , and ultimately our culture . It allows for the transfer of information (behaviors, customs, etc.) between individuals and down generations without the need for genetic inheritance ." The word imitation can be applied in many contexts, ranging from animal training to politics . The term generally refers to conscious behavior; subconscious imitation

216-582: A behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. This can be represented as a behavior vector . Although disagreement exists as to how to precisely define behavior in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that "behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal or external stimuli". A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms,

324-400: A cerebral artery . Other ways in which injury can occur include traumatic brain injuries incurred following accidents, diagnoses such as Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease (which cause dementia symptoms), and frontal lobe epilepsy (which can occur at any age). Very often, frontal lobe damage is recognized in those with prenatal alcohol exposure . Common effects of damage to

432-640: A mortality rate of 7.4 to 17 per cent, earned it a bad reputation. The frontal lobotomy has largely died out as a psychiatric treatment. More precise psychosurgical procedures are still used, although rarely. They may include anterior capsulotomy (bilateral thermal lesions of the anterior limbs of the internal capsule ) or the bilateral cingulotomy (involving lesions of the anterior cingulate gyri ) and might be used to treat otherwise untreatable obsessional disorders or clinical depression . Theories of frontal lobe function can be separated into four categories: Other theories include: It may be highlighted that

540-405: A stimulus is given to replicate. The imitation can match the commands with the visual stimulus (compatible) or it cannot match the commands with the visual stimulus (incompatible). For example: ' Simon Says ', a game played with children where they are told to follow the commands given by the adult. In this game, the adult gives the commands and shows the actions; the commands given can either match

648-409: A Pepsi-drinker is less likely to purchase Coca-Cola, even if it is cheaper and more convenient. This is due to the preference of the consumer, and no matter how hard the opposing company tries they will not be able to force the customer to change their mind. Product placement in the modern era has little influence on consumer behavior, due to the availability of goods online. If a customer can purchase

756-493: A behavior actually occurs, antecedents focus on the stimuli that influence the behavior that is about to happen. After the behavior occurs, consequences fall into place. Consequences consist of rewards or punishments. Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with

864-418: A bowl." They may also imitate the way family members communicate by using the same gestures and words. For example, a toddler will say, "Mommy bye-bye" after the father says, "Mommy went bye-bye." Toddlers love to imitate their parents and help when they can; imitation helps toddlers learn, and through their experiences lasting impressions are made. 12- to 36-month-olds learn by doing, not by watching, and so it

972-507: A broad range of novel (as well as familiar) rules from a very early age. Problems with imitation discriminate children with autism from those with other developmental disorders as early as age 2 and continue into adulthood . Children with autism exhibit significant deficits in imitation that are associated with impairments in other social communication skills. It is unclear whether imitation is mediating these relationships directly, or whether they are due to some other developmental variable that

1080-428: A chimpanzee. He first started with showing the chimpanzee how to retrieve food from a box. The chimpanzee soon caught on and did exactly what the scientist just did. They wanted to see if the chimpanzee's brain functioned just like a human brain, so they replicated the experiment using 16 children, following the same procedure; once the children saw how it was done, they followed the same exact steps. Imitation in animals

1188-467: A consumer is hungry, then this physical feeling of hunger will influence them so that they go and purchase a sandwich to satisfy the hunger. Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behaviour. The process initiates with the identification of a problem, wherein the consumer acknowledges an unsatisfied need or desire. Subsequently, the consumer proceeds to seek information, whereas for low-involvement products,

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1296-555: A crucial role in the development of cognitive and social communication behaviors, such as language, play, and joint attention . Imitation serves as both a learning and a social function because new skills and knowledge are acquired, and communication skills are improved by interacting in social and emotional exchanges. It is shown, however, that "children with autism exhibit significant deficits in imitation that are associated with impairments in other social communication skills." To help children with autism, reciprocal imitation training (RIT)

1404-406: A developmental phase he called the sensorimotor stage (a period which lasts up to the first two years of a child) begin to imitate observed actions. This is an important stage in the development of a child because the child is beginning to think symbolically, associating behaviors with actions, thus setting the child up for the development of further symbolic thinking. Imitative learning also plays

1512-514: A difficult question to scientists on why that is so. There are two types of theories of imitation, transformational and associative . Transformational theories suggest that the information that is required to display certain behavior is created internally through cognitive processes and observing these behaviors provides incentive to duplicate them. Meaning we already have the codes to recreate any behavior and observing it results in its replication. Albert Bandura 's " social cognitive theory "

