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137-506: The Hwarang were also referred to as Hyangdo ("fragrant ones" or "fragrant disciples" – 향도; 香徒), the word hwarang and its colloquial derivatives being used for everything from playboy to shaman or husband of a female shaman. The word remained in common use until the 12th century but with more derogatory connotations. Information on the Hwarang is mainly found in the historiographical works Samguk Sagi (1145) and Samguk Yusa (c. 1285), and

274-441: A mudang who keeps the image. Musindo paintings range from being crude to more sophisticated. Traditionally they use colors associated with the five directions ( 오방색 ; obangsaek ): red, blue/green, yellow, white, and black. Painters who produce musindo are traditionally expected to adhere to standards of purity while producing these artworks, bathing beforehand and refraining from eating fish or meat. Since

411-585: A Shinto shrine during the Japanese occupation, at which it moved to Inwangsan , a mountain to the north of the city. The growing urbanisation of South Korea since the late 20th century has meant that many are now surrounded by other buildings, sometimes including other kuttang . The increasingly cramped nature of Korean urban living may have encouraged the increasing popularity of kuttang in isolated locations like mountains. Kuttang often operate as businesses. They rent out rooms for mudang to use,

548-548: A Unified Silla , the Silla-Tang War , and reestablishing relations with the Tang dynasty , the Hwarang lost much of their influence and prestige during peacetime. This group was reduced to a social club for Silla's elite through various names. They would eventually disappear after the fall of Silla, but they lasted through the Koryŏ dynasty until they officially disbanded at the beginning of

685-483: A spirit medium , is sometimes used synonymously with mudang but at other times describes a distinct group of practitioners. Another term some mudang adopt for themselves is posal ( bosal ), originally a Korean term for a Buddhist bodhisattva , and which is favored more by female than male practitioners. Conversely, some mudang maintain that the term posal should be reserved for diviners who are possessed by child spirits but who do not perform

822-649: A big part in the unification of the Three Kingdoms, some historians are unclear about the role that the Hwarang played in the unification; An excerpt about Sadaham in the Samguk Sagi . According to the Samguk Yusa , the Silla king, "concerned about the strengthening of the country ... again issued a decree and chose boys from good families who were of good morals and renamed them hwarang ." The actual word used in this chronicle

959-459: A centralized government. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage. Renamed from Saro to Silla in 503, the kingdom annexed the Gaya confederacy (which in turn had absorbed Byeonhan earlier) in the first half of

1096-527: A chest. In addition to entities associated with musok specifically, shrines may also include images of Buddhist deities. Alongside representations of such beings, shrines typically have candles, incense holders, and offering bowls; there may also be toys or dolls to amuse the child gods. The mudang's altar will also often be a place to store or display their ritual paraphernalia, such as costumes. To sustain their ongoing favor, mudang often worship their deities daily. Thus, they often bow when in

1233-640: A child getting into university, financial woes, business concerns, or physical ailments. Some clients turn to the mudang after being dissatisfied with the diagnosis or treatment administered by medical professionals. Although both sexes do consult mudang , most clients are female. From his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim found that most clients were women in their late fifties and early sixties, while that same decade Kendall noted that most clients in Seoul and its environs were small entrepreneurs, such as owners of small companies, shops, and restaurants. By

1370-443: A compulsion to go to a shrine or sacred mountain. Alternatively, they have described encounters with spirits, sometimes while wandering in a wild environment, or otherwise through dreams, with dreams and visions sometimes revealing which deities the future mudang is expected to serve. Once the person has accepted the calling, they must find an established mudang willing to train them. They become this person's apprentice,

1507-400: A folk religion, a popular religion, and an indigenous religion . It is a non-institutionalized tradition, rather than being an organized religion akin to Buddhism or Christianity. It has no doctrine, nor any overarching hierarchy, and is orally transmitted. It displays considerable regional variation, as well as variation according to the choices of individual practitioners. Over time,

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1644-525: A fundamental role in transmitting cultural and material developments to ancient Japan , including Chinese written characters , Chinese and Korean literature , technologies such as ferrous metallurgy and ceramics , architectural styles , sericulture and Buddhism . Baekje exerted its political influence on Tamna , a kingdom that ruled Jeju Island . Baekje maintained a close relationship with and extracted tribute from Tamna. Baekje's religious and artistic culture influenced Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje

1781-503: A hereditary fashion, not all sesŭp-mu do so, while some kangsin-mu continue the role of a family member as if maintaining a hereditary tradition. Yun commented that dividing the mudang into distinct typologies "cannot explain complex reality." Certain regional terms are also used for the mudang . The sesŭp-mu are often called tanggol in Jeolla Province , and simbang on Jeju Island . The latter term

1918-466: A large assortment of offerings thus gives the impression of a financially successful ritual specialist. Deities are often believed to be present in all houses. Historical accounts often reference the presence of earthen jars ( tok , hangari , tanji ) filled with grain, or smaller baskets or pouches, as offerings to household deities and ancestors. This practice was declining in South Korea by

2055-511: A largely "residual" category into which all Korean religious practices that were not Buddhist , Confucian , or Christian were placed. Scholars like Griffin Dix, Kil-sŏng Ch'oe and Don Baker have conversely presented Korean shamanism as just one facet of "Korean folk religion," the latter sometimes called minsok chonggyo in Korean . Korean shamanism has varyingly been labelled a vernacular religion,

2192-438: A means of choosing specific locales for the placement of kuttang . Some are located at especially auspicious places, such as at an area below a mountain, the myŏngdang , where positive spiritual energy is thought to congregate. Kuttang sometimes move over time. The Kuksadang , which Kendall described as "Seoul's most venerable kuttang ", for instance was originally on South Mountain, before being displaced by

2329-495: A name for the religion. Alternative terms include mugyo , muijŭm , and mu . In Korea, the term misin ("superstition") is sometimes used for this religion, but is also applied to other religious and cultural practices like geomancy . While misin carries negative connotations in Korean culture, some mudang use it to describe what they do. Since the late 19th century, English language studies have referred to

