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145-656: Effects Other wikis Hurricane Sandy (unofficially referred to as Superstorm Sandy ) was an extremely large and devastating tropical cyclone which ravaged the Caribbean and the coastal Mid-Atlantic region of the United States in late October 2012. It was the largest Atlantic hurricane on record as measured by diameter, with tropical-storm-force winds spanning 1,150 miles (1,850 km). The storm inflicted nearly US$ 70 billion in damage (equivalent to $ 93 billion in 2023), and killed 254 people in eight countries, from

290-518: A Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre by the World Meteorological Organization 's (WMO) tropical cyclone programme. These warning centers issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility. Meteorological services around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country. There are exceptions, as

435-431: A low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls . Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane ( / ˈ h ʌr ɪ k ən , - k eɪ n / ), typhoon ( / t aɪ ˈ f uː n / ), tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane

580-477: A post-tropical cyclone with hurricane-force winds. Sandy continued drifting inland for another few days while gradually weakening, until it was absorbed by another approaching extratropical storm on November 2. In Jamaica , winds left 70 percent of residents without electricity, blew roofs off buildings, killed one person, and caused about $ 100 million (equivalent to $ 133 million in 2023) in damage. Sandy's outer bands brought flooding to Haiti , killing

725-652: A ridge to the north. Low wind shear and warm waters allowed for strengthening, and the system was named Tropical Storm Sandy late on October 22. Early on October 24, an eye began developing, and it was moving steadily northward due to an approaching trough . Later that day, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgraded Sandy to hurricane status about 65 mi (105 km) south of Kingston, Jamaica. At about 1900 UTC that day, Sandy made landfall near Kingston with winds of about 85 mph (137 km/h). Just offshore Cuba, Sandy rapidly intensified to

870-553: A tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22, quickly strengthened, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Sandy six hours later. Sandy moved slowly northward toward the Greater Antilles and gradually intensified. On October 24, Sandy became a hurricane, made landfall near Kingston, Jamaica , re-emerged a few hours later into the Caribbean Sea and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane. On October 25, Sandy hit Cuba as

1015-416: A 1.5 degree warming lead to "increased proportion of and peak wind speeds of intense tropical cyclones". We can say with medium confidence that regional impacts of further warming include more intense tropical cyclones and/or extratropical storms. Climate change can affect tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a decrease in overall frequency, an increase in

1160-444: A 2019 review paper show a future increase of rainfall rates. Additional sea level rise will increase storm surge levels. It is plausible that extreme wind waves see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm surge dangers to coastal communities. The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase due to global warming . There

1305-446: A 6-foot (1.8-metre) storm surge that caused extensive coastal flooding. There was widespread damage, particularly to Santiago de Cuba where 132,733 homes were damaged, of which 15,322 were destroyed and 43,426 lost their roof. Electricity and water services were knocked out, and most of the trees in the city were damaged. Total losses throughout Santiago de Cuba province is estimated as high as $ 2 billion. Sandy killed 11 people in

1450-465: A Category 3 hurricane, then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 26, Sandy moved through the Bahamas. On October 27, Sandy briefly weakened to a tropical storm and then strengthened back to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 29, Sandy curved west-northwest (the "left turn" or "left hook") and then moved ashore near Brigantine, New Jersey , just to the northeast of Atlantic City , as

1595-428: A Category 3 hurricane, with sustained winds at 115 mph (185 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 954 millibars (28.2 inHg), and at that intensity, Sandy made landfall just west of Santiago de Cuba at 0525 UTC on October 25. Operationally, Sandy was assessed to have peaked as a high-end Category 2 hurricane, with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph (180 km/h). After Sandy exited Cuba,

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1740-414: A Pre-Landfall Emergency Declaration for Massachusetts. Several shelters were opened, and many schools were closed. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority shut down all services on the afternoon of October 29. On October 28, Vermont Governor Peter Shumlin , New Hampshire Governor John Lynch , and Maine 's Governor Paul LePage all declared states of emergency. The National Weather Service issued

1885-452: A campaign stop with former President Bill Clinton in Virginia scheduled for October 29, as well as a trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado , the next day because of the impending storm. On October 26, Mayor of Washington, D.C. Vincent Gray declared a state of emergency, which President Obama signed on October 28. The United States Office of Personnel Management announced federal offices in

2030-590: A circle, whirling round their central clear eye , with their surface winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect . Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in nearly every month in most tropical cyclone basins . Tropical cyclones on either side of

2175-661: A computer model built on power outage data from previous hurricanes, conservatively forecast that 10 million customers along the Eastern Seaboard would lose power from the storm. Through regional offices in Atlanta , Philadelphia , New York City , and Boston , the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) monitored Sandy, closely coordinating with state and tribal emergency management partners in Florida and

2320-405: A flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to rotate cyclonically as it interacts with the rotation of the earth. Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding the system, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of