1620-523: A doll's back. At around 18 months, infants will then begin to imitate simple actions they observe adults doing, such as taking a toy phone out of a purse and saying "hello", pretending to sweep with a child-sized broom, as well as imitating using a toy hammer. At around 30–36 months, toddlers will start to imitate their parents by pretending to get ready for work and school and saying the last word(s) of what an adult just said. For example, toddlers may say "bowl" or "a bowl" after they hear someone say, "That's

1728-403: A focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviorism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioral responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Consumer behavior involves

1836-412: A good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision. In management, behaviors are associated with desired or undesired focuses. Managers generally note what the desired outcome is, but behavioral patterns can take over. These patterns are the reference to how often the desired behavior actually occurs. Before

1944-417: A high matching degree in their movement patterns. Paralleling these studies, comparative psychologists provided tools or apparatuses that could be handled in different ways. Heyes and co-workers reported evidence for imitation in rats that pushed a lever in the same direction as their models, though later on they withdrew their claims due to methodological problems in their original setup. By trying to design

2052-408: A major role on how a toddler interprets the world. Much of a child's understanding is derived from imitation, due to a lack of verbal skill imitation in toddlers for communication. It is what connects them to the communicating world, as they continue to grow they begin to learn more. This may mean that it is crucial for parents to be cautious as to how they act and behave around their toddlers. Imitation

2160-407: A marked volumetric decline in those with Alzheimer's and a much smaller decline (averaging 0.5%) in the healthy group. These findings corroborate those of Coffey, who in 1992 indicated that the frontal lobe decreases in volume approximately 0.5–1% per year. The entirety of the frontal cortex can be considered the "action cortex", much as the posterior cortex is considered the "sensory cortex". It

2268-495: A marketing tool and stand for Price, Promotion, Product, and Placement. Due to the significant impact of business-to-consumer marketing on consumer behavior, the four elements of the marketing mix, known as the 4 P's (product, price, place, and promotion), exert a notable influence on consumer behavior. The price of a good or service is largely determined by the market, as businesses will set their prices to be similar to that of other businesses so as to remain competitive whilst making

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2376-451: A mean age of 36 hours) were tested to see if they were able to imitate a smile, a frown and a pout, and a wide-open mouth and eyes. An observer stood behind the experimenter (so he/she couldn't see what facial expressions were being made by the experimenter) and watched only the babies' facial expressions, recording their results. Just by looking only at the babies' faces, the observer was more often able to correctly guess what facial expression

2484-448: A network of regions in the inferior frontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex which are typically activated during imitation tasks. It has been suggested that these regions contain mirror neurons similar to the mirror neurons recorded in the macaque monkey . However, it is not clear if macaques spontaneously imitate each other in the wild. Neurologist V. S. Ramachandran argues that the evolution of mirror neurons were important in

2592-402: A novel or otherwise improbable act or utterance, or some act for which there is clearly no instinctive tendency." This definition is favored by many scholars, though questions have been raised how strictly the term "novel" has to be interpreted and how exactly a performed act has to match the demonstration to count as a copy. Hayes and Hayes (1952) used the "do-as-I-do" procedure to demonstrate

2700-487: A person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being . Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live. They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints. Positive behaviors help promote health and prevent disease, while the opposite is true for risk behaviors. Health behaviors are early indicators of population health. Because of

2808-572: A predictor of productive language development. Behavior Behavior ( American English ) or behaviour ( British English ) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals , organisms , systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious , overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary . Taking

2916-410: A profit. When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often. Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product, and more often. The way that promotion influences consumer behavior has changed over time. In

3024-724: A role as that of the infant. These writers assume that evolution would have selected imitative abilities as fit because those who were good at it had a wider arsenal of learned behavior at their disposal, including tool-making and language . However, research also suggests that imitative behaviors and other social learning processes are only selected for when outnumbered or accompanied by asocial learning processes: an over-saturation of imitation and imitating individuals leads humans to collectively copy inefficient strategies and evolutionarily maladaptive behaviors, thereby reducing flexibility to new environmental contexts that require adaptation . Research suggests imitative social learning hinders

3132-477: A series of tasks involving 14-month-old infants to imitate actions they perceived from adults. In this gathering he had concluded that the infants, before trying to reproduce the actions they wish to imitate, somehow revealed an understanding of the intended goal even though they failed to replicate the result wished to be imitated. These task implicated that the infants knew the goal intended. Gergely, Bekkering, and Király (2002) figured that infants not only understand