2466-461: A new financial venture, such as the opening of a mall or an office building. As well as being performed for clients, the mudang will sometimes perform these rituals for their own personal reasons; in the 1990s, for instance, the prominent mudang Kim Kŭm-hwa performed a kut for Korean reunification . Three Kingdoms of Korea The Three Kingdoms of Korea or Samhan ( Goguryeo , Baekje and Silla ) competed for hegemony over

2603-597: A number of myths that discuss the origins of shamans or the shamanic religion. These include, the Princess Bari myth, the Gongsim myth, and the Chogong bon-puri myth. Origin myths are often called ponp'uri . These narratives have been extensively collected and studied by Korean scholars. During a kut ritual held for the dead, an epic ballad called the Tale of Princess Pari

2740-411: A person who is talented and virtuous, despite the fact that she was the one who succumbed to homicidal tendencies. It would be logical to assume that if someone had to work hard, maybe even struggle with attaining certain goals, that envy might consume them if their counterpart, especially if viewed more as a rival, seemed to reach the same objectives with substantially less effort. It is conjectured that

2877-466: A practice perhaps originating in the late Joseon period. The kuttang will have a shrine keeper, who may be a mudang themselves. Other staff based there may include musicians called chaebi , cooks who prepare food for kut rituals, and a maid, the kongyangju , who is a trainee mudang yet to undergo their initiation rite. As well as spaces for ritual, kuttang also provide places for networking, allowing mudang to witness

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3014-404: A prescribed liturgy, and can last for up to several days. A kut is sponsored for a specific purpose. A kut may be arranged due to an illness, domestic quarrel, or financial loss. It might be undertaken to propitiate the spirit of a deceased family member, or to increase prosperity and good fortune; in the 21st century, it has become increasingly common to sponsor a kut to mark

3151-462: A regional scale between cemeteries. Near the end of the 2nd century AD, interior space in elite burials increased in size, and wooden chamber burial construction techniques were increasingly used by elites. In the 3rd century, a pattern developed in which single elite cemeteries that were the highest in status compared to all the other cemeteries were built. Such cemeteries were established at high elevations along ridgelines and on hilltops. Furthermore,

3288-404: A shrine in their home in which they host various gods and ancestors, sometimes set up in a cabinet. Shrines might alternatively be found outdoors, often incorporating a stone or old tree, while a mudang will often establish a temporary altar in a client's home. While each altar often has its own idiosyncratic elements, they are typically dominated by bright, primary colors, in contrast to

3425-525: A similar culture and language. Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths which likely originated in Buyeo. Buddhism , which arrived in Korea in the 3rd century AD from India via Tibet and China, became the state religion of all constituents of the three kingdoms, starting with Goguryeo in 372 AD. The Three Kingdoms of Korea all had a warrior aristocracy in contrast to the literary elite of China. The period ended in

3562-554: A single river valley, etc. make up some of these correlates that define states. Among the archaeology sites dating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, hundreds of cemeteries with thousands of burials have been excavated. The vast majority of archaeological evidence of the Three Kingdoms period of Korea consists of burials, but since the 1990s there has been a great increase in the archaeological excavations of ancient industrial production sites, roads, palace grounds and elite precincts, ceremonial sites, commoner households, and fortresses due to

3699-456: A spirit realm, a practice not found in Korean traditional religion. Many scholars avoid the term "shaman" as a cross-cultural category altogether. Its application to Korean religion is controversial, with Chongho Kim deeming it "often unhelpful". The scholar Suk-Jay Yim proposed mu-ism as a more appropriate label than "Korean shamanism," while Dix thought "spirit mediumship" more suitable than "shamanism". Prior to Christianity's arrival in

3836-458: A state religion by the royalty and aristocrats within the Silla Kingdom. The Buddhist monks were often mentors for the Hwarang in both physical and spiritual ways. The Hwarang would seek the teachings of these Buddhist monks because they knew that the martial arts practiced by these Buddhist monks were a source through which they could strengthen themselves for greater success in the future and for

3973-407: A sufficient number and scale that state-level societies can be confidently identified using archaeological data. Lee Sung-Joo analyzed variability in many of the elite cemeteries of the territories of Silla and Gaya polities and found that as late as the 2nd century there was intra-cemetery variation in the distribution of prestige grave goods , but there was an absence of hierarchical differences on

4110-583: Is mu , the latter synonymous with the Chinese word wu ( Hanja : 巫 ), also used for ritual specialists. Several modern mudang advocacy groups have adopted the term musogin , meaning "people who do mu ." While the term mudang can apply to a man or woman, specific terms for male musok specialists include paksu , or, more commonly used in the past, kyŏksa . Modern advocacy groups have also described supporters as sindo (believers, Hanja : 信徒 ) or musindo (believers in

4247-508: Is hwanang (花娘), meaning "flower girls". This suggests that the Hwarang were not originally military in character, as the Wonhwa were not soldiers. The youths who were chosen by the Silla Kingdom became the knights and warriors for the Silla dynasty within the age of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . A close relationship did exist between the Hwarang and Buddhism because Buddhism was accepted as

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4384-439: Is a religion from Korea . Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism , Daoism , and Confucianism . There is no central authority in control of musok , with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A polytheistic religion, musok revolves around deities and ancestral spirits. Central to

4521-457: Is an economic activity, and they operate as free agents rather than members of an ordained clergy. For many practitioners, being a mudang is a full-time job on which they financially depend, although some fail to earn a living through this ritual vocation. To succeed financially, mudang must attract regular clientele, and to that end modern South Korean practitioners have advertised their services in brochures, fliers, newspapers, and on

4658-434: Is often a source of mistrust between clients and mudang . Concerns about money are heightened by the lack of an "institutional buffer" between the client and ritual practitioner, such as a temple or church. Most musok rituals center around altars —referred to as sinbang , harabŏjiŭibang , or pŏptang —and which serve as places for mudang to engage with supernatural beings. Mudang typically have

4795-566: Is often recited. One of the common myths in Korean Shamanism is known as the Myth of Tangun. Tangun is sometimes considered the first mudang . This myth refers to the belief that God would come from heaven. This would result in the earth and heaven being unified. God and human beings would be unified as well. Korean Shamanism believes that the goddess mother of earth is married to the heavenly God. A common belief in Korean vernacular religion

