92-583: The Igbesanmwan is a hereditary guild of ivory carvers in the Benin Kingdom , a pre-colonial African state located in present-day Edo State , Nigeria . Members of the Igbesanmwan guild hold the responsibility of crafting ivory items, including masks, tusks, staffs, leopards, and various other symbols denoting royal authority and eminence, for the Oba (king) and the royal court. In addition to their ivory craftsmanship,
184-400: A construction date of 1450–1500. It has been estimated that, assuming a ten-hour work day, a labour force of 5,000 men could have completed the walls within 97 days, or by 2,421 men in 200 days. However, these estimates have been criticized for not taking into account the time it would have taken to extract earth from an ever deepening hole and the time it would have taken to heap the earth into
276-509: A crucial role in his victory over his brother in a 16th-century civil war. The Igbesanmwan craft ivory tusks that feature scenes from the history, mythology, and cosmology of the Benin Kingdom. These tusks are typically mounted on wooden or brass stands and placed on either side of the Oba's throne or in his palace. They also serve as gifts or tribute to other rulers or allies. The tusks are carved in
368-690: A decline in patronage and diminished prestige. Colonial policies aimed at discouraging traditional art forms and promoting Western education and Christianity further weakened the Igbesanmwan guild. Nevertheless, the Igbesanmwan guild exhibited resilience, adapting to the changing times. Some Igbesanmwan carvers persevered in their craft, passing it on to their descendants. Others diversified into alternative forms of art or sought various occupations. A segment of Igbesanmwan carvers actively participated in nationalist movements advocating for Nigeria's independence from British colonial rule in 1960. Post-independence, certain Igbesanmwan carvers reestablished connections with
460-571: A high bank. It is unknown whether slavery or some other type of labour was used in the construction of the walls. The walls were built of a ditch and dike structure; the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart. The Benin Walls were partially demolished by the British in 1897 during their 1897 punitive expedition . Scattered pieces of the structure remain in Edo, with
552-534: A key role in developing and preserving the Benin Kingdom's artistic heritage and identity. Their ivory art is widely recognised for its quality, diversity, originality, and sophistication, making it a notable example of African art. This artistic tradition has also left its mark on and served as a source of inspiration for other artists and cultures, including the Yoruba, Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French. Additionally, scholars, collectors, museums, and tourists from around
644-477: A major calamity or national disaster was also an occasion for sacrifices. Humans were sacrificed in an annual ritual in honour of the god of iron, where warriors from Benin City would perform an acrobatic dance while suspended from the trees. The ritual recalled a mythical war against the sky. Sacrifices of a man, a woman, a goat, a cow and a ram were also made to a god called "the king of death". The god, named Ogiuwu,
736-405: A multicolored striped fabric. There are options with other patterns. The choice of headdress depends on the preferences of a man. Some men even prefer to wear black hats as part of their traditional attire. It is also popular to choose a carved walking stick that makes a groom look like a true gentleman. Wearing a wrapper around the waist is also a tradition for many men. The cultural attire
828-416: A profound setback when the British invaded and pillaged the Benin Kingdom, resulting in the destruction of numerous cultural and historical monuments. The British also confiscated a multitude of ivory objects from the royal palace, subsequently selling them to museums and collectors worldwide. Tragically, many Igbesanmwan carvers lost their lives or were exiled during the invasion, while survivors contended with
920-437: A range of symbols to convey their identity and values. These symbols are integrated into their ivory objects to communicate meanings or messages to viewers or users. They also utilise symbols on their bodies or clothing to indicate their status or affiliations. Some of the key symbols used by the Igbesanmwan are: The Igbesanmwan guild has made an impact on the history and culture of the Benin Kingdom and beyond. They have played
1012-551: A reply from the Foreign Office to his request where he stated that: F.O. 2/I02, Phillips to F.O. no. 105 of i6 Nov 1896. Phillips wrote that 'there is nothing in the shape of a standing army. ... and the inhabitants appear to be if not a peace-loving at any rate a most unwarlike people whose only exploits during many generations had been an occasional quarrel with their neighbours about trade or slave raiding and it appears at least improbable that they have any arms to speak of except
