124-519: Ideen may refer to: Ideen I , a 1913 philosophical work by Edmund Husserl Ideen II , a posthumous philosophical work by Edmund Husserl withheld until 1952 Ideen & Argumente , series edited by Lutz Wingert Deutschland – Land der Ideen , a German national marketing initiative ( German Misplaced Pages ) See also [ edit ] Idea Ide (disambiguation) Ides (disambiguation) Idee (disambiguation) Topics referred to by
248-569: A transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy , and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond. Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger , and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf . He taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive. In 1933, under racial laws of
372-733: A casualty of the First World War . Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of comparative law , teaching in the United States and after the war in Austria . Following his marriage Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy. He started in 1887 as a Privatdozent at the University of Halle . In 1891 he published his Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed
496-475: A century. The subject had attracted students such as Klemens Wenzel Lothar von Metternich , later diplomat and Prime Minister of Austria, and Wilhelm von Humboldt , who later established the University of Berlin . In the 19th century, Gustav Hugo , Karl Friedrich Eichhorn , and Georg Friedrich Sartorius , who taught law here, became the pioneers of the German Historical School of Jurisprudence. At
620-407: A chicken-and-egg problem. Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent? These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life. Since his university retirement Husserl had "worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works." After suffering a fall in the autumn of 1937,
744-822: A diplomat and historian, had personal friendship with Otto von Bismarck during his two-year-long study in Göttingen. George Bancroft , a politician and historian, received his PhD from the University of Göttingen in 1820. In the 1930s, the university became a focal point for the Nazi crackdown on "Jewish physics", as represented by the work of Albert Einstein . In what was later called the "great purge" of 1933 , academics including Max Born , Victor Goldschmidt , James Franck , Eugene Wigner , Leó Szilárd , Edward Teller , Edmund Landau , Emmy Noether , and Richard Courant were expelled or fled. Most of them fled Nazi Germany for places like
868-530: A famous philosopher known as the father of phenomenology , moved to Göttingen to teach. Ludwig Prandtl joined the University of Göttingen in 1904, and developed it into a leader in fluid mechanics and in aerodynamics over the next two decades. In 1925, Prandtl was appointed as the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Fluid Mechanics. He introduced the concept of boundary layer and founded mathematical aerodynamics by calculating air flow in
992-509: A feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. To better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things people perceive (or an assumption underlying how people perceive objects). The major dividing line in Husserl's thought
1116-414: A general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all. Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved. According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for
1240-470: A lecture Husserl gave to various Kant Societies in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled Phänomenologie und Anthropologie . In the war-time 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, Being and Time ( Sein und Zeit , first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed. This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather
1364-418: A library with over 200,000 volumes. This period marked Göttingen's ascendancy in academic circles, emphasizing its role in fostering an environment conducive to scientific inquiry and innovation. In the first years of the University of Göttingen, it became known especially for its Faculty of Law . In the 18th century Johann Stephan Pütter , a scholar of public law at that time, taught jus publicum for half
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#17328552906141488-644: A plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen . From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what people perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist . Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which people direct themselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called
1612-425: A priori sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature. According to psychologism , logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical "art" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought. Husserl pointed out that
1736-440: A priori ' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity , which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings. There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example,
1860-628: A proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege. In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl this
1984-474: A psychological context as the basis of mathematics. It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege , who criticized its psychologism . In 1901 Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen , where he taught as extraordinarius professor . Just prior to this a major work of his, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle, 1900–1901), was published. Volume One contains seasoned reflections on "pure logic" in which he carefully refutes "psychologism". This work
2108-484: A radical and rational autonomy in all things, Husserl could also speak "about his vocation and even about his mission under God's will to find new ways for philosophy and science," observes Spiegelberg. Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass . Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving
2232-461: A reference base. Husserl sees ontology as a science of essences . Sciences of essences are contrasted with factual sciences : the former are knowable a priori and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable a posteriori . Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in actual facts , but in the essences themselves, whether they have instances or not . Husserl distinguishes between formal ontology , which investigates