3240-536: A slightly increased risk for schizophrenia . In the early 20th century, a medical treatment for mental illness , first developed by Portuguese neurologist Egas Moniz , involved damaging the pathways connecting the frontal lobe to the limbic system . A frontal lobotomy (sometimes called frontal leucotomy) successfully reduced distress but at the cost of often blunting the subject's emotions, volition and personality . The indiscriminate use of this psychosurgical procedure, combined with its severe side effects and

3348-400: A standard actions-on-objects task was consistent in one longitudinal study testing participants' ability to complete a target action, with high achievers at 9 months remaining so at 16 months. Gestural development at 9 months was also linked to productive language at 16 months. Researchers now believe that early deferred imitation ability is indicative of early declarative memory, also considered

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3456-485: A testing paradigm that is less arbitrary than pushing a lever to the left or to the right, Custance and co-workers introduced the "artificial fruit" paradigm, where a small object could be opened in different ways to retrieve food placed inside—not unlike a hard-shelled fruit. Using this paradigm, scientists reported evidence for imitation in monkeys and apes . There remains a problem with such tool (or apparatus) use studies: what animals might learn in such studies need not be

3564-530: A unified theory of frontal lobe function that fully accounts for the diversity of functions will be available. Many scientists had thought that the frontal lobe was disproportionately enlarged in humans compared to other primates. This was thought to be an important feature of human evolution and seen as the primary reason why human cognition differs from that of other primates. However, this view in relation to great apes has since been challenged by neuroimaging studies. Using magnetic resonance imaging to determine

3672-443: Is a study in the field of social learning where learning behavior is observed in animals specifically how animals learn and adapt through imitation. Ethologists can classify imitation in animals by the learning of certain behaviors from conspecifics . More specifically, these behaviors are usually unique to the species and can be complex in nature and can benefit the individual's survival . Some scientists believe true imitation

3780-420: Is achieved, not just the simple reproduction of exclusive behaviors. Imitation is not a simple reproduction of what one sees; rather it incorporates intention and purpose . Animal imitation can range from survival purpose; imitating as a function of surviving or adapting, to unknown possible curiosity , which vary between different animals and produce different results depending on the measured intelligence of

3888-435: Is also reflected in the measurement of imitation skills. On the contrary, research from the early 21st century suggests that people affected with forms of high-functioning autism easily interact with one another by using a more analytically-centered communication approach rather than an imitative cue-based approach, suggesting that reduced imitative capabilities do not affect abilities for expressive social behavior but only

3996-699: Is devoted to action of one kind or another: skeletal movement, ocular movement, speech control, and the expression of emotions. In humans, the largest part of the frontal cortex, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), is responsible for internal, purposeful mental action, commonly called reasoning or prefrontal synthesis . The function of the PFC involves the ability to project future consequences that result from current actions. PFC functions also include override and suppression of socially unacceptable responses as well as differentiation of tasks. The PFC also plays an important part in integrating longer non-task based memories stored across

4104-510: Is more controversial pertaining gender differences in toddler imitation than psychologist, Bandura's, bobo doll experiments . The goal of the experiment was to see what happens to toddlers when exposed to aggressive and non-aggressive adults, would the toddlers imitate the behavior of the adults and if so, which gender is more likely to imitate the aggressive adult. In the beginning of the experiment Bandura had several predictions that actually came true. Children exposed to violent adults will imitate

4212-633: Is no one simple imitation skill with its own course of development. What changes is the type of behavior imitated. An important agenda for infancy is the progressive imitation of higher levels of use of signs, until the ultimate achievement of symbols. The principal role played by parents in this process is their provision of salient models within the facilitating frames that channel the infant's attention and organize his imitative efforts. Imitation and imitative behaviors do not manifest ubiquitously and evenly in all human individuals; some individuals rely more on imitated information than others. Although imitation

4320-662: Is often recommended to be a good role model and caretaker by showing them simple tasks like putting on socks or holding a spoon. Duke developmental psychologist Carol Eckerman did a study on toddlers imitating toddlers and found that at the age of 2 children involve themselves in imitation play to communicate with one another. This can be seen within a culture or across different cultures. 3 common imitative patterns Eckerman found were reciprocal imitation, follow-the-leader, and lead-follow. Kenneth Kaye 's "apprenticeship" theory of imitation rejected assumptions that other authors had made about its development. His research showed that there

4428-453: Is one example of a transformational theory. Associative , or sometimes referred to as "contiguity", theories suggest that the information required to display certain behaviors does not come from within ourselves but solely from our surroundings and experiences. These theories have not yet provided testable predictions in the field of social learning in animals and have yet to conclude strong results. There have been three major developments in