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#17328588386601104-494: A significant role within the political and social structure of the Benin Kingdom. They were esteemed members of the Uzama (kingmakers) and occupied seats in the Ogiso (council of elders). The Igbesanmwan guild was further involved in trade and diplomacy, accompanying the Oba during his travels and presenting ivory gifts to foreign rulers and dignitaries. In 1897, the Igbesanmwan guild faced
1196-473: A specialized unit of the Benin army. Archers and crossbowmen were trained in target and field archery . In 1514 or 1516, the Oba of Benin seized a Portuguese bombard for use. Benin's tactics were well organized, with preliminary plans weighed by the Oba and his sub-commanders. Logistics were organized to support missions from the usual porter forces, water transport via canoe, and requisitioning from localities
1288-483: A spiral manner, with each section representing a different theme or story. Ivory staffs carved by the Igbesanmwan symbolise the Oba's power and prestige. These staffs are held by the Oba or his officials during processions or ceremonies, including coronations and funerals. They can also serve as tools or weapons during times of both war and peace. The staffs are adorned with various motifs and figures, including animals, plants, humans, or deities. Ivory leopards crafted by
1380-503: A strict code of conduct governing member behaviour and ethics. This includes showing respect to the Oba and elders, maintaining loyalty and discretion, avoiding plagiarism and rivalry, and paying homage to ancestors and deities. The Igbesanmwan guild specialises in ivory art that reflects various aspects of the history, culture, and religion of the Benin Kingdom. They craft ivory objects for a range of purposes, including masks, tusks, staff, leopards, and other objects. Ivory masks created by
1472-568: A vague clause about ensuring "the general progress of civilization". A British delegation departed from the Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1897 with the stated aim of negotiating with the Oba of Benin regarding the trade agreement, which they felt he was not keeping. The leader of the delegation, James Robert Phillips , had asked his superiors in the British Foreign Office for permission to lead an armed British expedition to depose
1564-448: A variety of spiritual forces that have an impact on their lives and craftsmanship. They offer reverence to the Olokun , the deity of the sea and the patron of ivory carvers. They also show devotion to other gods and goddesses, including Osanobua , the supreme creator; Ogun , the god of iron and war; Orunmila , the god of wisdom and divination; Oshun , the goddess of love and beauty; and Esu,
1656-426: A very high bulwark, very thick of earth, with a very deep broad ditch, but it was dry, and full of high trees... That gate is a reasonable good gate, made of wood in their manner, which is to be shut, and there always there is watch holden. Estimates for the initial construction of the walls range from the first millennium to the mid-fifteenth century. According to Connah, oral tradition and travelers' accounts suggest
1748-418: A very rich and flamboyant traditional fashion style. This is usually prominent during ceremonies such as weddings, coronation and the liked. When it comes to cultural attire, the Edo people maintain a unique way of dressing. Coral bead accessories are a true passion for Edo women and men. Common includes coral beads , anklets , raffia work and so on. The men usually wear a white T-shirt or shirt and above it,
1840-473: A workforce of 1,000 laborers working ten hours a day, seven days a week. Ewuare also added great thoroughfares and erected nine fortified gateways. Excavations at Benin City have revealed that it was already flourishing around 1200–1300 CE. In 1440, Oba Ewuare , also known as Ewuare the Great, came to power and expanded the borders of the former city-state. It was only at this time that the administrative centre of
1932-481: Is 80 leagues [ sic ] long by 40 leagues [ sic ] broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper manillas. Another description given around 1600, one hundred years after Pereira's description, is by the Dutch explorer Dierick Ruiters. Pereira's account of the walls is as follows: This city is about a league long from gate to gate; it has no wall but
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#17328588386602024-399: Is a Portuguese corruption, ultimately from the word "Ubini", which came into use during the reign of Oba (ruler) Ewuare , c. 1440. "Ubini" is an Edo word meaning "livable", used by Pa Idu, the progenitor of the Edo people, to describe the area found as a livable locale during their sojourn from lower Egypt. Ubini was later corrupted to Benin by the mixed ethnicities living together at
2116-615: Is believed to be present everywhere and at all times. Traditional Edo art consists of widely identifiable sculptures, plaques and masks which reflect various spiritual and historical aspects of their cultural traditions. Some of the notable Edo art pieces include the mask of the Queen Mother Idia and a vast collection of historical Edo art pieces called the Benin Bronzes which can be found not only in Nigeria but further dispersed around
