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52-452: The airframe, constructed of aluminium alloy with steel used in highly stressed parts, resembled a large Il-28 , the long fuselage having swept tail surfaces, and a similar arrangement of cockpits for the crew of pilot, navigator and rear gunner. The wing, which had moderate taper but straight leading edges , copied the layout of the Il-28, being mounted in the shoulder position at the midpoint of

104-444: A "CO/ALR" coding. Another way to forestall the heating problem is to crimp the short " pigtail " of copper wire. A properly done high-pressure crimp by the proper tool is tight enough to reduce any thermal expansion of the aluminium. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium terminations. Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems. Wrought aluminium

156-551: A number system ( ANSI ) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ( DIN and ISO ). Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its tensile strength , density , ductility , formability, workability, weldability , and corrosion resistance, to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight ratio . Pure aluminium

208-420: A one to three digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are: -F  : As fabricated -H  : Strain hardened (cold worked) with or without thermal treatment -O  : Full soft (annealed) -T  : Heat treated to produce stable tempers -W  : Solution heat treated only Note: -W is a relatively soft intermediary designation that applies after heat treat and before aging

260-415: A regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region; in fact the extremely high thermal conductivity of aluminium prevented the throat from reaching the melting point even under massive heat flux, resulting in a reliable, lightweight component. Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared with copper in the 1960s, aluminium

312-470: A steel part of identical size and shape. With completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing technology. Extrusions are particularly important in this regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al-Mg-Si series, can be extruded to form complex profiles. In general, stiffer and lighter designs can be achieved with aluminium alloy than

364-452: A wet environment, galvanic corrosion can occur when an aluminium alloy is placed in electrical contact with other metals with more positive corrosion potentials than aluminium, and an electrolyte is present that allows ion exchange. Also referred to as dissimilar-metal corrosion, this process can occur as exfoliation or as intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be improperly heat treated, causing internal element separation which corrodes

416-520: Is a trade association for the aluminum production, fabrication and recycling industries, and their suppliers. The Association is a 501(c)(6) non-profit organization based in Arlington, Virginia , United States. (The Association was based in Washington, D.C. until c.  2005 .) Pursuant to seven ANSI H35 standards, The Aluminum Association registers and publishes specifications describing

468-468: Is a major concern. Such crossover aluminium alloys can be hardened via precipitation of a chemical complex phase known as T-phase in which the radiation resistance has been proved to be superior than other hardening phases of conventional aluminium alloys. The following aluminium alloys are commonly used in aircraft and other aerospace structures: Note that the term aircraft aluminium or aerospace aluminium usually refers to 7075. 4047 aluminium

520-407: Is a unique alloy used in both the aerospace and automotive applications as a cladding alloy or filler material. As filler, aluminium alloy 4047 strips can be combined to intricate applications to bond two metals. 6951 is a heat treatable alloy providing additional strength to the fins while increasing sag resistance; this allows the manufacturer to reduce the gauge of the sheet and therefore reducing

572-407: Is completed. The -W condition can be extended at extremely low temperatures but not indefinitely and depending on the material will typically last no longer than 15 minutes at ambient temperatures. The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each alloy is given a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements,

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624-522: Is feasible with steels. For instance, consider the bending of a thin-walled tube: the second moment of area is inversely related to the stress in the tube wall, i.e. stresses are lower for larger values. The second moment of area is proportional to the cube of the radius times the wall thickness, thus increasing the radius (and weight) by 26% will lead to a halving of the wall stress. For this reason, bicycle frames made of aluminium alloys make use of larger tube diameters than steel or titanium in order to yield

676-414: Is identified with a four digit number which identifies the alloying elements. Cast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal point. The digit in the hundreds place indicates the alloying elements, while the digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot). The temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially

728-813: Is in aluminium–scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% (by weight) of scandium. They were used in the Russian military aircraft MiG-21 and MiG-29 . Some items of sports equipment, which rely on high performance materials, have been made with scandium–aluminium alloys, including baseball bats , lacrosse sticks, as well as bicycle frames and components, and tent poles. U.S. gunmaker Smith & Wesson produces revolvers with frames composed of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium. Due to its light-weight and high strength, aluminium alloys are desired materials to be applied in spacecraft, satellites and other components to be deployed in space. However, this application