2465-551: A good chance of receiving gale -force winds, flooding, heavy rain and possibly snow early in the week of October 28 from an unusual hybrid of Hurricane Sandy and a winter storm producing a Fujiwhara effect . Government weather forecasters said there was a 90% chance that the East Coast would be impacted by the storm. Jim Cisco of the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center coined the term "Frankenstorm", as Sandy

2610-506: A higher intensity. Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values. High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm. Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve

2755-428: A kink in the jet stream, causing it to double back on itself off the East Coast. Sandy was caught up in this southeasterly flow, taking the storm on an unusual northwest path. The blocking pattern over Greenland also stalled an Arctic front which combined with the cyclone. Mark Fischetti of Scientific American said that the jet stream's unusual shape was caused by the melting of Arctic ice . Trenberth said that while

2900-460: A large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones. The ADT has a number of differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents

3045-464: A large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by Vernon Dvorak in the 1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity. The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating

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3190-426: A much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river flooding , overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area. A tropical cyclone

3335-485: A negative North Atlantic Oscillation and a blocking anticyclone were in place, the null hypothesis remained that this was just the natural variability of weather. Sea level at New York and along the New Jersey coast has increased by nearly 12 inches (30 cm) over the last hundred years, which contributed to the storm surge . One group of scientists estimated that the anthropogenic (human activity-driven) climate change

3480-493: A number of techniques considered to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones. These techniques have included using nuclear weapons , cooling the ocean with icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and seeding selected storms with dry ice or silver iodide . These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones. A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess

3625-532: A potential environmental threat. The Maryland Transit Administration canceled all service for October 29 and 30. The cancellations applied to buses, light rail, and Amtrak and MARC train service. On October 29, six shelters opened in Baltimore , and early voting was canceled for the day. Maryland Insurance Commissioner Therese M. Goldsmith activated an emergency regulation requiring pharmacies to refill prescriptions regardless of their last refill date. On October 29,

3770-422: A process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30  kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours. Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure decrease of 1.75 hPa (0.052 inHg) per hour or 42 hPa (1.2 inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive deepening occurs when

3915-468: A record gale-force wind diameter of over 1,150 miles (1,850 km), and an unusually low central barometric pressure of 940 mbar, possibly due to the very large size of the system. This pressure set records for many cities across the Northeastern United States for the lowest pressures ever observed. The convection diminished while the hurricane accelerated toward the New Jersey coast, and

4060-429: A remnant low-pressure area . Remnant systems may persist for several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific. Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center. This normally ceases the development of a tropical cyclone. In addition, its interaction with

4205-552: A repeat of what happened earlier in the year during the passage of Hurricane Isaac . Crops were also wiped out by the storm and the country would be making an appeal for emergency aid. Damage in Haiti was estimated at $ 750 million (2012 USD), making it the costliest tropical cyclone in Haitian history. In the month following Sandy, a resurgence of cholera linked to the storm killed at least 44 people and infected more than 5,000 others. In

4350-519: A result of four days of ongoing rain from Hurricane Sandy. Heavy damage occurred in Port-Salut after rivers overflowed their banks. In the capital of Port-au-Prince , streets were flooded by the heavy rains, and it was reported that "the whole south of the country is underwater". Most of the tents and buildings in the city's sprawling refugee camps and the Cité Soleil neighborhood were flooded or leaking,

4495-555: A state of disaster emergency for the city to go into effect at 5 a.m. October 29. Electric utilities in the state brought in crews and equipment from other states such as New Mexico , Texas , and Oklahoma , to assist with restoration efforts. Governor Andrew Cuomo declared a statewide state of emergency and asked for a pre-disaster declaration on October 26, which President Obama signed later that day. By October 27, major carriers canceled all flights into and out of JFK , LaGuardia , and Newark-Liberty airports, and Metro North and

Hurricane Sandy - Misplaced Pages Continue

4640-555: A state of emergency ahead of storm on October 29. Up to 2 to 3 feet (0.61 to 0.91 m) of snow was forecast for mountainous areas of the state. In Great Smoky Mountains National Park , in Tennessee, several inches of snow led to the closure of a major route through the park on Sunday, October 28, and again, after a brief reopening, on Monday, October 29, 2012. The Canadian Hurricane Centre issued its first preliminary statement for Hurricane Sandy on October 25 from Southern Ontario to

4785-697: A storm warning for Lake Huron on October 29 that called for wave heights of 26 feet (7.9 m), and possibly as high as 38 feet (12 m). Lake Michigan waves were expected to reach 19 feet (5.8 m), with a potential of 33 feet (10 m) on October 30. Flood warnings were issued in Chicago on October 29, where wave heights were expected to reach 18 to 23 feet (5.5 to 7.0 m) in Cook County and 25 feet (7.6 m) in northwest Indiana . Gale warnings were issued for Lake Michigan and Green Bay in Wisconsin until

4930-562: A storm. Tropical cyclone scales , such as the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology), only use wind speed for determining the category of a storm. The most intense storm on record is Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870  hPa (26  inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 kn (85 m/s; 305 km/h; 190 mph). The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded