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4536-453: Is only produced by humans, arguing that simple learning though sight is not enough to sustain as a being who can truly imitate. Thorpe defines true imitation as "the copying of a novel or otherwise improbable act or utterance, or some act for which there is clearly no instinctive tendency," which is highly debated for its portrayal of imitation as a mindless repeating act. True imitation is produced when behavioral, visual and vocal imitation

4644-462: Is partly definitional. Thorndike uses "learning to do an act from seeing it done." It has two major shortcomings: first, by using "seeing" it restricts imitation to the visual domain and excludes, e.g., vocal imitation and, second, it would also include mechanisms such as priming, contagious behavior and social facilitation, which most scientist distinguish as separate forms of observational learning . Thorpe suggested defining imitation as "the copying of

4752-436: Is selective, also known as "selective imitation". Studies have shown that children tend to imitate older, competitive, and trustworthy individuals. Piaget coined the term deferred imitation and suggested that it arises out of the child's increasing ability to "form mental representations of behavior performed by others." Deferred imitation is also "the ability to reproduce a previously witnessed action or sequence of actions in

4860-536: Is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity . It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occur more rapidly, and excluding changes that are a result of development ( ontogeny ). Behaviors can be either innate or learned from the environment. Behaviour can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from

4968-410: Is termed mirroring . In anthropology , some theories hold that all cultures imitate ideas from one of a few original cultures or several cultures whose influence overlaps geographically. Evolutionary diffusion theory holds that cultures influence one another, but that similar ideas can be developed in isolation. Scholars as well as popular authors have argued that the role of imitation in humans

5076-498: Is the "mental activity that helps to formulate the conceptions of the world for toddlers". So it is important for parents to be careful what they say or do in front of their children. Children with autism exhibit significant impairment in imitation skills. Imitation deficits have been reported on a variety of tasks including symbolic and non-symbolic body movements, symbolic and functional object use, vocalizations, and facial expressions. In contrast, typically-developing children can copy

5184-411: Is the toddlers way of confirming and dis-conforming socially acceptable actions in society. Actions like washing dishes, cleaning up the house and doing chores are actions you want your toddlers to imitate. Imitating negative things is something that is never beyond young toddlers. If they are exposed to cursing and violence, it is going to be what the child views as the norm of their world, since imitation

5292-524: Is through consumer willingness to pay, and consumer preferences. This means that even if a company were to have a long history of products in the market, consumers will still pick a cheaper product over the company in question's product if it means they will pay less for something that is very similar. This is due to consumer willingness to pay, or their willingness to part with the money they have earned. The product also influences consumer behavior through customer preferences. For example, take Pepsi vs Coca-Cola,

5400-417: Is unique among animals . However, this claim has been recently challenged by scientific research which observed social learning and imitative abilities in animals . Psychologist Kenneth Kaye showed that the ability of infants to match the sounds or gestures of an adult depends on an interactive process of turn-taking over many successive trials, in which adults' instinctive behavior plays as great

5508-425: Is unnecessary. It is suggested that over-imitation "may be critical to the transmission of human culture." Experiments done by Lyons et al. (2007) has shown that when there are obvious pedagogical cues, children tend to imitate step by step, including many unnecessary steps; without pedagogical cues, children will simply skip those useless steps. However, another study suggests that children do not just "blindly follow

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5616-406: Is used. It is a naturalistic imitation intervention that helps teach the social benefits of imitation during play by increasing child responsiveness and by increasing imitative language. Reinforcement learning , both positive and negative, and punishment , are used by people that children imitate to either promote or discontinue behavior. If a child imitates a certain type of behavior or action and

5724-469: Is very useful when it comes to cognitive learning with toddlers, research has shown that there are some gender and age differences when it comes to imitation. Research done to judge imitation in toddlers 2–3 years old shows that when faced with certain conditions "2-year-olds displayed more motor imitation than 3-year-olds, and 3-year-olds displayed more verbal-reality imitation than 2-year-olds. Boys displayed more motor imitation than girls." No other research

5832-577: Is when extensively studying patients with lesions in these brain areas, he discovered that the patients lost (among other things) the ability to imitate. He was the one who coined the term " apraxia " and differentiated between ideational and ideomotor apraxia. It is in this basic and wider frame of classical neurological knowledge that the discovery of the mirror neuron has to be seen. Though mirror neurons were first discovered in macaques, their discovery also relates to humans. Human brain studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) revealed

5940-443: The animal simply does as it sees. Studies on apes however have proven more advanced results in imitation, being able to remember and learn from what they imitate . Studies have demonstrated far more positive results with behavioral imitation in primates and birds than any other type of animal . Imitation in non- primate mammals and other animals have been proven difficult to conclude solid positive results for and poses