780-475: Is limited by the energetic particle irradiation emitted by the Sun . The impact and deposition of solar energetic particles within the microstructure of conventional aluminium alloys can induce the dissolution of most common hardening phases, leading to softening. The recently introduced crossover aluminium alloys are being tested as a surrogate to 6xxx and 7xxx series in environments where energetic particle irradiation

832-419: Is much too soft for such uses, and it does not have the high tensile strength that is needed for building airplanes and helicopters . Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa , which is about one-third of the elastic modulus of steel alloys . Therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater deformation in the elastic regime than

884-562: Is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads. An important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their lower fatigue strength compared to steel. In controlled laboratory conditions, steels display a fatigue limit , which is the stress amplitude below which no failures occur – the metal does not continue to weaken with extended stress cycles. Aluminium alloys do not have this lower fatigue limit and will continue to weaken with continued stress cycles. Aluminium alloys are therefore sparsely used in parts that require high fatigue strength in

936-481: Is required. Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been very important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal-skinned aircraft. Aluminium–magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and much less flammable than other alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will develop a white, protective layer of aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures. In

988-568: The Environmental Protection Agency and the aluminum industry, has since succeeded in achieving dramatic reductions in perfluorocarbon (PFCs) gas emissions. The VAIP represented 18 of the 19 American aluminum smelters and represented 98% of total aluminum smelting in the U.S. The program reduced PFC emission by 77% over 14 years. In 2002, the Environmental Protection Agency awarded its Climate Change Award to

1040-759: The Accredited Standards Committee H35 - Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, which is an ANSI accredited standards committee. Aluminum Association (AA) standards are promulgated by the Technical Committee on Product Standards. In addition to registering alloy compositions and designations, the TCPS also registers alloy-temper product standards. Most industry product standards for aluminum mill products are published in Aluminum Standards and Data , available in both customary and metric editions. Similarly,

1092-572: The Aluminum Association for this program. The Aluminum Association today carries out its role in promoting aluminum via a diverse set of activities: developing technical standards and data, collecting and publishing industry statistics, promoting plant safety and health, and monitoring and promoting technological developments that advance the metal's use across a range of applications. United States' aluminum industry standards, which are voluntary, have been developed and continue to evolve to meet

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1144-665: The Aluminum Industry on a reorganized basis. The Association was reorganized and renamed "The Aluminum Association," and its first official meeting was held in October 1935 in New York City . The Association defined its purpose as promoting the general welfare of the aluminum industry and its members. Through the end of the 1930s, the Association would focus on expanding the uses of aluminum. Its first formal program in market expansion

1196-622: The Association of Manufacturers in the Aluminum Industry. Members of the Association included the Aluminum Company of America ( Alcoa ) (Arthur Vining Davis), Reynolds Metals Company (Walter Hunt), and United Smelting & Aluminum (Milton Rosenthal). After the Act was repealed in May 1934, these industry leaders convened a special meeting in June, ultimately deciding to continue the Association of Manufacturers in

1248-622: The Association publishes the Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings , which provides engineering and metallurgical standards for casting alloys in metric and U.S. units of measurements. Aluminum Association designations and product standards information are used throughout all facets of aluminum commerce, as well as in other organizations’ codes and standards. Aluminum alloy and temper designations, chemical composition limits and registered properties in North America all originate from

1300-505: The above system of ANSI and AA standards. These standards are also the basis for several international agreements for the worldwide producer registration of wrought alloys, unalloyed aluminum, and aluminum hardeners (aluminum alloy materials and grain refiners). The Aluminum Association's Sustainability Initiative, launched in April 2008, promotes increased recycling, energy-efficient product applications, and increased operating efficiency. Among

1352-582: The categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils and extrusions . Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys. The most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al–Si , where the high levels of silicon (4–13%) contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance

1404-647: The composition, mechanical properties and nomenclature of aluminum alloys in the United States. These alloys are identified by the abbreviation "AA", for example AA 6061-T6. In 1933, Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), a New Deal measure requesting each industry to establish codes and guidelines of fair competition. Representatives of 13 aluminum companies met in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to set up these codes and formed

1456-523: The demand for technical data on aluminum grew, the Technical Committee was created. In the mid-50s this committee produced the precursor to the Aluminum Standards and Data . A promotional symbol—the "Mark of Aluminum"—was developed by the Public Relations Committee in the early 1960s. The marks, which proclaimed aluminum as variously "lightweight", "durable", "versatile", and "rust-free", would appear on thousands of consumer products to proclaim