5075-565: A stronger system. Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features , shear, central dense overcast, and eye, to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm. The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies works to develop and improve automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT, used by

5220-405: A system has dissipated or lost its tropical characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable. A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes

5365-651: A total of 75 people, causing food shortages, and leaving about 200,000 homeless; the hurricane also caused two deaths in the Dominican Republic . In Puerto Rico , one man was swept away by a swollen river. In Cuba, there was extensive coastal flooding and wind damage inland, destroying some 15,000 homes, killing 11, and causing $ 2 billion (equivalent to $ 2.65 billion in 2023) in damage. Sandy caused two deaths and an estimated $ 700 million (equivalent to $ 929 million in 2023) in damage in The Bahamas . In

5510-518: A tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, cyclones rarely form within 5° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional examples do occur ) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone . In contrast,

5655-461: A tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in the storm's structure. Symmetric, strong outflow leads to a faster rate of intensification than observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear. Weakening outflow is associated with the weakening of rainbands within a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones may still intensify, even rapidly, in

5800-401: A tropical cyclone's intensity or the direction it is traveling. Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have been proposed to calculate WPRs. Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR, which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on

5945-701: A tropical storm watch was issued from the mouth of the Savannah River in South Carolina to Oregon Inlet , North Carolina, including Pamlico Sound . Twelve hours later, the portion of the tropical storm watch from the Santee River in South Carolina to Duck, North Carolina , including Pamlico Sound, was upgraded to a warning. Governor of North Carolina Beverly Perdue declared a state of emergency for 38 eastern counties on October 26, which took effect on

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6090-435: A tropical storm, Sandy re-intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, and on October 28, an eye began redeveloping. The storm moved around an upper-level low over the eastern United States and also to the southwest of a ridge over Atlantic Canada , turning it to the northwest. Sandy briefly re-intensified to Category 2 intensity on the morning of October 29, around which time it had become an extremely large hurricane, with

6235-416: A two-day closure for the storm. More than 1,500 FEMA personnel were along the East Coast working to support disaster preparedness and response operations, including search and rescue, situational awareness, communications and logistical support. In addition, 28 teams containing 294 FEMA Corps members were pre-staged to support Sandy responders. Three federal urban search and rescue task forces were positioned in

6380-432: A two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them. Ridge (meteorology) Ridges can be represented in two ways: Given the direction of the winds around an anticyclonic circulation and the fact that weather systems move from west to east: Surface ridges, just like highs, generate fair weather because they develop under wind convergence in the negative vorticity advection zone ahead of

6525-813: A typhoon. This happened in 2014 for Hurricane Genevieve , which became Typhoon Genevieve. Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean. The descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as "tropical storm", "cyclonic storm", "tropical depression", or "deep depression". The practice of using given names to identify tropical cyclones dates back to

6670-512: A window shutter in the Lyford Cay area on New Providence. Another died in the Queen's Cove area on Grand Bahama Island where he drowned after the sea surge trapped him in his apartment. Portions of the Bahamas lost power or cellular service, including an islandwide power outage on Bimini . Five homes were severely damaged near Williams's Town. Overall damage in the Bahamas was about $ 700 million, with

6815-683: Is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean . A typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65  kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through

6960-415: Is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and can continue to intensify without any help from its environment. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names , including hurricane , typhoon , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in

7105-406: Is calculated as: where p {\textstyle p} is the density of air, u {\textstyle u} is a sustained surface wind speed value, and d v {\textstyle d_{v}} is the volume element . Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location ( tropical cyclone basins ), the structure of

7250-545: Is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical cyclones. A majority of climate models show a decreased frequency in future projections. For instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones. Observations have shown little change in

7395-414: Is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental air. This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone. Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken. Over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates. Over the years, there have been

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7540-445: Is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters around the world. The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface. A tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed. It

7685-502: Is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are in season. In the Northern Atlantic Ocean , a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. The statistical peak of

7830-405: Is the storm's wind speed and r {\textstyle r} is the radius of hurricane-force winds. The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field. The IKE model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone via winds, waves, and surge. It

7975-608: The African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability give rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . Heat energy from the ocean acts as the accelerator for tropical cyclones. This causes inland regions to suffer far less damage from cyclones than coastal regions, although the impacts of flooding are felt across the board. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure changes), and

8120-507: The Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean , and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also be called "severe cyclonic storms". Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their winds moving in

8265-860: The Canadian Maritimes , with the potential for heavy rain and strong winds. On October 29, Environment Canada issued severe wind warnings for the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Valley corridor, from Southwestern Ontario as far as Quebec City. On October 30, Environment Canada issued storm surge warnings along the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Rainfall warnings were issued for the Charlevoix region in Quebec, as well as for several counties in New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia , where about 2 to 3 inches (51 to 76 mm) of rain