2356-417: A science of the mind (' Geisteswissenschaft ') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge." Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in
2480-695: A series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates . Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal- ontological categories. Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction , disjunction , forms of plural , among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number , ordinal number , part and whole, relation, and so on. The way people know these categories
2604-416: A short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology. Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano , Hermann Lotze , J. Stuart Mill , and David Hume . Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano
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#17328552906142728-490: A theory of sense and reference before 1891. Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because noemata are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noemata have three different levels: Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema. Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If
2852-572: A total of 38 additional centers and institutes (including associated centers and institutes but excluding institutes or departments within the faculties themselves). Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Informatics Law, Economic Sciences, and Social Sciences Associated Institutes In the QS World University Rankings 2024, it was placed the 232nd internationally and the 13th nationally. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2024 ranked it as 111th globally and 10th at
2976-404: Is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' ( Vergegenwärtigung ), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness". Ideen advanced his transition to a "transcendental interpretation" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre . In Ideen Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading "from the psychological cogito to
3100-645: Is a member of the European Union , university students have the opportunity to participate in the Erasmus Programme . The university also has exchange programs and partnerships with reputable universities outside Europe such as Tsinghua University , Peking University and Fudan University in China, Kyoto University and Waseda University in Japan and Amherst College in the United States. The most famous tradition of
3224-566: Is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives. Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the Philosophy of Arithmetic . Husserl stated that by
3348-423: Is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology . Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano was intentionality , the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as
3472-469: Is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness). Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it. The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the " theory of manifolds ". In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in
3596-412: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Edmund Husserl Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl ( / ˈ h ʊ s ɜːr l / HUUSS -url ; US also / ˈ h ʊ s ər əl / HUUSS -ər-əl , German: [ˈɛtmʊnt ˈhʊsɐl] ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938 ) was an Austrian-German philosopher and mathematician who established
3720-500: Is no life outside Göttingen. Even if it is life, it is no life like here ). "Ancient university towns are wonderfully alike. Göttingen is like Cambridge in England or Yale in America: very provincial, not on the way to anywhere – no one comes to these backwaters except for the company of professors. And the professors are sure that this is the centre of the world. There is an inscription in
3844-424: Is not conditioned but rather transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being. In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an "intentional object". Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of percipere ,
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3968-409: Is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry ) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other. Reacting against authors such as John Stuart Mill , Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e. their conception of these abstract and
4092-411: Is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality . Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf , a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle , seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level. There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl ( On
4216-464: Is the turn to transcendental idealism. In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity , specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity ( Cartesian Meditations , Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology ) and what it means to "bracket"
4340-503: Is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition". Through sensible intuition, consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" ( Sachlage ). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, people are able to constitute a " state of affairs " ( Sachverhalt ). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as
4464-739: The Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda . There they were deposited at Leuven to form the Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy . Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series. In his first works, Husserl combined mathematics, psychology, and philosophy with
4588-842: The Deutsche Akademie . Later Husserl lectured at Prague in 1935 and Vienna in 1936, which resulted in a very differently styled work that, while innovative, is no less problematic: Die Krisis (Belgrade 1936). Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo , Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant . The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism , while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend
4712-573: The Faculty of Law in Göttingen . Ursula von der Leyen , President of the European Commission , studied economics in Göttingen, where she met her husband Heiko von der Leyen . The university is spread out in several locations around the city. The central university complex with the Central Library and Mensa (student refectory/dining hall) is located right next to the inner city and comprises