1508-436: The desired stiffness and strength. In automotive engineering, cars made of aluminium alloys employ space frames made of extruded profiles to ensure rigidity. This represents a radical change from the common approach for current steel car design, which depend on the body shells for stiffness, known as unibody design. Aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines, particularly in engine blocks and crankcases due to

1560-589: The end of the decade, the Association would announce that the aluminum industry had met and surpassed its energy conservation goal almost two years ahead of schedule. The industry had reduced the amount of energy required to make a pound of aluminum by 10.77 percent compared with the base year of 1972. As the 20th century came to a close, the Association and its members would take an increasingly active and leading role in pursuing energy efficiency and emission reductions in our primary operations. The Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership,(VAIP) launched in 1995 between

1612-481: The fuselage. The flying controls consisted of the usual ailerons, elevators and rudder, all fitted with trim tabs for reducing loads on the pilots controls during flight in steady states, as well as "reversible" hydraulically-powered actuators. Two Lyul'ka AL-5 engines were fitted in long nacelles forward of the wings, exhausting through long jetpipes at the rear of the nacelles, aft of the wing trailing edge . The engines were mounted in this fashion to make room for

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1664-401: The high cycle regime (more than 10 stress cycles). Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used can reverse or remove the effects of heat treatment. No visual signs reveal how

1716-452: The highest strength of non-heat-treated alloys. Most 5000 series alloys include manganese as well. 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon. They are easy to machine, are weldable , and can be precipitation hardened, but not to the high strengths that 2000 and 7000 can reach. 6061 alloy is one of the most commonly used general-purpose aluminium alloys. 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to

1768-454: The highest strengths of any aluminium alloy. Most 7000 series alloys include magnesium and copper as well. 8000 series are alloyed with other elements which are not covered by other series. Aluminium–lithium alloys are an example. The Aluminum Association (AA) has adopted a nomenclature similar to that of wrought alloys. British Standard and DIN have different designations. In the AA system,

1820-552: The industry on government boards, and providing statistical information to the industry and the general public. During the course of the war, the aluminum industry would design and build 52 new aluminum production and fabrication plants for the U.S. government and add on to 37 existing plants. After the war, the government-owned aluminum plants were offered to bidders under the Surplus Property Act of 1944. The sale of these plants would help create Kaiser Aluminum and expand

1872-461: The late 1940s, the Aluminum Association would recommence fulfilling its original purpose to promote the general welfare of the industry. In doing so, it instituted a number of projects, including: The 1950s were a period of great expansion for the aluminum industry in the building, transportation, household products, electrical, and packaging markets. The public relations program of the time promoted aluminum as “The Modern Metal for Modern Uses.” As

1924-596: The material is internally damaged. Much like welding heat treated, high strength link chain, all strength is now lost by heat of the torch. The chain is dangerous and must be discarded. Aluminium is subject to internal stresses and strains. Sometimes years later, improperly welded aluminium bicycle frames may gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses of the welding process. Thus, the aerospace industry avoids heat altogether by joining parts with rivets of like metal composition, other fasteners, or adhesives. Stresses in overheated aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating

1976-512: The metal from the inside out. Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association . Many organizations publish more specific standards for the manufacture of aluminium alloy, including the SAE International standards organization, specifically its aerospace standards subgroups, and ASTM International . Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by

2028-542: The most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs. 3000 series are alloyed with manganese , and can be work hardened . 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. Variations of aluminium–silicon alloys intended for casting (and therefore not included in 4000 series) are also known as silumin . 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, and offer superb corrosion resistance, making them suitable for marine applications. 5083 alloy has

2080-481: The need for a communication system to facilitate aluminum commerce. The structure for this communication system is defined by a group of six American National Standards, which include the authorization for The Aluminum Association to administer the registration of chemical composition limits and mechanical properties of cast and wrought aluminum alloys, with the accompanying assignment of alloy and temper designations. The ANS H35 standards are developed under approval by

2132-552: The operations of Reynolds Aluminum. Both companies joined Alcoa as major primary aluminum producers. After the war, the Association, now with three principal divisions represented 36 companies, including all three primary producers and companies whose output represented 85 percent of the total amount of the nation's aluminum fabricated products. The three divisions were sheet, extrusion and foundry, with sheet being production of large flat aluminum pieces, extrusion being shaped profiles, and foundry being metal casting production. By