8410-968: The Chesapeake Bay Bridge over the Chesapeake Bay and the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge and Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge over the Susquehanna River were closed to traffic in the midday hours. On October 28, Governor Markell declared a state of emergency, with coastal areas of Sussex County evacuated. In preparation for the storm, the Delaware Department of Transportation suspended some weekend construction projects, removed traffic cones and barrels from construction sites, and removed several span-wire overhead signs in Sussex County. Delaware Route 1 through Delaware Seashore State Park

8555-536: The Government of Haiti issued a tropical storm watch for Haiti. By late October 23, it was modified to a tropical storm warning. The Government of Cuba posted a hurricane watch for the Cuban Provinces of Camagüey , Granma , Guantánamo , Holguín , Las Tunas , and Santiago de Cuba at 1500 UTC on October 23. Only three hours later, the hurricane watch was switched to a hurricane warning. The Government of

8700-618: The Hurricane Surge Index , the Hurricane Severity Index , the Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and integrated kinetic energy (IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical. The calculation of

8845-855: The Long Island Rail Road suspended service. The Tappan Zee Bridge was closed, and later the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel and Holland Tunnel were also closed. On Long Island, an evacuation was ordered for South Shore , including areas south of Sunrise Highway , north of Route 25A , and in elevations of less than 16 feet (4.9 m) above sea level on the North Shore . In Suffolk County , mandatory evacuations were ordered for residents of Fire Island and six towns. Most schools closed in Nassau and Suffolk counties on October 29. New York City began taking precautions on October 26. Governor Cuomo ordered

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8990-559: The Madden–Julian oscillation . The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarize the latest scientific findings about the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones. According to the report, we have now better understanding about the impact of climate change on tropical storm than before. Major tropical storms likely became more frequent in the last 40 years. We can say with high confidence that climate change increase rainfall during tropical cyclones. We can say with high confidence that

9135-650: The National Guard to activate 630 personnel ahead of the storm. Republican Party presidential candidate Mitt Romney canceled campaign appearances scheduled for October 28 in Virginia Beach, Virginia , and New Hampshire October 30 because of Sandy. Vice President Joe Biden canceled his appearance on October 27 in Virginia Beach and an October 29 campaign event in New Hampshire. President Barack Obama canceled

9280-460: The Saffir–Simpson scale . Climate oscillations such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development. Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm. Kelvin waves can contribute to tropical cyclone formation by regulating

9425-561: The Saffir–Simpson scale . The trend was most clear in the North Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in intensity over this period. With 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength. A 2019 study indicates that climate change has been driving

9570-489: The Washington, D.C. area would be closed to the public on October 29–30. In addition, Washington D.C. Metro service, both rail and bus, was canceled on October 29 due to expected high winds, the likelihood of widespread power outages, and the closing of the federal government. The Smithsonian Institution closed for the day of October 29. Governor of Maryland Martin O'Malley declared a state of emergency on October 26. By

9715-404: The horse latitude characterized by mostly calm winds, which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight, and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location. The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere, creating both the trade winds and

9860-514: The troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center , and a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance. There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. and upper-level divergence. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones, of at least Category 3 intensity on

10005-481: The "new norm on the Eastern seaboard". After the storm became a tropical cyclone on October 22, the Government of Jamaica issued a tropical storm watch for the entire island. Early on October 23, the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued. At 1500 UTC, the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning, while the tropical storm warning was discontinued. In preparation of

10150-621: The Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere,

10295-580: The Bahamas , at 1500 UTC on October 23, issued a tropical storm watch for several Bahamian islands, including the Acklins , Cat Island , Crooked Island , Exuma , Inagua , Long Cay , Long Island , Mayaguana , Ragged Island , Rum Cay , and San Salvador Island . Later that day, another tropical storm watch was issued for Abaco Islands , Andros Island , the Berry Islands , Bimini , Eleuthera , Grand Bahama , and New Providence . By early on October 24,

10440-520: The Caribbean to Canada. The eighteenth named storm , tenth hurricane , and second major hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season , Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba , though most of the damage it caused was after it became a Category 1-equivalent extratropical cyclone off the coast of the Northeastern United States. Sandy developed from

10585-621: The ECMWF made its prediction, the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center confirmed the path of the hurricane predicted by the European model. The National Weather Service was criticized for not employing its higher-resolution forecast models the way that its European counterpart did. A hardware and software upgrade completed at the end of 2013 enabled the weather service to make predictions more accurate and farther in advance than

10730-539: The Equator generally have their origins in the Intertropical Convergence Zone , where winds blow from either the northeast or southeast. Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form. These showers dissipate quite quickly; however, they can group together into large clusters of thunderstorms. This creates

10875-490: The Federal Emergency Management Agency to aid in disaster relief efforts. Also, numerous areas were ordered to be evacuated including part of Ocean City , Worcester County , Wicomico County , and Somerset County . Officials warned that more than a hundred million tons of dirty sediment mixed with tree limbs and debris floating behind Conowingo Dam could eventually pour into the Chesapeake Bay , posing