4932-482: Is possible through prayer and devotion. The dead are regarded as intrinsically dangerous to the living as their touch causes affliction, regardless of whether they mean harm or not. Those who died prematurely or who feel their life was unfulfilled, such as grandparents who never saw their grandchildren, a first wife who was replaced by a second wife, those who died by drowning, and young people who died before they could marry, are all considered especially antagonistic to

5069-483: Is that spirits of the dead wander the human world before entering the afterlife. After death, the soul must stand trial in court and pass through gates kept by the Ten Kings. At this court, the dead are judged for their conduct in life. The Ten Gates of Hell are regarded as places of punishment for the wicked, typified by grotesque and gory scenes. According to the Princess Bari narrative, Ascension from Hell to Paradise

5206-543: Is the sesŭp-mu of eastern and southern regions, whose rituals entail spirit mediumship but not possession. Elements of the musok tradition may derive from prehistory. During the Joseon period, Confucian elites suppressed the mudang with taxation and legal restrictions, deeming their rites to be improper. From the late 19th century, modernisers – many of whom were Christian – characterised musok as misin (superstition) and supported its suppression. During

5343-421: Is the core practice for most mudang , even those who have built celebrity status through their performance of staged kut . In some areas, including Jeju, clients are called tan'gol . Clients seek solutions to their practical problems, typically hoping that the mudang can ascertain the cause of misfortune they have suffered. Common reasons for doing so include recurring nightmares, concerns about

5480-482: Is the deities who decide if a person is to become a mudang and that they will torment an individual with misfortune, illness or madness to encourage them into adopting the profession. This process is termed the sinŭi kamul ("the drought caused by the gods"), sinbyŏng ("spirit possession sickness"), or mubyŏng (" mu sickness"). Mudang have for instance reported partial paralysis and hallucinations before turning to this ritual vocation, or else

5617-468: The chagŭn mudang . Apprentices are usually aged over 18, although there are examples of children becoming apprentices. The apprentice of a mudang may be called their sinttal or sinddal (spirit daughter) if female, or sinadul (spirit son) if male. The mudang will be that novice's sineomeoni . The neophyte must ultimately perform an initiation ritual to open up malmun (the "gates of speech") that will allow them to receive

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5754-622: The kut rituals of the mudang . Musok is polytheistic . Supernatural beings are called kwisin , or sin . The mudang divide these beings into two main groups, the gods and the ancestral spirits, although may use the term sin for all of them. Supernatural beings are seen as volatile; if humans do well by them, they can receive good fortune, but if they offend these entities then they may suffer. Devotees of these deities believe that they can engage, converse, and bargain with them. Each mudang will have their own personal pantheon of deities, one that may differ from

5891-406: The kut rituals to feast and entertain them. The mudang 's ability to perform their rituals successfully is deemed to come from myŏnggi ("divine energy") bestowed upon them by the deities. Thus, divine favor must be gained through purification and supplication, prayer and pilgrimage. Individual mudang can be regarded as having particular specialities. For the mudang , ritual

6028-487: The mudang as "shamans" and their practices as "Korean shamanism", a label rendered into Korean as shyamŏnijŭm . Introduced to English from the Tungusic languages at the end of the 17th century, the term "shamanism" has never received a commonly agreed definition and has been used in at least four distinct ways. A common definition uses "shamanism" to describe traditions involving visionary flights to perform rituals in

6165-415: The mudang have nevertheless long been marginalised. Disapproval of mudang , often regarded as charlatans, remains widespread in South Korea, especially among Christians. Musok has also influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism . The anthropologist Chongho Kim noted that defining Korean shamanism was "really problematic". He characterised "Korean shamanism" as

6302-404: The mudang is called kut . These are large-scale rites, characterised by rhythmic movements, songs, oracles and prayers. They are the only rituals in traditional Korean religion believed to give supernatural entities the ability to speak directly to humans, and are meant to create welfare, promoting commitment between supernatural beings and humankind. The purpose of a kut is to get

6439-494: The mudang occurred in South Korea from the late 1970s onward, especially as practitioners were associated with the minjung pro-democracy movement and came to be regarded as a source of Korean cultural identity. Musok is primarily found in South Korea, where there are around 200,000 mudang , although practitioners are also found abroad. While Korean attitudes to religion have historically been fairly inclusive, allowing for syncretism between musok and Buddhism,

6576-599: The mudang would be brought in on rarer occasions. Korea has seen particular syncretism between musok and Buddhism; mudang often identify as Buddhists, and commonly worship Buddhist deities, while some Korean Buddhist temples venerate deities traditionally associated with musok . In contemporary South Korea, it remains possible for followers of most religions (barring Christianity) to involve themselves in musok with little censure from their fellow religionists. Meanwhile, mudang based in Europe have merged

6713-416: The mudang , and then engage in an introductory conversation. Through this, the mudang will hope to ascertain more about the client and their problems. The mudang then uses divination and trance visions to determine the source of their client's trouble; in musok , neglecting ancestors and gods is seen as the primary cause of affliction. The mudang may then try to convince their client of

6850-544: The sesŭp-mu tradition, teachings are often passed down hereditarily although in other instances a sesŭp-mu adopts a non-relative, rather than their child, as an apprentice. Not all practitioners want their children to follow them into the profession, however. When mudang do not wish a family member to continue their vocation, they may ensure that their ritual paraphernalia is burned or buried at their death; doing so severs any connection between their person deities and their surviving family. Serving private clients

6987-629: The Japanese occupation of the early 20th century , nationalistically oriented folklorists began promoting the idea that musok represented Korea's ancient religion and a manifestation of its national culture; an idea later heavily promoted by mudang themselves. In the mid-20th century, persecution of mudang continued under the Marxist government of North Korea and through the New Community Movement in South Korea. More positive appraisal of

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7124-508: The Joseon dynasty. Historians have problems figuring out the leadership hierarchy within the Hwarang as they piece together different historical materials. For instance, historians thought the Pungwolju was a government position administering the Hwarang groups, a Hwarang leader, or a previous system within the Hwarang. Historians also dispute the Gukseon as Hwarang leaders appointed by the king or