6048-530: The frontal gyrus are the superior frontal gyrus , the middle frontal gyrus , and the inferior frontal gyrus . The inferior frontal gyrus is divided into three parts – the orbital part , the triangular part and the opercular part . The frontal lobe contains most of the dopaminergic neurons in the cerebral cortex . The dopaminergic pathways are associated with reward , attention , short-term memory tasks, planning , and motivation . Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information coming from

6156-429: The intention with self-efficacy from individual's mastery in problem solving and task completion is important to bring about a positive change. Self efficacy is often cemented through standard persuasive techniques. Frontal cortex The frontal lobe is covered by the frontal cortex . The frontal cortex includes the premotor cortex and the primary motor cortex – parts of the motor cortex . The front part of

6264-431: The orbit ; also called basal or ventral ), and medial part. Each of these parts consists of a particular gyrus : The gyri are separated by sulci . E.g., the precentral gyrus is in front of the central sulcus, and behind the precentral sulcus . The superior and middle frontal gyri are divided by the superior frontal sulcus . The middle and inferior frontal gyri are divided by the inferior frontal sulcus . In humans

6372-418: The thalamus to the forebrain . The frontal lobe is the largest lobe of the brain and makes up about a third of the surface area of each hemisphere. On the lateral surface of each hemisphere, the central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe . The frontal lobe can be divided into a lateral, polar, orbital (above

6480-829: The absence of current perceptual support for the action." Instead of copying what is currently occurring, individuals repeat the action or behavior later on. It appears that infants show an improving ability for deferred imitation as they get older, especially by 24 months. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate action sequences after a delay of up to three months, meaning that "they're able to generalize knowledge they have gained from one test environment to another and from one test object to another." A child's deferred imitation ability "to form mental representations of actions occurring in everyday life and their knowledge of communicative gestures" has also been linked to earlier productive language development. Between 9 (preverbal period) and 16 months (verbal period), deferred imitation performance on

6588-649: The acquisition of knowledge in novel environments and in situations where asocial learning is faster and more advantageous. In the mid-20th century, social scientists began to study how and why people imitate ideas. Everett Rogers pioneered innovation diffusion studies, identifying factors in adoption and profiles of adopters of ideas. Imitation mechanisms play a central role in both analytical and empirical models of collective human behavior. Humans are capable of imitating movements, actions, skills , behaviors, gestures, pantomimes, mimics, vocalizations, sounds, speech, etc. and that we have particular "imitation systems" in

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6696-411: The action to be done or it will not match the action. The children who imitate the adult who has given the command with the correct action will stay in the game. The children who imitate the command with the wrong action will go out of the game, and this is where the child's automatic imitation comes into play. Psychologically, the visual stimulus being looked upon by the child is being imitated faster than

6804-447: The actions of others but may decide not to imitate them because they do not analytically understand them. A 2016 study has shown that involuntary, spontaneous facial mimicry – which supposedly depends on the mirror neuron system – is intact in individuals with autism, contrasting with previous studies and suggesting that the mirror neuron system is not inherently broken in autistic individuals. The automatic imitation comes very fast when

6912-514: The actions of that adult when the adult is not present, boys who had observed an adult of the opposite sex act aggressively are less likely to act violently than those who witnessed a male adult act violently. In fact "boys who observed an adult male behaving violently were more influenced than those who had observed a female model behavior aggressively". One observation was that while boys are likely to imitate physical acts of violence, girls are likely to imitate verbal acts of violence. Imitation plays

7020-474: The actual behavior patterns (i.e., the actions) that were observed. Instead they might learn about some effects in the environment (i.e., how the tool moves, or how the apparatus works). This type of observational learning, which focuses on results, not actions, has been dubbed emulation (see Emulation (observational learning) ). In an article written by Carl Zimmer , he looked into a study being done by Derek Lyons, focusing on human evolution, in which he studied

7128-483: The animal. There is considerable evidence to support true imitation in animals . Experiments performed on apes , birds and more specifically the Japanese quail have provided positive results to imitating behavior , demonstrating imitation of opaque behavior . However the problem that lies is in the discrepancies between what is considered true imitation in behavior . Birds have demonstrated visual imitation, where

7236-453: The behavior they have observed from others, regardless of the gender of the person and whether or not the behavior is gender appropriate. However, it has been proven that children will reproduce the behavior that "its society deems appropriate for its sex." Infants have the ability to reveal an understanding of certain outcomes before they occur, therefore in this sense they can somewhat imitate what they have perceived. Andrew N. Meltzoff , ran