11020-517: The Mid-Atlantic and ready to deploy as needed. Direct Relief provided medical supplies to community clinics, non-profit health centers, and other groups in areas affected by Hurricane Sandy, and mapped pharmacies, gas stations, and other facilities that remained in the New York City area despite power outages. Tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with

11165-847: The National Hurricane Center did not issue any tropical cyclone watches or warnings for New Jersey, because Sandy was forecast to become extratropical before landfall and thus would not be a tropical cyclone. Preparations in Pennsylvania began when Governor Tom Corbett declared a state of emergency on October 26. Mayor of Philadelphia Michael Nutter asked residents in low-lying areas and neighborhoods prone to flooding to leave their homes by 1800 UTC October 28 and move to safer ground. The Philadelphia International Airport suspended all flight operations for October 29. On October 29, Philadelphia shut down its mass transit system. On October 28, Mayor of Harrisburg Linda D. Thompson declared

11310-638: The North Carolina coast, which are not counted in the U.S. total. In addition, the storm resulted in 87 indirect deaths. In all, a total of 160 people were killed due to the storm, making Sandy the deadliest hurricane to hit the United States mainland since Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the deadliest to hit the U.S. East Coast since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. Due to flooding and other storm-related problems, Amtrak canceled all Acela Express , Northeast Regional , Keystone , and Shuttle services for October 29 and 30. More than 13,000 flights were canceled across

11455-629: The PDI is similar in nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared. The Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 m/s or 74 mph), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds and its climatological value (96.6 km or 60.0 mi). This can be represented in equation form as: where v {\textstyle v}

11600-460: The South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin according to the WMO. Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures

11745-582: The Southeast, Mid-Atlantic, and New England states. President Obama signed emergency declarations on October 28 for several states expected to be impacted by Sandy, allowing them to request federal aid and make additional preparations in advance of the storm. Flight cancellations and travel alerts on the U.S. East Coast were put in place in the Mid-Atlantic and the New England areas. Over 5,000 commercial airline flights scheduled for October 28 and 29 were canceled by

11890-608: The U.S. on October 29, and more than 3,500 were called off October 30. From October 27 through early November 1, airlines canceled a total of 19,729 flights, according to FlightAware . On October 31, over 6 million customers were still without power in 15 states and the District of Columbia . The states with the most customers without power were New Jersey with 2,040,195 customers; New York with 1,933,147; Pennsylvania with 852,458; and Connecticut with 486,927. The New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq reopened on October 31 after

12035-585: The United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts, watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings about tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . The Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center names South Atlantic tropical cyclones , however

12180-546: The United States amounted to $ 65 billion (equivalent to $ 86 billion in 2023). In Canada, two were killed in Ontario, and the storm caused an estimated $ 100 million CAD (equivalent to $ 129 million CAD in 2023) in damage throughout Ontario and Quebec. Hurricane Sandy began as a low pressure system which developed sufficient organized convection to be classified as Tropical Depression Eighteen on October 22 south of Kingston, Jamaica . It moved slowly at first due to

12325-522: The United States, Hurricane Sandy affected 24 states , including the entire eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine and west across the Appalachian Mountains to Michigan and Wisconsin , with particularly severe damage in New Jersey and New York . Its storm surge hit New York City on October 29, flooding streets, tunnels and subway lines and cutting power in and around the city. Damage in

12470-515: The United States, destroyed thousands of homes, left millions without electric service, and caused 71 direct deaths in nine states, including 49 in New York, 10 in New Jersey, 3 in Connecticut, 2 each in Pennsylvania and Maryland, and 1 each in New Hampshire, Virginia and West Virginia. There were also 2 direct deaths from Sandy in U.S. coastal waters in the Atlantic Ocean, about 90 miles (140 km) off

12615-575: The Western Pacific. Tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere . The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name. Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of

12760-496: The afternoon of October 28 and Amtrak canceled some services through October 29 in preparation for the storm. In addition, the National Guard and U.S. Air Force put as many as 45,000 personnel in at least seven states on alert for possible duty in response to the preparations and aftermath of Sandy. Schools on the Treasure Coast announced closures for October 26 in anticipation of Sandy. At 0900 UTC on October 26,

12905-442: The city. NYU Langone Medical Center canceled all surgeries and medical procedures, except for emergency procedures. Additionally, one of NYU Langone Medical Center's backup generators failed on October 29, prompting the evacuation of hundreds of patients, including those from the hospital's various intensive care units . U.S. stock trading was suspended for October 29 to 30. Connecticut Governor Dannel Malloy partially activated

13050-584: The closure of MTA and its subway on October 28, and the MTA suspended all subway, bus, and commuter rail service beginning at 2300 UTC. After Hurricane Irene nearly submerged subways and tunnels in 2011, entrances and grates were covered just before Sandy, but were still flooded. PATH train service and stations as well as the Port Authority Bus Terminal were shut down in the early morning hours of October 29. Later on October 28, officials activated