7261-614: The Korean Peninsula during the ancient period of Korean history . During the Three Kingdoms period ( Korean :  삼국시대 ), many states and statelets consolidated until, after Buyeo was annexed in 494 and Gaya was annexed in 562, only three remained on the Korean Peninsula: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The " Korean Three Kingdoms " contributed to what would become Korea; and the Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla peoples became

7398-525: The Korean people . The three kingdoms occupied the entire peninsula and roughly half of Manchuria (modern-day Northeast China and small parts of the Russian Far East ). Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the peninsula, as well as Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria. Baekje and Silla occupied the southern half of the peninsula. The island kingdoms of Tamna and Usan were subordinated to Baekje and Silla, respectively. All three kingdoms shared

7535-577: The Later Silla period, the concepts of Samhan as the ancient confederacies and the Three Kingdoms of Korea were merged. In a letter to an imperial tutor of the Tang dynasty, Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn equated Byeonhan to Baekje, Jinhan to Silla, and Mahan to Goguryeo. By the Goryeo period, Samhan became a common name to refer to all of Korea. In his Ten Mandates to his descendants, Wang Geon declared that he had unified

7672-592: The Later Three Kingdoms and ultimately annexed by the new Goguryeo revivalist state of Goryeo . Beginning in the 7th century, the name " Samhan " became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The "Han" in the names of the Korean Empire , Daehan Jeguk , and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Daehan Minguk or Hanguk , are named in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in

7809-863: The Samguk Yusa emphasizes the group's Buddhist activities. The biographies section of the Samguk Sagi describes young Hwarang who distinguished themselves in the struggles against the Gaya confederacy and later Baekje and Goguryeo . According to the Hwarang Segi , as cited in the Samguk Sagi and Haedong Goseungjeon , “...able ministers and loyal subjects are chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers are born therefrom.” The Hwarang were greatly influenced by Buddhist , Confucian , and shamanistic ideals. A Chinese official recorded, "They [Silla] choose fair sons from noble families and deck them out with cosmetics and fine clothes and call them Hwarang. The people all revere and serve them." After establishing

7946-570: The Three Kingdoms of China. The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Wiman Joseon and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon , the Han dynasty established four commanderies in the northwestern Korean Peninsula and present Liaoning . Three fell quickly to the Samhan , and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313. The nascent precursors of Baekje and Silla expanded within

8083-455: The Unified Silla . According to Korean records, in 57 BC, Seorabeol (or Saro, later Silla) in the southeast of the peninsula unified and expanded the confederation of city-states known as Jinhan . Although Samguk sagi records that Silla was the earliest-founded of the three kingdoms, other written and archaeological records indicate that Silla was likely the last of the three to establish

8220-421: The golpum system and a symbol of harmony and compromise between the king and the aristocracy. With the consolidation and expansion of Silla and intensification of military rivalries among the Three Kingdoms in the 6th century, the Silla court took a more active interest in the Hwarang. Hwarang groups were usually led by a youth of aristocratic standing, and the state appointed a high-ranking official to oversee

8357-611: The "Eastern Barbarians" section (東夷傳) from the Book of Wei (魏書) of the Records of the Three Kingdoms in China. All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language. The Book of Sui (Volume 81) recorded: "The customs, laws and clothes of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla are generally identical." Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic , but they were increasingly influenced by Chinese culture, particularly Confucianism and Taoism . In

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8494-432: The 17th and 18th centuries, Korean religion was rarely exclusivist, with many Koreans practising Daoism , Buddhism, Confucianism, and musok simultaneously. Despite shared underlying beliefs, these traditions undertook a "division of ritual and cosmological responsibility" between each other. Confucian rituals were for example primarily concerned with ancestor veneration and tended to be simpler and more regular, whereas

8631-576: The 1960s and 1970s. By the latter decades of the 20th century, cardboard boxes had become common receptacles for these household offerings. Some mudang have suggested that, because most South Koreans now live in apartments, the Sŏngju must be venerated in a way that ensures it is mobile and can be transported to a new home. Specialised buildings at which musok rituals are performed are called kuttang or kut dang ( 굿당 ) and are typically located on mountains. Kuttang are often identified on

8768-413: The 1970s, musindo have commonly been produced in commercial workshops, although a small number of traditional artists remain in South Korea. After a mudang 's death, their musindo were often ritually de-animated and then burned during the 20th century. Some musindo have been donated to museums; certain musok practitioners believe that the deity leaves the image if that occurs. On

8905-512: The 20th century retained associations with measles and chickenpox . Popular cosmological deities include Ch'ilsŏng , the spirit of the seven stars of the Big Dipper , who is regarded as a merciful Buddhist figure that cares for children. Yŏngdŏng is a goddess of the wind, popular in southern areas including Jeju. The mountain god, or mountain gods more broadly, are called sansin , or sometimes sansillyŏng , and are typically seen as

9042-456: The 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula and spread rapidly, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms. According to Lisa Kay Bailey, the material culture of the Three Kingdoms can be clearly distinguished as they displayed cultural influence from different regions. Goguryeo's culture showed stronger influence from northern Chinese art, Baekche showed stronger influence from southern Chinese art, and Silla, which

9179-456: The 6th century. Goguryeo and Baekje responded by forming an alliance. To cope with invasions from Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla deepened its relations with the Tang dynasty, with her newly gained access to the Yellow Sea making direct contact with the Tang possible. After the conquest of Goguryeo and Baekje with her Tang allies, the Silla kingdom drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula and occupied

9316-465: The 7th century, after Silla allied with Tang China and unified the peninsula for the first time in history. After the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the Tang dynasty established a short-lived military government to administer parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla was joined by Goguryeo and Baekje loyalists and fought the Tang for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula. Silla was eventually divided into

9453-650: The Chinese Lelang commandery in 313. The cultural influence of the Chinese continued as Buddhism was adopted as the official religion in 372. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state; it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia . The state was at its zenith in the 5th century, during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu , and particularly during their campaign in Manchuria. For

9590-718: The Goguryeo ruling tribe of Geumgwan Gaya in 372 AD, by the Silla in 528 AD, and by the Baekje in 552 AD. Allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla conquered Goguryeo in 668, after having already conquered Gaya in 562 and Baekje in 660, thus ushering in the North–South states period with Later Silla to the south and Balhae to the north, when Dae Jo-young , a former Goguryeo military officer, revolted against Tang Chinese rule and began reconquering former Goguryeo territories. Archaeologists use theoretical guidelines derived from anthropology , ethnology , analogy, and ethnohistory to