2208-505: Is inconsistent with the perception of Phillips as a man of peace in January 1897. Igbafe posits that Phillips was going on a reconnaissance mission and that Phillips' haste to Benin can be explained by a belief that nothing bad would happen to him or his party. The expeditionary force also took the palace art as war booty. The looted portrait figures, busts, and groups created in iron, carved ivory, and especially in brass (conventionally termed
2300-451: Is made out of coral beads as well the Ekpa-ivie. In the traditional religion of the Edo, there exists, besides the human world, an invisible world of supernatural beings acting as interceders for the human world. Offerings are made to them in their respective shrines. Osanobua is the creator and Supreme God. His son/daughter Olokun is ruler of all bodies of water and is responsible for
2392-478: Is surrounded by a large moat, very wide and deep, which suffices for its defence. The archaeologist Graham Connah suggests that Pereira was probably mistaken with his description by saying that there was no wall. Connah says, "[Pereira] considered that a bank of earth was not a wall in the sense of the Europe of his day." Ruiters' account of the walls is as follows: At the gate where I entered on horseback, I saw
2484-528: Is usually accompanied by a cap or hat. The caps are often called headdress and are made either of a mesh of coral beads or of fabric. The women tie beautiful wrappers made from a variety of fabrics including Velvet , lace and george. They also wear the Ewu-ivie, a beaded cape or blouse. Women adorn their necks with coral beads known as Ivie-uru and wear the Ivie-obo on their hands and beaded earrings. Their handbag
2576-557: The Ada and Eben sceptres as symbols of their authority from around ~16AD. A series of walls marked the incremental growth of the city from 850 AD until its decline in the 16th century. To enclose his palace he commanded the building of Benin's inner wall, and 11-kilometre-long (7 mi) earthen rampart girded by a moat 6 m (20 ft) deep. This was excavated in the early 1960s by Graham Connah . Connah estimated that its construction if spread out over five dry seasons, would have required
2668-703: The Benin people , are an Edoid-speaking ethnic group . They are prominently native to seven southern local government areas of Edo State , Nigeria . They are speakers of the Edo language and are the descendants of the founders of the Benin Kingdom , Ogiso Igodo. They are closely related to other Edoid ethnic groups, such as the Esan , the Etsakọ , the Isoko and Urhobo as well as other southern ethnic groups The name "Benin" (and "Bini")
2760-545: The Mid-Western Region, Nigeria . This region's influence and culture reflects that of the Edo, Urhobo, Esan and other Edo related peoples. There are also 18 local government areas in Edo. These are: Akoko Edo, Egor , Esan central , Esan west , Esan south-east , Esan north-east , Igueben, Ikpoba oka , Estako east, Estako west , Estako central , Oredo , Owan East , Owan west , Ovia north-east , Ovia south-west , uhunmwode , Orhionmwon The Edo people have
2852-566: The " Benin Bronzes ") were sold off to defray the cost of the expedition and some were accessioned to the British Museum ; most were sold elsewhere and are now on display in various museums around the world. In March 2021, institutions in Berlin, Germany and Aberdeen, Scotland announced decisions to return Benin Bronzes in their possession to their place of origin. The British occupied Benin, which
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2944-522: The "Queen's Own". The Metropolitan and Royal regiments were relatively stable semi-permanent or permanent formations. The Village Regiments provided the bulk of the fighting force and were mobilized as needed, sending contingents of warriors upon the command of the king and his generals. Formations were broken down into sub-units under designated commanders. Foreign observers often commented favorably on Benin's discipline and organization as "better disciplined than any other Guinea nation", contrasting them with
3036-474: The 13th century, concurrent with the founding of the Benin Kingdom by Eweka I . In accordance with oral tradition, Eweka I, the son of Oranmiyan , a Yoruba prince from Ile-Ife, and Erimwinde, a princess from the Edo kingdom of Igodomigodo , inherited the ivory carving skills from his father. Eweka I subsequently imparted these skills to his son, Ewedo , who ascended as the second Oba of Benin . Under Ewedo's rule, select relatives and loyalists were appointed as
3128-443: The 14th century. The Walls of Benin are a series of earthworks made up of banks and ditches, called I ya in the Edo language in the area around present-day Benin City , the capital of present-day Edo , Nigeria . They consist of 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) of city iya and an estimated 16,000 kilometres (9,900 miles) in the rural area around Benin. Some estimates suggest that the walls of Benin may have been constructed between
3220-460: The 19th century, Britain desired a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; as British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom's palm oil, kola nut, ivory and potentially rubber resources, following the introduction of Hevea brasiliensis saplings, via Kew Gardens in 1895. Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with