7344-439: The brain is old neurological knowledge dating back to Hugo Karl Liepmann . Liepmann's model 1908 " Das hierarchische Modell der Handlungsplanung " (the hierarchical model of action planning) is still valid. On studying the cerebral localization of function, Liepmann postulated that planned or commanded actions were prepared in the parietal lobe of the brain's dominant hemisphere, and also frontally. His most important pioneering work

7452-402: The brain specific parts and neurological systems are activated when humans imitate behaviors and actions of others, discovering a mirror neuron system. This neuron system allows a person to observe and then recreate the actions of others. Mirror neurons are premotor and parietal cells in the macaque brain that fire when the animal performs a goal directed action and when it sees others performing

7560-540: The brain. These are often memories associated with emotions derived from input from the brain's limbic system . The frontal lobe modifies those emotions, generally to fit socially acceptable norms. Psychological tests that measure frontal lobe function include finger tapping (as the frontal lobe controls voluntary movement), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test , and measures of language , numeracy skills , and decision making, all of which are controlled by

7668-587: The choice by eliminating the less appealing products until there is one left. After this has been identified, the consumer will purchase the product. Finally, the consumer will evaluate the purchase decision, and the purchased product, bringing in factors such as value for money, quality of goods, and purchase experience. However, this logical process does not always happen this way, people are emotional and irrational creatures. People make decisions with emotion and then justify them with logic according to Robert Cialdini Ph.D. Psychology. The Marketing mix (4 P's) are

7776-685: The consequences are rewarding, the child is very likely to continue performing the same behavior or action. The behavior "has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened)". However, if the imitation is not accepted and approved by others, then the behavior will be weakened. Naturally, children are surrounded by many different types of people that influence their actions and behaviors, including parents, family members, teachers, peers, and even characters on television programs. These different types of individuals that are observed are called models. According to Saul McLeod, "these models provide examples of masculine and feminine behavior to observe and imitate." Children imitate

7884-429: The crowd" since they can also be just as discriminating as adults in choosing whether an unnecessary action should be copied or not. They may imitate additional but unnecessary steps to a novel process if the adult demonstrations are all the same. However, in cases where one out of four adults showed a better technique, only 40% actually copied the extra step, as described by Evans, Carpenter and others. Children's imitation

7992-407: The expectation that when one gives, one will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of

8100-426: The fact that barriers to action are easily overcome. The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavioral beliefs to increase the readiness to perform a behavior, called intentions . The theory of planned behavior advocates the need to tackle normative beliefs and control beliefs in any attempt to change behavior. Challenging the normative beliefs is not enough but to follow through

8208-609: The field of animal imitation. The first, behavioral ecologists and experimental psychologists found there to be adaptive patterns in behaviors in different vertebrate species in biologically important situations. The second, primatologists and comparative psychologists have found imperative evidence that suggest true learning through imitation in animals. The third, population biologists and behavioral ecologists created experiments that demand animals to depend on social learning in certain manipulated environments . Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget noted that children in

8316-430: The frontal cortex is covered by the prefrontal cortex . The nonprimary motor cortex is a functionally defined portion of the frontal lobe. There are four principal gyri in the frontal lobe. The precentral gyrus is directly anterior to the central sulcus , running parallel to it and contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts. Three horizontally arranged subsections of

8424-573: The frontal cortex. In cultured human neurons, these promoters are selectively damaged by oxidative stress. Individuals with HIV associated neurocognitive disorders accumulate nuclear and mitochondrial DNA damage in the frontal cortex. A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant of (COMT) that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory, tasks, and to

8532-413: The frontal lobe are varied. Patients who have experienced frontal lobe trauma may know the appropriate response to a situation but display inappropriate responses to those same situations in "real life". Similarly, emotions that are felt may not be expressed in the face or voice. For example, someone who is feeling happy would not smile, and the voice would be devoid of emotion. Along the same lines, though,

8640-587: The frontal lobe reaches full maturity only after the 20s—the prefrontal cortex, in particular, continues in maturing till the second and third decades of life —which, thereafter, marks the cognitive maturity associated with adulthood. A small amount of atrophy , however, is normal in the aging person's frontal lobe. Fjell, in 2009, studied atrophy of the brain in people aged 60–91 years. The 142 healthy participants were scanned using MRI . Their results were compared to those of 122 participants with Alzheimer's disease . A follow-up one year later showed there to have been