9727-433: The Hwarang groups elect their members to lead their groups. Some historians believed the Pungwolju and Gukseon ranks might be synonymous with each other, and they both served as Hwarang leaders. Two youths, Gwisan (귀산,貴山) and Chwihang (취항, 取項), approached the Silla monk Won Gwang seeking spiritual guidance and teaching, saying, “We are ignorant and without knowledge. Please give us a maxim which will serve to instruct us for

9864-537: The Internet. Some followers of musok are unhappy with this situation, believing that the practice has degenerated under capitalism and modernisation ; they feel that modern mudang display a more materialistic and self-interested approach than their historical predecessors. Many mudang report that they never wanted to take up the profession, resisting the calling due to the social disapproval that practitioners often face. However, musok teaches that it

10001-456: The Korean peninsula, the latter in southern parts below the Han River . The kangsin-mu tradition later spread and by the late 20th century was dominant across South Korea, with its ritual costumes and paraphernalia being widely adopted. Lines between the sesŭp-mu and kangsin-mu are nevertheless blurred. Although the sesŭp-mu are typically presented as inheriting the role in

10138-404: The Silla Kingdom from rival kingdoms and helped unify the nation of Ancient Korea until the fall of the Silla Kingdom. In 520, King Beopheung had instituted Sino-Korean style reforms and formalized the golpum (bone rank) system. In 527, Silla formally adopted Buddhism as a state religion. The establishment of Hwarang took place in the context of tightening central state control, a complement to

10275-576: The Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正). Following the fall of Silla, the term hwarang survived and changed in meaning again. In Choe Sejin (최세진)'s 1527 book Hunmong jahoe (훈몽자회), the term hwarang is even referred to as a male prostitute. Today, Hwarang is often used in the names of various schools, organizations and companies. Korean shamanism Korean shamanism , also known as musok ( Korean :  무속 ; Hanja :  巫俗 ) or Mu-ism ( 무교 ; 巫敎 ; Mugyo ),

10412-453: The Tang dynasty. Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" ( 마한추장 ; 馬韓酋長 ; Mahan Choojang ) in 645. In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan. Epitaphs of the Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called

10549-483: The Tang official Ling Hucheng; and 3) Hwarang Segi , Chronicle of the Hwarang ) by Kim Dae-mun , compiled in the early eighth century. In the late 1980s, an alleged Hwarang Segi manuscript was discovered in Gimhae , South Korea . Scholar Richard McBride regards it as a forgery. According to the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa , two groups of women called Wonhwa preceded the Hwarang. The precise nature and activities of

10686-563: The Three Han (Samhan), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Samhan continued to be a common name for Korea during the Joseon period and was widely referenced in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty . In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since the beginning of the 7th century. The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in

10823-448: The Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo. For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon ( 고현 ; 高玄 ), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" ( 요동 삼한인 ; 遼東 三韓人 ; Yodong Samhanin ). The name "Three Kingdoms" was used in the titles of the Korean histories Samguk sagi (12th century) and Samguk yusa (13th century), and should not be confused with

10960-399: The Wonhwa are also unclear, with some scholars positing they may have actually been court beauties or courtesans. However, considering that they were trained in ethics, this may be a later patriarchal reading into the Wonhwa. Women played a much more prominent social role in pre- Joseon Korea, especially in Silla, which had three reigning queens in its history. Both sources record that during

11097-522: The altar, they are usually considered the most important objects present. They are regarded as seats for the deities, literally manifesting the latter's presence rather than just visually depicting them, an idea similar to those found across much of Asia, as in Buddhism and Hinduism . As well as being invited to inhabit a painting, a deity may also be petitioned to depart it; they are sometimes believed to leave of their own accord, for instance if they abandon

11234-468: The ancestors to convey messages directly to the living. Certain ancestral spirits can also form part of a mudang's personal pantheon. A personal spiritual guardian is the momju (plural momjusin ). The momjusin of male mudang are usually deemed female; those of female mudang are typically male. In Korean religion, a "fundamental cosmology" has influenced various traditions, including musok . Korean shamanic narratives include

11371-472: The archaeological record indicates that states formed between 300 BC and 300/400 AD. However, archaeologists are not prepared to suggest that this means there were states in the BC era. The correlates of state-level societies did not develop as a package but rather in spurts and starts and at various points in time. It was some time between 100 and 400 AD that individual correlates of state societies had developed to

11508-584: The benefit of the Silla Kingdom. The monks would train themselves in physical fitness exercises through self-defense techniques, countering the weakening effects of long-term meditation and enabling them to protect themselves from bandits and robbers who tried to steal the donations and charities that were collected by the monks on their pilgrimages. Both the Buddhist monks and the Hwarang would go on journeys to famous mountains to heighten their training and would seek encounters with supernatural beings for protection and

11645-471: The boom in salvage archaeology in South Korea. Rhee and Choi hypothesize that a mix of internal developments and external factors lead to the emergence of state-level societies in Korea. A number of archaeologists including Kang demonstrate the role of frequent warfare in the development of peninsular states. Some individual correlates of complex societies are found in the chiefdoms of Korea that date back to c.  700 BC . The best evidence from

11782-514: The chief of which is Sŏngju, the principal house guardian. Others include T'oju taegum, who patrols the precincts of the household, Chowang the kitchen spirit, and Pyŏnso Kakssi, the protector of the toilet. Keeping these entities happy was traditionally regarded as the role of the housewife, and is achieved through offering them food and drink. These informal rituals do not require the involvement of mudang , who would only be called in for special occasions. Pollution caused by births or deaths in

11919-510: The concept of what defines a state-level society . This is different from the concept of state ( guk or Sino ko: 國, walled-town state, etc.) in the discipline of Korean history. In anthropological archaeology the presence of urban centres (especially capitals), monumental architecture, craft specialization and standardization of production, ostentatious burials, writing or recording systems , bureaucracy , demonstrated political control of geographical areas that are usually larger in area than