3312-554: The Benin Kingdom's political and social structure and institutions, such as the Oba , the Uzama , and the Ogiso . The Igbesanmwan guild has encountered and surmounted various challenges and changes in their environment and circumstances. They have withstood colonialism, imperialism, slavery, war, looting, exploitation, and discrimination. To adapt to evolving materials, markets, audiences, and tastes, they have innovated their ivory art. They have also diversified their artistic output and explored other forms of art and occupations. Today,
3404-723: The Benin Kingdom. These include horns, bells, combs, bracelets, pendants, spoons, boxes, chess pieces, musical instruments, and more. The Igbesanmwan employ a variety of techniques and styles to craft their ivory objects. They utilise tools such as knives, chisels, files, drills, saws, and more to cut, shape, smooth, polish, and engrave their ivory pieces. Additionally, they use pigments, dyes, metals, beads, shells, feathers, and various materials for colouring, embellishing, or adorning their ivory works. Their styles encompass realism, abstraction, symbolism, and geometric patterns, allowing them to express their artistic vision and cultural identity. They also draw inspiration from other cultures, including
3496-550: The British. The British burnt down numerous towns, and destroyed farms in an attempt to starve the rebels into submission. After the 1899 expedition, military resistance in the former Kingdom of Benin against the British occupation ceased. Below are several notable figures of the Kingdom of Benin Forty-one female skeletons thrown into a pit were discovered by the archaeologist Graham Connah . These findings indicate that human sacrifice or execution of criminals took place in Benin in
3588-511: The Edo people. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China , and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops . They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet. Ethnomathematician Ron Eglash has discussed the planned layout of the city using fractals as
3680-591: The Empire. While the treaty itself contains text suggesting Ovonramwen sought Benin to become a protectorate, this was contrasted by Gallwey's own account, which suggests the Oba was hesitant to sign the treaty. Although some suggest that humanitarian motivations were driving Britain's actions, letters written between colonial administrators suggest that economic motivations were predominant. The treaty itself does not explicitly mention anything about Benin's "bloody customs" that Burton had written about, and instead only includes
3772-492: The Igbesanmwan guild is open to individuals belonging to the Edo ethnic group , tracing their lineage back to the original Igbesanmwan carvers initially appointed by Oba Ewedo . Membership is hereditary and patrilineal, with the passage from father to son. While women are not eligible for formal membership, they can partake in specific aspects of the carving process, such as polishing, painting, or decorating, often assisting their husbands or fathers. The Igbesanmwan guild adheres to
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3864-495: The Igbesanmwan guild remains active but their wealth has declined. They continue to practice and pass on their ivory carving skills to their descendants and apprentices. Their ivory art is still created and exhibited for various purposes and events. Benin Kingdom The Kingdom of Benin , also known as Great Benin or Benin Kingdom is a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to
3956-465: The Igbesanmwan often depict the Oba or his ancestors, particularly his mother. These masks are utilised during ceremonies and rituals, including the Igue festival , which celebrates the Oba's divine kingship. They also serve as symbols of royal authority and protection, sometimes displayed in shrines or altars. Notably, one of the well-known ivory masks is that of Queen Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie , who played
4048-418: The Igbesanmwan possess proficiency in working with a range of other materials, such as wood, brass, and coral. This guild is recognised as one of the most ancient and esteemed in Benin, with their artistic work being widely appreciated for its aesthetic appeal and technical mastery. The exact origins of the Igbesanmwan guild remain somewhat unclear, but historical accounts suggest its establishment dates back to
4140-456: The Igbesanmwan represent the Oba's strength and courage. These leopards are often placed on pedestals or platforms in front of the Oba's throne or in his palace. They can also be used as offerings or sacrifices to the gods or ancestors. The leopards are carved with meticulous attention to detail, featuring spots, whiskers, claws, and teeth. The Igbesanmwan guild also creates various other ivory objects that hold diverse functions and meanings within
4232-532: The Oba of Benin not long before the expedition, but left for Benin City with a diplomatic delegation (or a reconnaissance mission disguised as a peaceful diplomatic delegation) before receiving a reply to his request. Perceiving this to be an attempt to depose the Oba, the Oba's generals unilaterally ordered an attack on the delegation as it was approaching Benin City (which included eight unknowing British representatives and hundreds of African porters and labourers) all but two of whom were killed. A punitive expedition