13195-445: The coastal emergency plan, with subway closings and the evacuation of residents in areas hit by Hurricane Irene in 2011. More than 76 evacuation shelters were open around the city. On October 28, Mayor Michael Bloomberg ordered that all public schools be closed on Monday and announced a mandatory evacuation of Zone A, which comprised areas near coastlines or waterways. Additionally, 200  National Guard troops were deployed in

13340-507: The coincidental alignment of a tropical storm with an extratropical storm", Trenberth does agree that the storm was caused by "natural variability" but adds that it was "enhanced by global warming". One factor contributing to the storm's strength was abnormally warm sea surface temperatures offshore the East Coast of the United States —more than 5 °F (3 °C) above normal, to which global warming had contributed 1 °F (0.6 °C). As

13485-600: The country – nine in Santiago de Cuba Province and two in Guantánamo Province ; most of the victims were trapped in destroyed houses. This makes Sandy the deadliest hurricane to hit Cuba since 2005, when Hurricane Dennis killed 16 people. A NOAA automated station at Settlement Point on Grand Bahama Island reported sustained winds of 49 mph (79 km/h) and a wind gust of 63 mph (101 km/h). One person died from falling off his roof while attempting to fix

13630-425: The cyclone was no longer tropical by 2100 UTC on October 29. About 2½ hours later, Sandy made landfall near Brigantine, New Jersey, with sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). During the next four days, Sandy's remnants drifted northward and then northeastward over Ontario , before merging with another low pressure area over Eastern Canada on November 2. On October 23, 2012, the path of Hurricane Sandy

13775-435: The development of the westerlies . Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after. The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centers. Ten of these warning centers worldwide are designated as either a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre or

13920-486: The equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with

14065-469: The evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easters and European windstorms , which are powered primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. The strong rotating winds of

14210-481: The eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently. However, some cyclones such as Hurricane Epsilon have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions. There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics. These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once

14355-593: The following day, Smith Island residents were evacuated with the assistance of the Maryland Natural Resources Police, Dorchester County opened two shelters for those in flood prone areas, and Ocean City initiated Phase I of their Emergency Operations Plan. Baltimore Gas and Electric Co. put workers on standby and made plans to bring in crews from other states. On October 28, President Obama declared an emergency in Maryland and signed an order authorizing

14500-594: The following day. By October 29, the state of emergency was extended to 24 counties in western North Carolina, with up to 12 in (30 cm) of snow attributed to Sandy anticipated in higher elevations. The National Park Service closed at least five sections of the Blue Ridge Parkway . On October 26, Governor of Virginia Bob McDonnell declared a state of emergency. The U.S. Navy sent more than twenty-seven ships and forces to sea from Naval Station Norfolk for their protection. Governor McDonnell authorized

14645-410: The form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. Conversely, the mixing of

14790-453: The frequency of very intense storms and a poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the possible consequences of human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is warming ocean temperatures , there is potentially more of this fuel available. Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher on

14935-532: The general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Since the systems can last a week or longer, and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described. Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. Standards vary from basin to basin. Some tropical depressions are named in

15080-451: The intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery. The SATCON weights estimates from various satellite-based systems and microwave sounders , accounting for the strengths and flaws in each individual estimate, to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone's intensity which can be more reliable than the Dvorak technique at times. Multiple intensity metrics are used, including accumulated cyclone energy (ACE),

15225-522: The intensity of a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the winds and pressure of a system. Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface. Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations, mesonets , coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on

15370-465: The island's international airports, and police ordered 48-hour curfews in major towns to keep people off the streets and deter looting. Most buildings in the eastern portion of the island lost their roofs. Damage was assessed at approximately $ 100 million throughout the country. In Haiti, which was still recovering from both the 2010 earthquake and the 2010s cholera outbreak , a total of 75 people died, and approximately 200,000 were left homeless as

15515-674: The late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system—simply naming cyclones based on what they hit. The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized by the public. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it

15660-404: The main belt of the Westerlies , by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones . This transition can take 1–3 days. Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain. When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it

15805-517: The morning of October 31, and waves of 33 feet (10 m) in Milwaukee and 20 feet (6.1 m) in Sheboygan were predicted for October 30. The actual waves reached about 20 feet (6.1 m) but were less damaging than expected. The village of Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin urged a voluntary evacuation of its lakefront area, though few residents signed up, and little flooding actually occurred. Michigan

15950-804: The most severe damage on Cat Island and Exuma where many houses were heavily damaged by wind and storm surge. Owing to the sheer size of the storm, Sandy also impacted Bermuda with high winds and heavy rains. On October 28, a weak F0 tornado touched down in Sandys Parish , damaging homes and businesses. During a three-day span, the storm produced 0.98 in (25 mm) of rain at the L.F. Wade International Airport . The strongest winds were recorded on October 29: sustained winds reached 37 mph (60 km/h) and gusts peaked at 58 mph (93 km/h), which produced scattered minor damage. A total of 24 U.S. states were in some way affected by Sandy. The hurricane caused tens of billions of dollars in damage in