4836-576: The Georg August University of Göttingen ( German : Georg-August-Universität Göttingen , commonly referred to as Georgia Augusta ), is a public research university in the city of Göttingen , Lower Saxony , Germany . Founded in 1734 by George II , King of Great Britain and Elector of Hanover , it began instruction in 1737 and is recognized as the oldest university in Lower Saxony. Recognized for its historic and traditional significance,
4960-551: The Göttingen school of history . Later, Max Weber , one of the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society, also studied history in Göttingen. The Brothers Grimm , the best-known storytellers of folktales like " Cinderella ", " The Frog Prince ", " Little Red Riding Hood ", " Sleeping Beauty ", and " Snow White ", taught here and compiled the first German dictionary. However, political disturbances, in which both professors and students were implicated, lowered
5084-461: The Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserl's father Adolf had died in 1884. Herbert Spiegelberg writes, "While outward religious practice never entered his life any more than it did that of most academic scholars of the time, his mind remained open for the religious phenomenon as for any other genuine experience." At times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral "renewal". Although a steadfast proponent of
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5208-773: The Max Planck Society , the Leibniz Association , the Fraunhofer Society , and the Helmholtz Association . With its extensive collection, the Göttingen State and University Library stands among Germany's largest libraries. In 1734, King George II of Great Britain and Elector of Hanover , commanded his Prime Minister in Hanover, Gerlach Adolph von Münchhausen, to establish a university in Göttingen to spread
5332-725: The Nazi Party , Husserl was expelled from the library of the University of Freiburg due to his Jewish family background and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie . Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938. Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz in the Margraviate of Moravia in the Austrian Empire (today Prostějov in the Czech Republic ). He was born into a Jewish family,
5456-563: The Philosophy of Arithmetic helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism , but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91. In his Logical Investigations , Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position. Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder , published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference ; thus Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose independently. Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in
5580-612: The Philosophy of Arithmetic , Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept. Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school , and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870s lectures on logic. Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty , Claire Ortiz Hill , and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock , among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to Platonism came about independently of Frege's review. For example,
5704-641: The University of Freiburg (in Freiburg im Breisgau ) where he continued bringing his work in philosophy to fruition, now as a full professor. Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923. The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918. Husserl gave four lectures on Phenomenological method at University College London in 1922. The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined
5828-513: The University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass). At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung ( Contributions to the Calculus of variations ). Evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, Husserl asked to be baptized into
5952-472: The racial laws of the new National Socialist German Workers Party were enacted. On 6 April Husserl was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated. Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party . By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from
6076-516: The "natural attitude", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that people see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism ). Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how people, in their many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of
6200-643: The 'Royal Society for Sciences'. The university maintains three botanical gardens: the Alter Botanischer Garten der Universität Göttingen, the Neuer Botanischer Garten der Universität Göttingen, and the Forstbotanischer Garten und Pflanzengeographisches Arboretum der Universität Göttingen. As of 2023, the university consists of 13 faculties and around 22,484 students are enrolled. 535 professors and over 4,000 academic staff work at
6324-452: The 18th century. Thereafter, Dirichlet and Riemann took over the chair successively and made significant contributions in the fields of algebra, geometry, and number theory. By 1900, David Hilbert and Felix Klein had attracted mathematicians from around the world to Göttingen, which made it a leading center of mathematics by the turn of the 20th century. In 1903, its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529. Edmund Husserl ,
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#17328552906146448-491: The 19th century. Throughout the 18th century, the University of Göttingen was renowned among German universities for its commitment to the free spirit and scientific exploration. Georg Christoph Lichtenberg , a prominent scholar, held one of the first professorships dedicated to experimental physics in Germany from 1769 to 1799. By 1812, Göttingen had established itself as a modern, internationally recognized university, boasting
6572-830: The 6th in the world on "2D rank" combining both categories of data. As of 2002, the University of Göttingen was associated with 44 Nobel laureates according to an official count released by the University of Göttingen in that year. By this number alone, the University of Göttingen ranked among the global top 15 universities. Recent Nobel laureates associated with the university are Klaus Hasselmann ( Nobel Prize in Physics , 2021), Stefan Hell ( Nobel Prize in Chemistry , 2014), Thomas C. Südhof ( Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 2013), and Thomas Arthur Steitz ( Nobel Prize in Chemistry , 2009). Klaus Hasselmann received his PhD in physics from