12056-692: The deities are called janggunsin , and typically take human form. The pantheon of deities, which has changed over time, is termed sindang , with over 130 musok divinities having been identified. The deities can be divided into those embodying natural or cosmological forces and those who were once human, including monarchs, officials, and generals. Some derive from Daoist or Buddhist traditions and others are unique to Korean vernacular religion. They are deemed capable of manifesting in material forms, as in paintings or statues, or as inhabiting landscape locations such as trees, rocks, springs, and stone piles. The anthropologist Laurel Kendall suggested that

12193-455: The deities desire food and drink, spend money, and enjoy song and dance, and thus receive these things as offerings. Spirits of the dead are thought to yearn for the activities and pleasures they enjoyed in life; spirits of military generals are for instance believed to like dangerous games. The associations of particular deities can change over time; Hogu Pyŏlsŏng was for instance a goddess of smallpox , but after that disease's eradication in

12330-402: The details of this origin story are most likely based on myth and legend, despite the facts surrounding the foundation of the sect being true, as supported by various documented sources. First note that the term wonhwa is composed of won 源, "source", and undoubtedly refers to the founders of the sect, while hwa 花, "flower", is a euphemism for someone who has spent a great deal of time or money in

12467-429: The early 21st century, Sarfati observed, many young people had become clients of mudang as part of a spiritual search or for counselling. Clients do not generally regard themselves as being committed exclusively to musok , and may deem themselves Buddhists or Christians, but mudang often think that their rituals will please the spirits regardless of their client's beliefs. A client will often arrive, greet

12604-406: The establishment of Goguryeo, its early history is well attested archaeologically: the first and second capital cities , Jolbon and Gungnae city, are located in and around today's Ji'an, Jilin . In 2004, the site was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . Since 1976, continuing archaeological excavations concentrated in the southeastern part of modern Gyeongju have revealed parts of

12741-436: The exterior by a t'aegŭk symbol, a circular swirl of red, blue, and yellow that symbolizes the cosmos. The main ritual room is called the kut bang , and often contains a table on which offerings are placed. Mudang often rent a kuttang to perform their rituals, especially if they do not have space for such rites in their home. Practitioners often believe that deities communicate with humans through dreams as

12878-758: The family compound and cause trouble. Villages traditionally had Jangseung , timber or occasionally stone posts representing two generals that guard the settlement from harmful spirits. On Jeju, these were constructed of volcanic rock and were respectively called the Harubang (grandfather) and Halmang (grandmother). Historically, villages would often hold annual festivals to thank their tutelary deities. These would often be overseen by local men and reflect Confucian traditions, although sometimes mudang did participate. In Korean society, rapid urbanisation has radically changed how people interact with their local deities. Korean vernacular religion includes household deities,

13015-494: The five cardinal points. Among the sinjang are historical figures like Ch'oeyŏng, Im Kyŏngŏp, Oh, and Chang, as well as more recent military figures; around Inchon , various mudang have venerated General Douglas MacArthur as a hero of the Korean War . Child deities are tongja . The Korean traditional cosmology also includes mischievous spirits called tokkaebi , and entities called tongt'o that can lodge in

13152-456: The foundation of the Hwarang system originated from the mid 6th century during the King Jinheung of Silla era, but the exact date of establishment is ambiguous: Samguk sagi reports the year of 576 AD, Dongguk Tonggam reports the year of 540 AD, and Sadaham is already recorded as a Hwarang in 562 AD according to Samguk sagi yeoljeon . Although some historians believe that the Hwarang played

13289-564: The fourth century unleashed a wave of refugees that proved pivotal in speeding up the process of state-building in Korea," starting the Three Kingdoms era. Goguryeo emerged on the north and south banks of the Yalu (Amrok) River, in the wake of Gojoseon 's fall. The first mention of Goguryeo in Chinese records dates from 75 BC in reference to a commandery established by the Chinese Han dynasty , although even earlier mentions of "Guri" ( 구리 ) may be of

13426-429: The gods and spirits or entertain them with storytelling, song, and dance. Kut may take place in a private home or in a kuttang shrine, often located on a mountain. The mudang divide into regional sub-types, the largest being the mansin or kangsin-mu , historically dominant in Korea's northern regions, whose rituals involve them being personally possessed by deities or ancestral spirits. Another type

13563-426: The household are believed to result in Sŏngju leaving, meaning that he must be encouraged to return through ritual. Sŏngju may also require propitiation if expensive goods are brought into the home, as he expects a portion of the expenditure to be devoted to him. Ancestral spirits are called chosang . Tutelary ancestors are termed tangju . Ancestors who may be venerated in musok rituals are broader than

13700-485: The kingdom continued to take aggressive actions against China, Silla, and Baekje attacks until it was conquered by allied Silla–Tang forces in 668. Most of its territory was absorbed by the Tang dynasty of China, and the territory of Baekje was absorbed by Silla. Baekje was founded as a member of the Mahan confederacy. Two sons of the founder of Goguryeo are recorded to have fled a succession conflict, to establish Baekje around

13837-442: The lands south of Pyongyang. The capital of Silla was Seorabeol (now Gyeongju ; "Seorabeol", "서라벌", is hypothesized to have been the ancient Korean term for "capital"). Buddhism became the official religion in 528. The remaining material culture from the kingdom of Silla including unique gold metalwork shows influence from the northern nomadic steppes, differentiating it from the cultures of Goguryeo and Baekje where Chinese influence

13974-517: The late 1980s there have been public lamentations of the dead involving simbang to mark those killed in the Jeju uprising of 1948. The mudang mediate between the human and supernatural worlds, doing so in an attempt to decrease human suffering and ensure a more harmonious life. Specifically, they interact with gods and ancestral spirits by divining their presence and will, performing small rituals to placate them and gain their favor, and overseeing

14111-737: The living and thus particularly dangerous. Meddlesome ghosts are thought to often enter the house on a piece of cloth, clothing, or bright object. A dead ancestor who has not been appropriately cared or has been given an unsuitable burial place is deemed likely to cause trouble for its living descendants. If a person suffers a tragic or untimely death, it is believed that their soul hovers between life and death and can cause misfortune for their family; they thus need to be dealt with through ritual. Terms for wandering spirits include jabkwi and kaeksa , and mudang are deemed best suited for dealing with them, because they can determine what they want and tell them to go away. On Jeju Island, since