16095-524: The neighboring Dominican Republic , two people were killed and 30,000 people evacuated. An employee of CNN estimated 70% of the streets in Santo Domingo were flooded. One person was killed in Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico after being swept away by a swollen river. At least 55,000 people were evacuated before Hurricane Sandy's arrival. While moving ashore, the storm produced waves up to 29 feet (8.8 metres) and

16240-835: The northbound Garden State Parkway and the westbound Atlantic City Expressway starting at 6 a.m. on October 28. President Obama signed an emergency declaration for New Jersey, allowing the state to request federal funding and other assistance for actions taken before Sandy's landfall. On October 28, Mayor of Hoboken Dawn Zimmer ordered residents of basement and street-level residential units to evacuate, due to possible flooding. On October 29, residents of Logan Township were ordered to evacuate. Jersey Central Power & Light told employees to prepare to work extended shifts. Most schools, colleges and universities were closed October 29 while at least 509 out of 580 school districts were closed October 30. Although tropical storm conditions were inevitable and hurricane-force winds were likely,

16385-522: The observed trend of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin. Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal communities. Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation , which yields ≈7% increase in water vapor in the atmosphere per 1 °C (1.8 °F) warming. All models that were assessed in

16530-466: The overall frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide, with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific. There has been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs, which may be associated with climate change. In the North Pacific, there may also have been an eastward expansion. Between 1949 and 2016, there

16675-440: The potential of spawning tornadoes . Climate change affects tropical cyclones in several ways. Scientists found that climate change can exacerbate the impact of tropical cyclones by increasing their duration, occurrence, and intensity due to the warming of ocean waters and intensification of the water cycle . Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air into precipitation over

16820-413: The presence of moderate or strong wind shear depending on the evolution and structure of the storm's convection. The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more prone to rapid intensification than larger ones. The Fujiwhara effect , which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of

16965-444: The release of latent heat from the saturated soil. Orographic lift can cause a significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it. Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as well as vertical wind shear. On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo

17110-492: The same intensity. The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as upwelling , which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in

17255-488: The same system. The ASCAT is a scatterometer used by the MetOp satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical cyclones. The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments. The Dvorak technique plays

17400-452: The same with more than a dozen employees and 120 contract employees. Due to the widespread power outages, numerous schools had to close, especially in St. Clair County and areas along Lake Huron north of Metro Detroit. As far as Ohio's western edge, areas were under a wind advisory. All departing flights at Cleveland Hopkins International Airport were canceled until October 30 at 3 p.m. Governor of West Virginia Earl Ray Tomblin declared

17545-513: The sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with potential effects on global climate . Vertical wind shear decreases tropical cyclone predicability, with storms exhibiting wide range of responses in the presence of shear. Wind shear often negatively affects tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from a system's center. Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for strengthening, while stronger wind shear induces weakening. Dry air entraining into

17690-598: The state's Emergency Operations Center on October 26 and signed a Declaration of Emergency the next day. On October 28, President Obama approved Connecticut's request for an emergency declaration, and hundreds of National Guard personnel were deployed. On October 29, Governor Malloy ordered road closures for all state highways. Numerous mandatory and partial evacuations were issued in cities across Connecticut. Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick ordered state offices to be closed October 29 and recommended schools and private businesses close. On October 28, President Obama issued

17835-606: The storm, many residents stocked up on supplies and reinforced roofing material. Acting Prime Minister Peter Phillips urged people to take this storm seriously, and also to take care of their neighbors, especially the elderly, children, and disabled. Government officials shut down schools, government buildings, and the airport in Kingston on the day prior to the arrival of Sandy. Meanwhile, numerous and early curfews were put in place to protect residents, properties, and to prevent crime. Shortly after Jamaica issued its first watch on October 22,

17980-412: The structure of the storm became disorganized, and it turned to the north-northwest over the Bahamas. By October 27, Sandy was no longer fully tropical, as evidenced by the development of frontal structures in its outer circulation. Despite strong shear, Sandy maintained its convection due to influence from an approaching trough; the same that turned the hurricane to the northeast. After briefly weakening to

18125-594: The subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines . The Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years. Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the Atlantic Meridional Mode , the Quasi-biennial oscillation and

18270-419: The surface pressure decreases by 2.5 hPa (0.074 inHg) per hour for at least 12 hours or 5 hPa (0.15 inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours. For rapid intensification to occur, several conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high, near or above 30 °C (86 °F), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to

18415-483: The surface. On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity. Wind shear must be low. When wind shear is high, the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in

18560-621: The system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65  kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) is called a hurricane , while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian oceans. When a hurricane passes west across the International Dateline in the Northern Hemisphere, it becomes known as

18705-494: The technology in 2012 had allowed. According to NCAR senior climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth , "The answer to the oft-asked question of whether an event is caused by climate change is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be." Although NOAA meteorologist Martin Hoerling attributes Sandy to "little more than