4324-432: The Yoruba, Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French, influencing their ivory art. The Igbesanmwan guild encompasses not only an artistic group but also a cultural and religious community with its own traditions, values, beliefs, and practices that influence their way of life and perspective. Some of these aspects include: The Igbesanmwan deeply respect their ancestors, attributing the origins of their ivory carving skills and
4416-526: The army passed through. Movement of troops via canoes was critically important in the lagoons, creeks and rivers of the Niger Delta , a key area of Benin's domination. Tactics in the field seem to have evolved over time. While the head-on clash was well known, documentation from the 18th century shows greater emphasis on avoiding continuous battle lines, and more effort to encircle an enemy ( ifianyako ). Edo people The Edo people , also referred to as
4508-464: The basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses. He commented that "When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet." Military operations relied on a well trained disciplined force. At
4600-600: The centre; and further corrupted to Benin around 1485, when the Portuguese began trade relations with Oba Ewuare giving them coral beads. in Nigeria (green) Edo people can be found in Nigeria's Edo State , which got its name from the primary inhabitants of the region's most notable historical conglomeration , Benin City , which is also the central capital homeland of the Edo people. Edo people also have many related groups in their immediate surroundings also encompassed by
4692-456: The city gates. In the early 16th century, Oba Esigie expanded the kingdom eastwards, after defeating an invasion and attempted conquest of Benin by the Igala kingdom. Benin gained political strength and ascendancy over much of what is now mid-western Nigeria. Its wealth grew through its extensive trade, especially with the interior of the region, although the trade with Europeans that developed from
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#17328588386604784-530: The end of the eighteenth century, three to four people were sacrificed at the mouth of the Benin River annually, to attract European trade, according to one source. The monarchy of Benin was hereditary ; the eldest son was to become the new Oba. In order to validate the succession of the kingship, the eldest son had to bury his father and perform elaborate rituals. If the eldest son failed to complete these tasks, he might be disqualified from becoming king. After
4876-580: The entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos reaching almost Accra in the West. The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas and Iyobas of Benin. These plaques also included other human and animal figures as well as items like ceremonial belts. Ivory
4968-431: The forest and surrounding areas, could not survive, due to a disease spread by tsetse flies ; after centuries of exposure, some animals, such as cattle and goats, developed a resistance to the disease. The original name of the kingdom of Benin, at its creation some time in the first millennium CE, was Igodomigodo , as its inhabitants called it. Their ruler was called Ogiso – the ruler of the sky. The Ogiso began to use
5060-421: The guardianship of their guild to them. They pay homage to their ancestors through rituals, sacrifices, and the preservation of genealogical records. In addition, they create ivory objects that portray or commemorate their ancestors, such as masks or staffs. The Igbesanmwan believe that their ancestors have the power to bestow blessings or curses based on their actions and attitudes. The Igbesanmwan hold beliefs in
5152-630: The guild's administration is the Iyase n'Igbesanmwan, overseeing matters such as rule-setting, dispute resolution, resource allocation, and external representation. The present Ineh n'Igbesanmwan is Chief David Omoregie. The hierarchy extends below the Ineh n'Igbesanmwan with various ranks of carvers, including the Ogie n'Igbesanmwan (king of ivory carvers), Enogie n'Igbesanmwan (duke of ivory carvers), Edion n'Igbesanmwan (elder of ivory carvers), Omo n'Ogie n'Igbesanmwan (son of
5244-546: The head of the host stood the Oba of Benin . The monarch of the realm served as supreme military commander. Beneath him were subordinate generalissimos, the Ezomo , the Iyase , and others who supervised a Metropolitan Regiment based in the capital, and a Royal Regiment made up of hand-picked warriors that also served as bodyguards. Benin's queen mother, the Iyoba , also retained her own regiment –
5336-404: The inaugural Igbesanmwan carvers, endowing them with exclusive rights to craft ivory pieces designated for the royal court. Throughout the rule of subsequent Obas of Benin, the Igbesanmwan guild enjoyed a period of prosperity. They were actively patronised by the Obas and tasked with producing a diverse array of ivory artifacts for ceremonial and ritual purposes. Notably, the Igbesanmwan guild held