14248-462: The most important spirits of the earth. Sansin is typically depicted as a man with a white beard, blue gown, and accompanying tiger. Water deities, or yong , are dragons deemed to live in rivers, springs, and the sea. The most senior dragon is the Yong-Wang (Dragon King) who rules the oceans. Spirits of military generals are sinjang , and include the obang changgun , the generals of

14385-404: The muted earth tones traditionally predominant in Korean daily life. This home shrine may include paintings of deities, called musindo , taenghwa , musokhwa , or sinhwa . These paintings are particularly important in the musok traditions of Seoul and of the northwest provinces Hwanghae and P'yŏngan ; they were traditionally not found in parts of the south. Hanging above

14522-550: The need for a particular ritual to treat their problem. If a ritual fails to produce the desired result, the client may speculate that it was because of a bad performer, errors in the ritual, the presence of a ritually polluted attendee, or a lack of sincerity on their part. If the client feels the mudang has not successfully solved their problem, they may turn to another mudang . They may be disappointed or angry given their substantial financial investment; in some rare cases clients have sued mudang . The payment of money

14659-511: The next century or so, Goguryeo was the dominant nation in Manchuria and the northern Korean peninsula. Goguryeo eventually occupied the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and today's Seoul area. Gwanggaeto achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo also controlled Tungusic tribes in Manchuria. After the establishment of the Sui dynasty and later the Tang dynasty in China,

14796-450: The northeast outskirts of the Silla capital. Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ri are examples of the large-scale of specialized factory-style productions in the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods. The site was excavated in the late 1990s, and archaeologists found the remains of many production features such as pottery kilns , roof-tile kilns, charcoal kilns, as well as the remains of buildings and workshops associated with production. Since

14933-408: The organization. The Hwarang in the later 6th and 7th centuries trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship, archery, javelin and stone throwing, polo, and ladder-climbing. By the seventh century the organization had grown greatly in prestige and numbered several hundred bands. The Samguk Sagi , compiled by the general and official Kim Bu-sik , emphasizes the military exploits of certain Hwarang, while

15070-450: The pantheon of the mudang they trained under. This individual pantheon is the chusin , and a mudang may add new deities to it during their career. Some will be considered guardian deities, each referred to as a taesin . These deities bestow myŏnggi ("divine energy") upon the mudang , enabling the latter to have visions and intuition that allows them to perform their ritual tasks. In Korean traditional religion,

15207-461: The partially extant Haedong Goseungjeon (1215), a compilation of biographies of famous monks of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . All three of these works cite primary sources no longer existent, including 1) a memorial stele to Nallang (presumably a Hwarang based upon the suffix nang ) by the 9th–10th century Silla scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn ; 2) an early Tang account of Silla titled the Xinluo guoji by

15344-420: The presence of their home shrine, and then place offerings upon it. Some offerings, such as cooked rice, fruit, and water, may be changed daily; others, such as sweets, cigarettes, and liquor, may be replaced more infrequently. Mudang maintain that they provide offerings in thanks for the work their deities have brought them. For visiting clients, who may also place offerings at a mudang's home-shrine,

15481-519: The present Seoul area. Baekje absorbed or conquered other Mahan chiefdoms and, at its peak in the 4th century, controlled most of the western Korean Peninsula. Buddhism was introduced to Baekje in 384 from Goguryeo, which Baekje welcomed. Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan . Baekje played

15618-524: The purely patrilineal figures venerated in formal Korean ancestor veneration rites, the chesa . These broader ancestors may for instance include those from a woman's natal family, women who have married out of the family, or family members who have died without offspring. While both the musok rites and the Confucian-derived chesa entail communication with ancestors, only the former involves direct communication with these spirits, allowing

15755-473: The pursuit of something, i.e. a devotee. In the case of the Wonhwa, devotion to philosophy and the arts . Furthermore, while the names nammo and junjeong could have been appellations adopted by these two ladies for use in court , one cannot overlook the obvious descriptions they portray. Nammo hints at one who is careless yet lucky, or perhaps someone who is innately insightful and therefore lackadaisical about further erudition. Junjeung clearly indicates

15892-421: The reign of Jinheung of Silla , groups of beautiful girls were chosen and taught filial and fraternal piety, loyalty, and sincerity (no firm date is given for this, and some scholars express doubt this even occurred during Jinheung's reign). However, the leaders of the two bands of Wonhwa, Nammo (南毛) and Junjeong (俊貞), grew jealous of one another. When Junjeong murdered her rival, the Wonhwa were disbanded. No doubt

16029-517: The relationship that mudang had with these spirit-inhabited sites was akin to animism . The highest deities are often deemed remote and little interested in human affairs. The governing god in Korean tradition, referred to as Hananim, Hanallim, or Hanŭnim, is deemed to rule the heavens but is rarely worshipped. Some of the more powerful deities can make demands from humans without any obligation to reciprocate. Other deities are involved in everyday human concerns and prayed to accordingly. Many of

16166-772: The rest of our lives.” Won Gwang, who had gained fame for his period of study in Sui China , replied by composing the Sesok-ogye ("Five Commandments for Secular Life"; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒). These have since been attributed as a guiding ethos for the Hwarang: The Samguk Yusa also records that Hwarang members learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and

16303-478: The rituals of other practitioners and observe different regional styles. Shrines dedicated to significant tutelary spirits are known as tang or pugundang . Historically, these were often the foci for local cults, such as those devoted to apotheosised heroes. In parts of South Korea, as on Jeju Island, new village shrines have continued to be created into the early 21st century, with various Jeju villages having more than one shrine. The central ritual of

16440-499: The same state. Evidence indicates Goguryeo was the most advanced, and likely the first established, of the three kingdoms. Goguryeo, eventually the largest of the three kingdoms, had several capitals in alternation: two capitals in the upper Yalu area, and later Nangrang ( Lelang in Chinese) which is now part of Pyongyang . At the beginning, the state was located on the border with China; it gradually expanded into Manchuria and destroyed