6696-548: The 8th nationally. Within the framework of the 2006–07 German Universities Excellence Initiative , it won funding for its future concept "Tradition, Innovation, Autonomy," its graduate school "Neurosciences and Molecular Biosciences," and its research cluster "Microscopy at the Nanometer Range." In the 2012 Excellence Initiative, Göttingen succeeded in obtaining funds for its graduate school "Neurosciences and Molecular Biosciences" and its research cluster "Microscopy at
6820-477: The American banker J. P. Morgan , the seismologist Beno Gutenberg , the endocrinologist Hakaru Hashimoto , who studied there before World War I , and several notable Nobel laureates like Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg . Anthropologist Marlina Flassy earned her doctorate in Göttingen, before becoming the first woman and indigenous Papuan to be appointed Dean at Cenderawasih University . The German inventor of
6944-463: The Concept of Number ) in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891). In 1887 Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart , and in 1894 their son Wolfgang. Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became
7068-453: The German philosopher best known for his work The World as Will and Representation , became a student at the university, where he studied metaphysics and psychology under Gottlob Ernst Schulze , who advised him to concentrate on Plato and Kant . During this time, the University of Göttingen achieved renown for its critical work on history as well. An Enlightenment institution, it produced
7192-740: The International Court of Justice on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany . Hsu Tzong-li , a Taiwanese judge who has served as the President of the Judicial Yuan (Taiwan's constitutional court) since 2016, earned his doctorate in law from University of Göttingen in 1986. Within the Göttingen Campus the university is organizationally and personally interlinked with the following independent and semi-independent institutions: As Germany
7316-430: The Nanometer Range". In September 2018, Göttingen succeeded in gaining funds for its research cluster "Multiscale Bioimaging". The University of Göttingen is a traditional institution with a significant historical standing. This is substantiated by a scientific study on the historical development of world university rankings starting in 2013, which examined a web dataset from 24 Misplaced Pages language versions, covering 59% of
7440-546: The Ratskeller there which reads 'Extra Gottingam non est vita', 'Outside Göttingen there is no life'. This epigram, or should I call it epitaph, is not taken as seriously by the undergraduates as by the professors." The university offers eight snack shops and six Mensas serving lunch at low prices for the students. One Mensa also provides dinner for students. Apart from those celebrities mentioned above, notable people that have studied or taught at Georg-August University include
7564-572: The United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Following the great purge, in 1934 David Hilbert , by then a symbol of German mathematics, was dining with Bernhard Rust , the Nazi minister of education. Rust asked, "How is mathematics at Göttingen, now that it is free from the Jewish influence?" Hilbert replied, "There is no mathematics in Göttingen anymore." After World War II , the University of Göttingen
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#17328552906147688-463: The University of Göttingen had profound impacts on the US. A number of American politicians, lawyers, historians and writers received their education from both Harvard and Göttingen. For example, Edward Everett , once Secretary of State and President of Harvard University , stayed in Göttingen for two years of study. George Ticknor spent two years studying classics in Göttingen. Even John Lothrop Motley ,
7812-732: The University of Göttingen in 1957. Stefan Hell has been a lecturer (in Privatdozent capacity) at the University of Göttingen since 2004 and the director of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in the Göttingen Campus since 2002. Thomas Südhof , currently a professor at Stanford University , worked on his doctoral thesis at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in the lab of British biochemist Victor P. Whittaker and received his PhD in medical science from
7936-553: The University of Göttingen in 1982. Thomas Arthur Steitz was a Macy Fellow at the University of Göttingen during 1976–1977. Today, a number of judges in national and international courts of the highest level are still affiliated with the Faculty of Law . As of 2021, four out of sixteen in-office Justices of the Federal Constitutional Court ( German : Bundesverfassungsgericht ; abbreviated: BVerfG ), Germany's supreme constitutional court , are affiliated with
8060-471: The University of Göttingen: two of them ( Andreas Paulus & Christine Langenfeld) are, currently, professors at the Faculty of Law of the University of Göttingen, while two others (Ines Härtel & Henning Radtke) obtained their PhD in law (Dr.iur) from the University of Göttingen. Also in 2021, Georg Nolte , a former professor of public international law at the University of Göttingen, took office as Judge of
8184-550: The anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933. However, among other disabilities Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany [see above footnote to Die Krisis (1936)]. It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged, but it was actually the previous rector. Apparently Husserl and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when Husserl retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair. In
8308-575: The attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the seven professors – the so-called Die Göttinger Sieben (the Germanist Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800–1876), the historian Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785–1860), the orientalist Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803–1875), the historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805–1875), the physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804–1891), and the philologist brothers Jakob (1785–1863) and Wilhelm Grimm (1786–1859)) – for protesting against
8432-415: The basis for constituting multiple states of affairs. For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. It can be used as the basis to say, " a < b " and " b > a ", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as