8748-431: The frontal lobe, and was exemplified in the case of Phineas Gage . The frontal lobe is the same part of the brain that is responsible for executive functions such as planning for the future, judgment, decision-making skills, attention span , and inhibition. These functions can decrease drastically in someone whose frontal lobe is damaged. Consequences that are seen less frequently are also varied. Confabulation may be

8856-412: The frontal lobe. In the human frontal cortex, a set of genes undergo reduced expression after age 40 and especially after age 70. This set includes genes that have key functions in synaptic plasticity important in learning and memory, vesicular transport and mitochondrial function . During aging , DNA damage is markedly increased in the promoters of the genes displaying reduced expression in

8964-411: The frontal lobe. Damage to the frontal lobe can occur in a number of ways and result in many different consequences. Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) also known as mini-strokes, and strokes are common causes of frontal lobe damage in older adults (65 and over). These strokes and mini-strokes can occur due to the blockage of blood flow to the brain or as a result of the rupturing of an aneurysm in

9072-441: The frontal mirror neuron system area when observing or imitating facial emotional expressions . Of course, the higher the severity of the disease, the lower the activity in the mirror neuron system is. Scientists debate whether animals can consciously imitate the unconscious incitement from sentinel animals, whether imitation is uniquely human, or whether humans do a complex version of what other animals do. The current controversy

9180-597: The human acquisition of complex skills such as language and believes the discovery of mirror neurons to be a most important advance in neuroscience . However, little evidence directly supports the theory that mirror neuron activity is involved in cognitive functions such as empathy or learning by imitation. Evidence is accumulating that bottlenose dolphins employ imitation to learn hunting and other skills from other dolphins. Japanese monkeys have been seen to spontaneously begin washing potatoes after seeing humans washing them. Research has been conducted to locate where in

9288-446: The imitation of the command. In addition, the response times were faster in compatible scenarios than in incompatible scenarios. Children are surrounded by many different people, day by day. Their parents make a big impact on them, and usually what the children do is what they have seen their parent do. In this article they found that a child, simply watching its mother sweep the floor, right after soon picks up on it and starts to imitate

9396-453: The imitative abilities of their trained chimpanzee "Viki." Their study was repeatedly criticized for its subjective interpretations of their subjects' responses. Replications of this study found much lower matching degrees between subjects and models. However, imitation research focusing on the copying fidelity got new momentum from a study by Voelkl and Huber. They analyzed the motion trajectories of both model and observer monkeys and found

9504-560: The intended goal but also the intentions of the person they were trying to imitate engaging in "rational imitation", as described by Tomasello , Carpenter and others It has long been claimed that newborn humans imitate bodily gestures and facial expressions as soon as their first few days of life. For example, in a study conducted at the Mailman Centre for Child Development at the University of Miami Medical School, 74 newborn babies (with

9612-660: The largest-ever longitudinal study of neonatal imitation in humans. One hundred and nine newborns were shown a variety of gestures including tongue protrusion, mouth opening, happy and sad facial expressions, at four time points between one week and 9 weeks of age. The results failed to reveal compelling evidence that newborns imitate: Infants were just as likely to produce matching and non-matching gestures in response to what they saw. At around eight months, infants will start to copy their child care providers' movements when playing pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo , as well as imitating familiar gestures, such as clapping hands together or patting

9720-401: The location in which they currently reside is a replica of one located somewhere else. Similarly, those who experience Capgras syndrome after frontal lobe damage believe that an identical "replacement" has taken the identity of a close friend, relative, or other person and is posing as that person. This last effect is seen mostly in schizophrenic patients who also have a neurological disorder in

9828-434: The most frequently indicated "less common" effect. In the case of confabulation, someone gives false information while maintaining the belief that it is the truth. In a small number of patients, uncharacteristic cheerfulness can be noted. This effect is seen mostly in patients with lesions to the right frontal portion of the brain. Another infrequent effect is that of reduplicative paramnesia , in which patients believe that

9936-429: The mother by sweeping the floor. By the children imitating, they are really teaching themselves how to do things without instruction from the parent or guardian. Toddlers love to play the game of house. They picked up on this game of house by television, school or at home; they play the game how they see it. The kids imitate their parents or anybody in their family. In the article it says it is so easy for them to pick up on

10044-406: The needs of each individual in an ethical and respected manner. Health belief model encourages increasing individuals' perceived susceptibility to negative health outcomes and making individuals aware of the severity of such negative health behavior outcomes. E.g. through health promotion messages. In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and

10152-606: The onset of chronic disease and extending active lifespan. Smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, gaps in primary care services and low screening uptake are all significant determinants of poor health, and changing such behaviors should lead to improved health. For example, in US, Healthy People 2000, United States Department of Health and Human Services , lists increased physical activity, changes in nutrition and reductions in tobacco, alcohol and drug use as important for health promotion and disease prevention. Any interventions done are matched with