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2184-639: The parts in an oven and gradually cooling it—in effect annealing the stresses. Yet these parts may still become distorted, so that heat-treating of welded bicycle frames, for instance, can result in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe, the cooled parts may be bent into alignment. If the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), that bending will require enormous force. Aluminium's intolerance to high temperatures has not precluded its use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The RM-81 Agena upper stage engine used

2236-587: The rear fuselage. Performance was also improved when Lyulka AL-5F (forseerovannyy - afterburning) engines were fitted. Flight tests and state acceptance trials were successful, with the Il-46 meeting all requirements. Production was not ordered because the Tupolev Tu-88 proved to have better performance, and was ordered into production as the Tu-16 . The Il-46S swept-wing version was designed concurrently, but construction

2288-450: The retracted main undercarriage legs, two on each side attached to the engine nacelles under the wings. The paired main undercarriage legs, side by side, retracted in opposite directions, inboard forwards and outboard rearwards, with the single mainwheels rotating 90 degrees to lie flat under the long jetpipes of the AL-5 engines. To boost takeoff performance, two JATO bottles could be attached to

2340-442: The second two digits reveal the minimum percentage of aluminium, e.g. 150.x correspond to a minimum of 99.50% aluminium. The digit after the decimal point takes a value of 0 or 1, denoting casting and ingot respectively. The main alloying elements in the AA system are as follows: Titanium alloys , which are stronger but heavier than Al-Sc alloys, are still much more widely used. The main application of metallic scandium by weight

2392-668: The second — if different from 0 — indicates a variation of the alloy, and the third and fourth digits identify the specific alloy in the series. For example, in alloy 3105, the number 3 indicates the alloy is in the manganese series, 1 indicates the first modification of alloy 3005, and finally 05 identifies it in the 3000 series. 1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and can be work hardened . Not an International Alloy Designation System name 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel. Formerly referred to as duralumin , they were once

2444-435: The special attributes of aluminum. The early 1970s saw the rise of the environmental movement . The industry would become heavily involved in establishing the nation's aluminum can recycling infrastructure. The Association also established new committees in energy and recycling. In 1977, the Association would move its headquarters from New York to Washington, D.C. The Government Relations Committee formed that same year. By

2496-1144: The weight of the formed fin. These distinctive features make aluminium alloy 6951 one of the preferred alloys for heat transfer and heat exchangers manufactured for aerospace applications. 6063 aluminium alloys are heat treatable with moderately high strength, excellent corrosion resistance and good extrudability. They are regularly used as architectural and structural members. The following list of aluminium alloys are currently produced, but less widely used: These alloys are used for boat building and shipbuilding, and other marine and salt-water sensitive shore applications. 4043, 5183, 6005A, 6082 also used in marine constructions and off shore applications. 6111 aluminium and 2008 aluminium alloy are extensively used for external automotive body panels , with 5083 and 5754 used for inner body panels. Bonnets have been manufactured from 2036 , 6016 , and 6111 alloys. Truck and trailer body panels have used 5456 aluminium . Automobile frames often use 5182 aluminium or 5754 aluminium formed sheets, 6061 or 6063 extrusions. The Aluminum Association The Aluminum Association

2548-496: The weight savings that are possible. Since aluminium alloys are susceptible to warping at elevated temperatures, the cooling system of such engines is critical. Manufacturing techniques and metallurgical advancements have also been instrumental for the successful application in automotive engines. In the 1960s, the aluminium cylinder heads of the Chevrolet Corvair earned a reputation for failure and stripping of threads , which

2600-407: Was a technical report called, “ Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum Cylinder Heads ,” which was distributed to engineers, automobile dealers, and repair shops. With the onset of World War II , and aluminum's designation as a strategic material , the Association would serve as a central conduit for information relating to aluminum's use in the war effort—disseminating government material, representing

2652-579: Was introduced at that time for household electrical wiring in North America, even though many fixtures had not been designed to accept aluminium wire. But the new use brought some problems: All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in some fires. Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes, in new construction. Yet newer fixtures eventually were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were marked "Al/Cu", but they now bear

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2704-702: Was not started, to ensure that resources were not diverted from the Il-46 . Data from OKB Ilyushin General characteristics Performance Armament Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Aluminium alloy An aluminium alloy ( UK / IUPAC ) or aluminum alloy ( NA ; see spelling differences ) is an alloy in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper , magnesium , manganese , silicon , tin , nickel and zinc . There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into

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