18850-473: The temperature of the atmosphere increases, the capacity to hold water increases, leading to stronger storms and higher rainfall amounts. As they move north, Atlantic hurricanes typically are forced east and out to sea by the Prevailing Westerlies . In Sandy's case, this typical pattern was blocked by a ridge of high pressure over Greenland resulting in a negative North Atlantic Oscillation , forming

18995-423: The tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March. Of various modes of variability in the climate system, El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the largest effect on tropical cyclone activity. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to

19140-476: The tropical storm watch for Cat Island, Exuma, Long Island, Rum Cay, and San Salvador was upgraded to a tropical storm warning. At 1515 UTC on October 26, the Bermuda Weather Service issued a tropical storm watch for Bermuda, reflecting the enormous size of the storm and the anticipated wide-reaching impacts. Much of the East Coast of the United States, in Mid-Atlantic and New England regions, had

19285-413: The upper-level ridge. The vertical downward air motion then gives a divergence of the winds near the surface. The subsidence of the air causes a warming in the column compared to the previous environment and therefore a drying of it because its relative humidity decreases, which has the effect of clearing the sky. An important atmospheric ridge is the subtropical ridge . It is a series of ridges near

19430-451: The weaker of two tropical cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear. Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing. The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall , in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through

19575-402: The wind speed of Hurricane Helene by 11%, it increased the destruction from it by more than twice. According to World Weather Attribution the influence of climate change on the rainfall of some latest hurricanes can be described as follows: Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure. Relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of

19720-636: The winds and flooding rains. More than 100 fishermen were stranded in outlying Pedro Cays off Jamaica's southern coast. Stones falling from a hillside crushed one man to death as he tried to get into his house in a rural village near Kingston. After 6 days another fatality recorded as a 27-year-old man, died due to electrocution, attempting a repair. The country's sole electricity provider, the Jamaica Public Service Company, reported that 70 percent of its customers were without power. More than 1,000 people went to shelters. Jamaican authorities closed

19865-779: Was 185 kn (95 m/s; 345 km/h; 215 mph) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015—the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . Warm sea surface temperatures are required for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), however, multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F). Higher sea surface temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification . High ocean heat content , also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential , allows storms to achieve

20010-523: Was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all show this feature. A 2021 study review article concluded that the geographic range of tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the Hadley circulation . When hurricane winds speed rise by 5%, its destructive power rise by about 50%. Therfore, as climate change increased

20155-845: Was closed due to flooding. Delaware roads were closed to the public, except for emergency and essential personnel, and tolls on I-95 and Delaware Route 1 were waived. DART First State transit service was also suspended during the storm. Preparations began on October 26, when officials in Cape May County advised residents on barrier islands to evacuate. There were also voluntary evacuations for Mantoloking , Bay Head , Barnegat Light , Beach Haven , Harvey Cedars , Long Beach , Ship Bottom , and Stafford in Ocean County . Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie ordered all residents of barrier islands from Sandy Hook to Cape May to evacuate and closed Atlantic City casinos. Tolls were suspended on

20300-681: Was correctly predicted by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) headquartered in Reading, England nearly eight days in advance of its striking the American East Coast . The computer model noted that the storm would turn west towards land and strike the New York/New Jersey region on October 29, rather than turn east and head out to the open Atlantic as most hurricanes in this position do. By October 27, four days after

20445-536: Was expected to merge with a storm front a few days before Halloween. As coverage continued, several media outlets began eschewing this term in favor of "superstorm". Utilities and governments along the East Coast attempted to head off long-term power failures Sandy might cause. Power companies from the Southeast to New England alerted independent contractors to be ready to help repair storm damaged equipment quickly and asked employees to cancel vacations and work longer hours. Researchers from Johns Hopkins University , using

20590-496: Was impacted by a winter storm system coming in from the west, mixing with cold air streams from the Arctic and colliding with Hurricane Sandy. The forecasts slowed shipping traffic on the Great Lakes , as some vessels sought shelter away from the peak winds, except those on Lake Superior. Detroit -based DTE Energy released 100 contract line workers to assist utilities along the eastern U.S. with storm response, and Consumers Energy did

20735-479: Was responsible for approximately 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) of sea level rise in New York, which permitted additional storm surge that caused approximately $ 8.1 Billion out of the $ 60 billion in reported economic damage and to an extension of the flood zone to impact approximately 71,000 more people than would have been the case without it. Harvard geologist Daniel P. Schrag calls Hurricane Sandy's 13-foot (4.0 m) storm surge an example of what will, by mid-century, be

20880-575: Was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean. At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and

21025-475: Was to be expected. Freezing rain warnings were issued for parts of Northern Ontario . A total of 254 people were killed across the United States, the Caribbean, and Canada, as a result of the storm. Jamaica was the first country directly affected by Sandy, which was also the first hurricane to make landfall on the island since Hurricane Gilbert , which struck the island in 1988 . Trees and power lines were snapped and shanty houses were heavily damaged, both from

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