5428-445: The king of ivory carvers), and Omo n'Edion n'Igbesanmwan (son of the elder of ivory carvers). These rankings depend on the quality and quantity of a carver's work, in addition to the number and status of apprentices under their tutelage. Higher-ranked carvers assume more privileges and responsibilities, including receiving substantial commissions, supervising lower-ranked carvers, and instructing newcomers in new techniques. Membership in
5520-457: The kingdom began to be referred to as Ubinu after the Portuguese word and corrupted to Bini by the Itsekhiri , Urhobo and Edo who all lived together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese who arrived in an expedition led by João Afonso de Aveiro [ pt ] in 1485 would refer to it as Benin and the centre would become known as Benin City. The Oba had become
5612-449: The kingship. The Oba was shrouded in mystery; he only left his palace on ceremonial occasions. It was previously punishable by death to assert that the Oba performed human acts, such as eating, sleeping, dying or washing. The Oba was also credited with having magical powers. He also controlled a powerful bureaucratic apparatus whose decrees were obeyed to the letter. The Impluvium was used in Benin architecture to store rainwater. Among
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#17328588386605704-562: The late 15th century onwards in pepper, slaves, cloth, and ivory provided a smaller, additional supplement to Benin's wealth and its economy. Benin ruled over the tribes of the Niger Delta including the Western Igbo Tribes, Ijaw , Itshekiri , Isoko and Urhobo amongst others. It also held sway over the Eastern Yoruba tribes of Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu. At its height in the 16th century, Benin dominated trade along
5796-440: The mission to Benin without much weaponry. Some have argued he was going on a peaceful mission. Such commentators argue that the message from the Oba that his festival would not permit him to receive European visitors touched the humanitarian side of Phillips's character because of an incorrect assumption that the festival included human sacrifice. According to Igbafe, this does not explain why Phillips set out before he had received
5888-461: The modern republic of Benin , which was known as Dahomey from the 17th century until 1975. The Kingdom of Benin's capital was Edo, now known as Benin City in Edo State , Nigeria . The Benin Kingdom was "one of the oldest and most developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa ". It grew out of the previous Edo Kingdom of Igodomigodo around the 11th century AD, and lasted until it
5980-842: The mount of power within the region. In the 15th century, Oba Ewuare is credited with turning Benin City into a city-state from a military fortress built by the Ogisos, protected by moats and walls. It was from this bastion that he launched his military campaigns and began the expansion of the kingdom from the Edo-speaking heartlands. Excavations also uncovered a rural network of earthen walls 6,000 to 13,000 km (4,000 to 8,000 mi) long that would have taken an estimated 150 million man-hours to build and must have taken hundreds of years to build. These were apparently raised to mark out territories for towns and cities. Thirteen years after Ewuare's death, tales of Benin's splendors lured more Portuguese traders to
6072-473: The official visit of Richard Francis Burton in 1862 when he was consul at Fernando Pó . Following that came attempts to establish a treaty between Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress
6164-497: The political and administrative borders of Edo state. Most of these groups have traced their history back to the historical city center off the Benin people, Benin City . Examples of such adjacent groups include various Afemai sub-groups, the Esan people of Edo state and the Akoko Edo people situated on the state's northern borders. Edo state was formerly part of the old Bendel state of early post-colonial Nigeria, also known as
6256-500: The previously dominant pepper and ivory as trade commodities. A civil war broke out around 1689, around the time that Oba Ewuakpe ascended to the throne. Iyase Ode and lower-ranked members of the royal administration revolted against their superiors attempts to control them. The Oba brought in troops from another city but could not defeat the rebels, and Benin city was sacked. The war continued for roughly 10 years before negotiations brought them to an end. Ewuakpe's succession, however,
6348-512: The prosperity and fertility of his/her human followers. Another son Ogun , is the patron god of metalworkers . The epithet Osanobua Noghodua mean God Almighty . The word Osanobua encompasses a large number of divine principles - including the divine state of being merciful, timeless, goodness, justice, sublimity, and supreme. In the Edo belief system, Osanobua has the divine attributes of omnipresence ( orhiole ), omniscience ( ajoana ), and omnipotence ( udazi ). The Supreme Deity