10260-438: The organism to the environment. The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior. Complexity in the behavior of an organism may be correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with

10368-619: The past, large promotional campaigns and heavy advertising would convert into sales for a business, but nowadays businesses can have success on products with little or no advertising. This is due to the Internet and in particular social media. They rely on word of mouth from consumers using social media, and as products trend online, so sales increase as products effectively promote themselves. Thus, promotion by businesses does not necessarily result in consumer behavior trending towards purchasing products. The way that product influences consumer behavior

10476-409: The person may also exhibit excessive, unwarranted displays of emotion. Depression is common in stroke patients. Also common is a loss of or decrease in motivation. Someone might not want to carry out normal daily activities and would not feel "up to it". Those who are close to the person who has experienced the damage may notice changes in behavior. This personality change is characteristic of damage to

10584-493: The person, and the situation they are in. Behavior informatics also called behavior computing , explores behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives. Different from applied behavior analysis from the psychological perspective, BI builds computational theories, systems and tools to qualitatively and quantitatively model, represent, analyze, and manage behaviors of individuals, groups and/or organizations. Health behavior refers to

10692-475: The processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services. It has to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services. Consumers recognize needs or wants, and go through a process to satisfy these needs. Consumer behavior is the process they go through as customers, which includes types of products purchased, amount spent, frequency of purchases and what influences them to make

10800-504: The purchase decision or not. Circumstances that influence consumer behaviour are varied, with contributions from both internal and external factors. Internal factors include attitudes, needs, motives, preferences and perceptual processes, whilst external factors include marketing activities, social and economic factors, and cultural aspects. Doctor Lars Perner of the University of Southern California claims that there are also physical factors that influence consumer behavior, for example, if

10908-403: The same action." Evidence suggests that the mirror neuron system also allows people to comprehend and understand the intentions and emotions of others. Problems of the mirror neuron system may be correlated with the social inadequacies of autism . There have been many studies done showing that children with autism, compared with typically-developing children, demonstrate reduced activity in

11016-413: The search tends to rely on internal resources, retrieving alternatives from memory. Conversely, for high-involvement products, the search is typically more extensive, involving activities like reviewing reports, reading reviews, or seeking recommendations from friends. The consumer will then evaluate his or her alternatives, comparing price, and quality, doing trade-offs between products, and narrowing down

11124-399: The theories described above differ in their focus on certain processes/systems or construct-lets. Stuss (1999) remarks that the question of homogeneity (single construct) or heterogeneity (multiple processes/systems) of function "may represent a problem of semantics and/or incomplete functional analysis rather than an unresolvable dichotomy" (p. 348). However, further research will show if

11232-430: The things they see on an everyday basis. Over-imitation is "the tendency of young children to copy all of an adult model's actions, even components that are irrelevant for the task at hand." According to this human and cross-cultural phenomenon, a child has a strong tendency to automatically encode the deliberate action of an adult as causally meaningful even when the child observes evidence that proves that its performance

11340-629: The time lag that often occurs between certain behaviors and the development of disease, these indicators may foreshadow the future burdens and benefits of health-risk and health-promoting behaviors. A variety of studies have examined the relationship between health behaviors and health outcomes (e.g., Blaxter 1990) and have demonstrated their role in both morbidity and mortality. These studies have identified seven features of lifestyle which were associated with lower morbidity and higher subsequent long-term survival (Belloc and Breslow 1972): Health behaviors impact upon individuals' quality of life, by delaying

11448-543: The understanding of said social behavior. Social communication is not negatively affected when said communication involves less or no imitation. Children with autism may have significant problems understanding typical social communication not because of inherent social deficits, but because of differences in communication style which affect reciprocal understanding. Autistic individuals are also shown to possess increased analytical , cognitive , and visual processing , suggesting that they have no true impairments in observing

11556-422: The volume of the frontal cortex in humans, all extant ape species, and several monkey species, it was found that the human frontal cortex was not relatively larger than the cortex of other great apes , but was relatively larger than the frontal cortex of lesser apes and the monkeys. The higher cognition of the humans is instead seen to relate to a greater connectedness given by neural tracts that do not affect

11664-495: Was being presented to the child by the experimenter. After the results were calculated, "the researchers concluded that...babies have an innate ability to compare an expression they see with their own sense of muscular feedback from making the movements to match that expression." However, the idea that imitation is an inborn ability has been recently challenged. A research group from the University of Queensland in Australia carried out

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