8556-539: The city are the departments of Anthropology and Educational Sciences as well as the Medical Faculty with its associated hospitals. Just north of the city a new scientific center has been built in which most of the natural sciences (chemistry, biology, plant pathology, agronomy, forestry, geology, physics, computer science) are now located, including the GZMB. Other institutes are set around the inner city. Closely linked with
8680-471: The city walls. By the university's centenary in 1837, it was known as the "university of law", as the students enrolled by the faculty of law often made up more than half of the university's students. At the end of the 19th century, the famous civil law scholar Rudolf von Jhering , who created the theory of "culpa in contrahendo" (fault in conclusion of a contract), remained a law professor in Göttingen until he died. Lassa Francis Lawrence Oppenheim , known as
8804-675: The different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why sensible objects are not dealt with in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through this faculty people are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves. Thanks to " eidetic reduction " (or "essential intuition"), people are able to grasp
8928-472: The distinction between "natural" and "phenomenological" modes of understanding. In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the "real world". Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously "presuppositionless" by means of what Husserl calls " phenomenological reduction ". This reduction
9052-407: The down wind direction. Many of Prandtl's students went on to make fundamental contributions to aerodynamics. Between 1921 and 1933, the physics theory group was led by Max Born , who, during this time, became one of the three discoverers of the non-relativistic theory of quantum mechanics . He may also have been the first to propose its probabilistic relationship with classical physics. It was one of
9176-434: The essence of objectivity in general , and regional ontologies , which study regional essences that are shared by all entities belonging to the region. Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities : material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation . It involves imagining an object of
9300-605: The faculties for Theology, Social sciences, Law, Economics/Business Administration and Linguistics. The departments of Ancient History, Classics, various languages, Psychology and Philosophy are nearby. Located to the south of the city is the Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science with its main building, the Mathematisches Institut, on the same street as the German Aerospace Center and the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organisation. In other parts of
9424-550: The failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side. Pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" or "judgings" as mental episodes but about a priori laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves. Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology,
9548-424: The father of the modern discipline of international law and author of the famous two-volume "International Law: A Treatise", earned his doctorate in law from the University of Göttingen in 1881. Likewise, the Faculty of Theology in conjunction with other orientalists and ancient historians across the university became an international center for the study of religion and antiquity. In 1809, Arthur Schopenhauer ,
9672-461: The first volume of his Logical Investigations , the Prolegomena of Pure Logic , Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic . Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of
9796-563: The following way: if someone is standing in front of a house, they have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if they are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, the person can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as Husserl also calls it) one if they only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1901)
9920-520: The following year one of them, Wolfgang Husserl, was badly injured. On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun , Wolfgang was killed in action. The next year his other son Gerhart Husserl was wounded in the war but survived. His own mother Julia died. In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach , was killed in the war while serving in Flanders . Husserl had transferred in 1916 to
10044-647: The founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin ) in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and the renowned Karl Weierstrass . In Berlin he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia . There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsen 's philosophy lectures. In 1881 he left for
10168-487: The goal of providing a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzed the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then built up a theory on this analysis. He used methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derived the idea of generating the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he took the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example, Husserl explained this in
10292-467: The highest genera. Husserl believed that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself , just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates. Logic is a formal theory of judgment , that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology ; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence for both logic and mathematics,
10416-511: The ideals of the Enlightenment . Napoleon famously remarked, "Göttingen belongs neither to a State, nor to Germany, and is the University of Europe". The initial university infrastructure was modest, comprising only a riding hall and a fencing house, with lectures held in the Paulinerkirche , Dominican monastery, or professors' homes. A university auditorium wasn't constructed until
10540-491: The imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which people regard objects—instead of
10664-442: The inevitable consequence is scepticism. Psychologists have not been successful either in showing how induction or psychological processes can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind. University of G%C3%B6ttingen The University of Göttingen , officially