6440-454: The residences of the nobility, a compluvium channeled the rainwater into the impluvium in order to permit light and air through the walls since windows were absent among these structures. The stored rainwater in the impluvium was discharged out of the house through a drainage system beneath the floor. Archaeological works from the mid 20th century has revealed the existence of edge-laid potsherd pavements in Benin city, dated around or prior to
6532-450: The restored Oba of Benin and received support from the Nigerian government and cultural institutions. The Igbesanmwan guild maintains a hierarchical structure primarily based on seniority, skill, and lineage. Leading the guild is the Ineh n'Igbesanmwan (leader of ivory carvers), who is appointed by the Oba of Benin from the ranks of the most experienced and senior carvers. Responsible for
6624-530: The slacker troops from the Gold Coast. Until the introduction of guns in the 15th century, traditional weapons like the spear, short sword, and bow held sway. Efforts were made to reorganize a local guild of blacksmiths in the 18th century to manufacture light firearms, but dependence on imports was still heavy. Before the coming of the gun, guilds of blacksmiths were charged with war production—particularly swords and iron spearheads. In addition, crossbowmen formed
6716-412: The son was installed as king, his mother – after having been invested with the title of Iyoba – was transferred to a palace just outside Benin City, in a place called Uselu. The mother held a considerable amount of power; she was, however, never allowed to meet her son – who was now a divine ruler – again. In Benin, the Oba was seen as divine . The Oba's divinity and sacredness was the focal point of
6808-590: The thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE and others suggest that the walls of Benin (in the Esan region) may have been constructed during the first millennium AD. The Benin City walls have been known to Westerners since around 1500. Around 1500, the Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira , briefly described the walls during his travels. In Pereira's Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis , 1505, we read: The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which
6900-508: The thirteenth century AD. From the early days, human sacrifices were a part of the state religion. But many of the accounts of the sacrifices, says historian J. D. Graham, are exaggerated or based on rumour and speculation. He says that all of the evidence "points to a limited, ritual custom of human sacrifice, many of the written accounts referring to the human sacrifices describe them as actually being executed criminals". Edo historian Professor Philip Igbafe states that in pre-colonial Benin,
6992-399: The tradition was that only slaves could be sacrificed. This could include hardened criminals and those who had committed serious crimes, who would either be executed or sold into slavery. Sacrifices were made at the anniversary of the Oba's father, at the annual bead ceremony, and to propitiate the gods when poor weather threatened crops or when an epidemic threatened. In addition, the threat of
7084-668: The trickster and messenger. Furthermore, they acknowledge the influence of nature spirits, which encompass trees, rivers, mountains, and animals. The Igbesanmwan engage in various rituals to establish a connection with the spiritual realm and seek its favour. These rituals encompass activities like prayer, fasting, purification, offering, chanting, dancing, and singing. The Igbesanmwan perform these rituals before, during, and after carving ivory objects. Additionally, rituals are conducted during significant life events or guild-related occasions, including births, deaths, initiations, promotions, festivals, or periods of conflict. The Igbesanmwan employ
7176-543: The usual number of trade guns... When Captain Gallwey visited the city the only canon he saw were half a dozen old Portuguese guns. They were lying on the grass unmounted'. Compare this with the opinion of his immediate predecessor, Ralph Moor, who was convinced that 'the people in all the villages are no doubt possessed of arms' (F.O. 2/84, Moor to F.O. no. 39 of I2 Sept. 1895). Igbafe also points to Phillips' November 1896 advocacy of military force regarding Benin, arguing that this
7268-461: The vast majority of them being used by the locals for building purposes. What remains of the wall itself continues to be torn down for real estate developments in Nigeria. Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist: They extend for some 16,000 km in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 2,510 sq. miles (6,500 square kilometres) and were all dug by
7360-436: The west. The end of his reign saw a rise in the power of prominent officials, and during the following decades many Oba's enjoyed short and turbulent reigns as various branches of the royal family fought for position. The death of Oba Ohuan in 1641 may have marked the end of the direct father-to-son line of succession going back to Eweka I . Officials also increasingly controlled the military and trade, as cloth came to replace
7452-529: The world have taken an interest in and admired their ivory art. The Igbesanmwan guild has also been instrumental in promoting and preserving the cultural and historical heritage of the Benin Kingdom. Through their ivory art, they have documented and conveyed the history, mythology, cosmology, and values of the Benin Kingdom. They have upheld these traditions, rituals, beliefs, and practices through their guild organisation and code of conduct. Furthermore, they have supported efforts to restore and revive key elements of