16577-464: The secret Buddhist monk's physical and mental exercises. Won Gwang also proposed 5 principles or guidelines that were later called the Five Precepts for Secular Life (Se Sok O Gye; 세속오계; 世俗五戒) which became a list of ethics that the Hwarang could embrace (this is why he is commonly known as Beop Sa or "lawgiver"): These commandments and teachings of Won Gwang were followed by the Hwarang to protect

16714-465: The shrine, deities may also be represented by sinsang , statues made of wood, plastic, clay, straw, or metal. Alternatively, deities may be represented by a white piece of paper, the kŭlbal or kŭlmun , onto which the entity's name is written in black or red ink. The deity may instead be seated in physical objects, including stones, clothing, coins, dolls, or knives; these may be concealed from view, for instance being wrapped in cloth or inside

16851-496: The southern Korean Peninsula. According to the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa , Silla implemented a national policy, "Samhan Unification" ( 삼한일통 ; 三韓一統 ; Samhan Iltong ), to integrate Baekje and Goguryeo refugees. In 1982, a memorial stone dating to 686 was discovered in Cheongju with an inscription: "The Three Han were unified and the domain was expanded." During

16988-614: The success/prosperous of the Silla Kingdom. Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) was a Buddhist monk who was asked by the Hwarang to teach them ways to develop aspirations, bravery, and honor, in order to protect the Silla Kingdom from the other kingdoms inhabiting the peninsula. Won Gwang trained these youths in three areas: Won Gwang taught the youths of the Hwarang to become warriors who could defend their beliefs with martial arts, to be confident in their actions, and to control themselves and their surroundings. Won Gwang gave to these Hwarang teachings in gwonbeop (martial methods or skills) that combined

17125-470: The supernatural beings to communicate, expressing what it is that they want and why they are angry. There is regional diversity in the styles of kut , although some mudang mix these different styles, with each kut displaying features unique to its particular circumstances. Central to musok rituals is a reciprocal transaction between humans and supernatural entities. These rituals are typically performance-focused, rather than being rooted in

17262-502: The tradition are ritual specialists, the majority of them female, called mudang ( 무당 ; 巫堂 ) or mu ( 무 ; 巫 ). In English they have sometimes been called " shamans ", although the accuracy of this term is debated among anthropologists . The mudang serve as mediators between paying clients and the supernatural world, employing divination to determine the cause of their clients' misfortune. They also perform kut rituals, during which they offer food and drink to

17399-467: The tradition has displayed both continuity and change. One term commonly used for this tradition is musok (" mu folklore"), coined by the folklorist Yi Nŭnghwa. Although developed during the Japanese colonial period, when it was employed with derogatory connotations, the term has since become popular with the Korean population and with scholars; the Korean studies scholar Antonetta L. Bruno for instance capitalised it as Musok to serve as

17536-525: The tradition with New Age elements. Central to musok are those whom the anthropologist Kyoim Yun called "ritual specialists who mediate between their clients and the invisible" forces of the supernatural. The most common Korean term for these specialists is mudang , a label that encompasses various "folk religion practitioners" across the peninsula. Although commonly used, the term mudang carries derogatory connotations in Korean culture and thus some practitioners avoid it. An alternative term

17673-469: The uppermost elite were buried in large-scale tombs established at the highest point of a given cemetery. Cemeteries with 'uppermost elite' mounded burials such as Okseong-ri, Yangdong-ri, Daeseong-dong, and Bokcheon-dong display this pattern. Lee Sung-Joo proposed that, in addition to the development of regional political hierarchies as seen through analysis of burials, variation in types of pottery production gradually disappeared and full-time specialization

17810-440: The ways of mu , Hanja : 巫信徒 ). Mudang are often divided into two broad types: the kangsin-mu , or "god-descended" mu , and the sesŭp-mu or "hereditary" mu . The former engage in rituals in which they describe being possessed by supernatural entities; the latter's rituals involve interaction with these entities but not possession. The former was historically more common in northern and central parts of

17947-604: The web of statelets during the Proto-Three Kingdoms period , and Goguryeo conquered neighboring state like Buyeo in Manchuria and chiefdoms in Okjeo , Dongye which occupied the northeastern Korean Peninsula. The three polities made the transition from walled-town state to full-fledged state-level societies between 1st – 3rd century AD. The primary sources for this period include Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa in Korea, and

18084-605: The words of the spirits. This rite is called the naerim kut . It involves the neophyte performing the appropriate chants, dances, and oracles to invoke and convey inspiration from the deities. If the initiate fails to perform this correctly, with the deities failing to open their malmun , they will have to perform it again. Many mudang perform multiple naerim kut before being recognised as properly initiated ritual specialists. Those mudang who fail to learn how to deal with supernatural entities correctly are sometimes called ōngt'ōri by other practitioners. In

18221-497: Was first recorded in the 15th century, used for mudang on the Korean mainland, but by the early 19th century was exclusively used for practitioners on Jeju. An alternative term for the kangsin-mu is mansin , a term meaning "ten thousand spirits/gods", and which has less derogatory connotations than the label mudang . Other terms sometimes used for mudang may elsewhere be restricted to different types of Korean ritual specialist. The term yeongmae , describing

18358-462: Was more distant from China, showed greater influence from Eurasian steppe nomad cultures and greater preservation of native traditions. During this period, the Three Kingdoms had yet to unify their separate identities. Each kingdom produced their own individual histories; only in the Goryeo dynasty period was the collective history of the Korean Peninsula written together. "The decline of Chinese power in

18495-579: Was more pronounced. Other smaller states or regions existed in Korea before and during this period: Centuries after Buddhism originated in India , the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century AD from Tibet , then to Korean Peninsula in the 3rd century from where it transmitted to Japan. In Korea, it was adopted by the state religion by three constituent polities, first by

18632-403: Was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo , but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto and declined. In the late 5th century, under attack from Goguryeo, the capital of Baekje was moved south to Ungjin (present-day Gongju ) and later further south to Sabi (present-day Buyeo ). Baekje was conquered by Silla-Tang alliance in 660, submitting

18769-508: Was the only recognizable kind of pottery production from the end of the 4th century A.D. At the same time the production centers for pottery became highly centralized and vessels became standardized. Centralisation and elite control of production is demonstrated by the results of the archaeological excavations at Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ni in Gyeongju . These sites are part of what was an interconnected and sprawling ancient industrial complex on

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