10788-422: The journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung ("Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research") was founded by Husserl and his school, and which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930. His important work Ideen was published in its first issue (Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1913). Before beginning Ideen , Husserl's thought had reached the stage where "each subject
10912-403: The kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is inessential to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the kind's essence . For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to
11036-400: The limits of history. On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other. A longer section follows on the " lifeworld " [ Lebenswelt ], one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen through subjective experience. Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above,
11160-576: The main centers of the development of modern physics . Oppenheimer , the American scientist and "father of the atomic bomb", was one of Max Born 's most famous students and received his doctorate here. During this time, the German language became an international academic language. A number of dissertations in the UK and the US had German titles. One might be considered having had a complete academic training only when one had studied in Germany. Thus, many American students were proud of having studied in Germany, and
11284-422: The main characteristic of mental phenomena , by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena . Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object ). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in
11408-547: The mathematical sciences. After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view. In his habilitation thesis , On the Concept of Number (1886) and in his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology , to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass , Richard Dedekind , Georg Cantor , Gottlob Frege , and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in
11532-418: The mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether. Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen ( Logical Investigations ), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that to study
11656-420: The national level. According to the 2023 ARWU World Rankings , the university holds a position within the 151–200 range internationally and between the 6th and 9th domestically. In the 2023 Center for World University Rankings (CWUR), the University of Göttingen was ranked the 97th worldwide and the 6th nationwide. In the 2022-2023 US News Best Global Universities Rankings , it was ranked the 163rd globally and
11780-550: The natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly one-sidedly empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that
11904-433: The objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as n -dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean ), Hermann Grassmann 's theory of extensions , William Rowan Hamilton 's Hamiltonians , Sophus Lie 's theory of transformation groups , and Cantor's set theory . Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to "desedimentize" mathematics and
12028-508: The offer. In 1926 Heidegger dedicated his book Sein und Zeit ( Being and Time ) to him "in grateful respect and friendship." Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928. A Festschrift to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929. Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures. The first, at Paris in 1929, led to Méditations cartésiennes (Paris 1931). Husserl here reviews
12152-399: The phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal Ideen (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.' From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad. This '
12276-405: The philosopher became ill with pleurisy . Edmund Husserl died in Freiburg on 27 April 1938, having just turned 79. His wife Malvine survived him. Eugen Fink , his research assistant, delivered his eulogy . Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest. Husserl was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of
12400-511: The possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories. Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge. Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that offer objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically ) as it
12524-547: The recent regime change in Germany and its consequences: The future alone will judge which was the true Germany in 1933, and who were the true Germans—those who subscribe to the more or less materialistic-mythical racial prejudices of the day, or those Germans pure in heart and mind, heirs to the great Germans of the past whose tradition they revere and perpetuate. After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of " Gabelsberger " stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to
12648-411: The review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until all that remains are numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in Husserl's Philosophy of Arithmetic there are already two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective. Moreover, objectivity
12772-503: The revocation by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover , of the liberal constitution of 1833 hurt the reputation of the city and the university. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the University of Göttingen achieved its academic peak. Göttingen maintained a strong focus on natural science, especially mathematics. The tradition began with Carl Friedrich Gauss , who was known as "the Prince of Mathematicians" and taught here in
12896-707: The root of "perceive". From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object . He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate
13020-428: The same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on. Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a " concept " and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way people know sensible objects is called " sensible intuition ". Husserl also identifies
13144-406: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Ideen . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ideen&oldid=519914962 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
13268-414: The school of phenomenology . In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality . In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction . Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as