7544-603: Was absorbed into the British Niger Coast Protectorate and eventually into British colonial Nigeria . A general emancipation of slaves followed in the wake of British occupation but Britain also imposed a system of forced labour in Benin and in surrounding areas, as they did throughout other parts of southern Nigeria. The British launched an additional operation in 1899, called the "Benin Territories Expedition", against rebels still holding out against
7636-410: Was also used, as seen in the carving of ivory into ornate boxes, combs and armlets. The most well-known artifact is based on Queen Idia , now known as the Benin ivory mask . Ivory masks were meant to be worn around the waist of kings. Ruling in the late 16th century, Oba Ehengbuda was the last of the warrior kings; after his reign the empire gradually shrank in size, losing control over territories in
7728-537: Was annexed by the British Empire in 1897. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the kingdom reached the height of its prosperity, expanding its territory, trading with European powers, and creating a remarkable artistic legacy in cast bronze, iron, carved ivory, and other materials. By the 1st century BC, the Benin territory was partially agricultural; and it became primarily agricultural by around 500 AD, but hunting and gathering still remained important. Also by 500, iron
7820-459: Was coveted by an influential group of investors for its rich natural resources such as palm-oil, and ivory. After British consul Richard Burton visited Benin in 1862 he wrote of Benin's as a place of "gratuitous barbarity which stinks of death", a narrative which was publicized in Britain and increased support for the territory's colonization. In spite of this, the kingdom maintained its independence and
7912-452: Was disputed between his two sons Ozuere and Akenzua. Akenzua and his close ally, a traditional chief who bore the title Ezomo , eventually prevailed over the younger Ozuere and his ally, the Iyase Ode in a decisive battle in 1721. Cleanup and reconquest of rebel areas, however, took another 10 years. With renewed stability in the kingdom and, Oba Akenzua benefited from trade with Europeans and
8004-562: Was in use by the inhabitants of the Benin territory. Benin City (formerly Edo) sprang up by around 1000, in a forest that could be easily defended. The dense vegetation and narrow paths made the city easy to defend against attacks. The rainforest, which Benin City is situated in, helped in the development of the city because of its vast resources – fish from rivers and creeks, animals to hunt, leaves for roofing, plants for medicine, ivory for carving and trading, and wood for boat building – that could be exploited. However, domesticated animals, from
8096-459: Was launched in response, and a 1,200-men strong force, under the command of Sir Harry Rawson , captured Benin City. They deliberately sought out and destroyed certain areas of the city, including those thought to belong to the chiefs responsible for the ambush of the British delegation, and in the process a fire burnt the palace and surrounding quarters, which the British claimed was accidental. There has much debate of why James Phillips set out on
8188-426: Was made 1892 during the visit of Vice-Consul Henry Gallwey . This mission was the first official visit after Burton's. Moreover, it would also set in motion the events to come that would lead to Oba Ovonramwen's fall from power. In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Benin managed to retain its independence and the Oba exercised a monopoly over trade which British merchants in the region found irksome. The territory
8280-592: Was not visited by another representative of Britain until 1892 when Henry Gallwey , the British Vice-Consul of the Oil Rivers Protectorate (later the Niger Coast Protectorate ), visited Benin City hoping to open up trade and ultimately annex Benin Kingdom and transform it into a British protectorate . Gallwey was able to get Omo n’Oba ( Ovonramwen ) and his chiefs to sign a treaty which gave Britain legal justification for exerting greater influence over
8372-412: Was to be one of the richest obas in the kingdom's history. Benin's economy was thriving in the early to mid 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, and the continuation of the trade in textiles, ivory and other resources. To preserve the kingdom's independence, the Oba gradually banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil. By the latter half of
8464-405: Was worshipped at a special altar in the centre of Benin City. There were two separate annual series of rites that honored past Obas. Sacrifices were performed every fifth day. At the end of each series of rites, the current Oba's deceased father was honored with a public festival. During the festival, twelve criminals, chosen from a prison where the worst criminals were held, were sacrificed. By
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