13392-667: The second of four children. His father was a milliner . His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular primary school. Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olmütz . At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. At Leipzig, he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt , one of
13516-623: The statue of Gänseliesel (a poor princess in an old fairy tale who was compelled to keep geese by a wicked woman and later regained her identity), kiss the Gänseliesel and give bouquets to her. There is an old saying about life in Göttingen, still inscribed in Latin nowadays on the wall of the entrance to the Ratskeller (the restaurant located in the basement of the old town hall): Latin : Extra Gottingam non est vita, si est vita, non est ita ( There
13640-448: The structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by " bracketing " all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called " epoché ". These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen ( Ideas ) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and
13764-425: The summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed: e.g., Heidegger substituted Dasein ["Being-there"] for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl. Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler , were put into
13888-523: The time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume . Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his Logical Investigations , Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic , and again to question Frege's use of
14012-538: The time, Göttingen was a very popular place for the study of law in Germany: Even the great German poet Heinrich Heine obtained a doctorate in law here in 1825. Otto von Bismarck , the main creator and the first Chancellor of the second German Empire , also studied law in Göttingen in 1833: he lived in a tiny house on the "Wall", now known as "Bismarck Cottage". According to oral tradition, he lived there because his rowdiness had caused him to be banned from living within
14136-534: The transcendental cogito". As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to " transcendental subjectivity ". Also in Ideen Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions . Ivan Ilyin and Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen. In October 1914 both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I , and
14260-639: The university has affiliations with 47 Nobel Prize winners by its own count. Previously backed by the German Universities Excellence Initiative , the University of Göttingen is a member of the U15 Group of major German research universities and the Coimbra Group of major European research universities, denoting its research prominence. The university is also closely linked with a number of leading Göttingen-based research institutions like
14384-462: The university is that PhD students who have just passed their Rigorosum (oral doctoral examination) or dissertation defense sit in a wagon – decorated with flowers and balloons and accompanied by relatives and friends, drive around the inner city and arrive at the Marktplatz – the central square where the old town hall and the Gänseliesel statue are located. The "newly born doctor" shall climb up to
14508-528: The university is the Göttingen State and University Library (German: Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, or SUB Göttingen). With around 9 million media units and precious manuscripts, the library is designed for Göttingen University as well as the central library for the German State of Lower Saxony (with its central catalogue) and for the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, founded as
14632-527: The university, assisted by a technical and administrative staff of over 7,000. The post-war expansion of the university led to the establishment of a new, modern "university quarter" in the north of the city. The architecture of the old university can still be seen in the Auditorium Maximum (1826/1865) and the Great Hall (1835/1837) at Wilhelmsplatz. The University of Göttingen encompasses 13 faculties and
14756-571: The word Bedeutung to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense). In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the Philosophy of Arithmetic and Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder 's Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik . In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated
14880-441: The world's population and accounting for 68% of all Misplaced Pages articles across 287 languages. This comprehensive analysis identified the most influential universities globally over the past ten centuries, resulting in the "2017 Misplaced Pages World University Rankings", where the University of Göttingen ranked the 20th in terms of "web page rank" (search engine data), the 8th on account of "chei rank" (interactive citation data), and
15004-667: Was subject. One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the Cartesian Meditations itself becomes transcendent. It remains, however, alone (unconnected). Only the ego's grasp "by analogy" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community. In 1933,
15128-443: Was the first university in the western Zones to be re-opened under British control in 1945. Göttingen's glorious history of affiliation with numerous celebrities continued: Jürgen Habermas , a famous German philosopher and sociologist, pursued his study in Göttingen. Later, Richard von Weizsäcker , a late President of Germany , earned his doctorate in law here. Gerhard Schröder , a former Chancellor of Germany , also graduated from
15252-539: Was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. Husserl had died three years earlier. In post-war editions of Sein und Zeit the dedication to Husserl is restored. The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed. On 4 May 1933, Professor Edmund Husserl addressed
15376-707: Was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey ; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey. Two years later in Italy he paid a visit to Franz Brentano his inspiring old teacher and to Constantin Carathéodory the mathematician. Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought. In 1910 he became joint editor of the journal Logos . During this period Husserl had delivered lectures on internal time consciousness , which several decades later his former students Edith Stein and Martin Heidegger edited for publication. In 1912 at Freiburg
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