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150-453: The Huon River ( / ˈ h juː ɒ n ˈ r ɪ v ə / HYOO-on-RIV-ə , Mellukerdee / palawa kani : Taloonne ) is a perennial river located in the south-west and south-east regions of Tasmania , Australia . At 174 kilometres (108 mi) in length, the Huon River is the fifth-longest in the state , with its course flowing east through the fertile Huon Valley and emptying into

300-407: A bit like a purse seine net. The sweep net is a big net with weights along the bottom edge. It is stretched across the pen with the bottom edge extending to the bottom of the pen. Lines attached to the bottom corners are raised, herding some fish into the purse, where they are netted. Before killing, the fish are usually rendered unconscious in water saturated in carbon dioxide, although this practice

450-408: A board to inquire into the conditions at Wybalenna that rejected Robinson's claims regarding improved living conditions and found the settlement to be a failure. The report was never released and the government continued to promote Wybalenna as a success in the treatment of Aboriginal people. In March 1847 six Aboriginal people at Wybalenna presented a petition to Queen Victoria , the first petition to

600-483: A cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive. With the amount of worldwide fish meal production being almost a constant amount for the last 30+ years and at maximum sustainable yield , much of the fish meal market has shifted from chicken and pig feed to fish and shrimp feeds as aquaculture has grown in this time. Work continues on developing salmonid diet made from concentrated plant protein. As of 2014, an enzymatic process can be used to lower

750-573: A document claiming they were extinct. A dispute exists within the Tasmanian Aboriginal community, however, over what constitutes Aboriginality . The Palawa, mainly descendants of white male sealers and Tasmanian Aboriginal women who settled on the Bass Strait Islands, were given the power to decide who is of Tasmanian Aboriginal descent at the state level (entitlement to government Aboriginal services). Palawa recognise only descendants of

900-483: A dozen and, by 1869, there was only one, who died in 1876. Commenting in 1899 on Robinson's claims of success, anthropologist Henry Ling Roth wrote: While Robinson and others were doing their best to make them into a civilised people, the poor blacks had given up the struggle, and were solving the difficult problem by dying. The very efforts made for their welfare only served to hasten on their inevitable doom. The white man's civilisation proved scarcely less fatal than

1050-414: A few months after the establishment of the first British settlements at Risdon Cove and Hobart. The 1804 Risdon Cove massacre resulted in a large number of Aboriginal people being killed after an attack by British soldiers and settlers. A boy whose parents were killed in the massacre was taken and given the name Robert Hobart May . This boy became the first Indigenous Tasmanian to have extended contact with

1200-537: A food additive in certain types of meat, but not fish. Fresh salmon was not affected. Kurt Oddekalv , leader of the Green Warriors of Norway , argues that the scale of fish farming in Norway is unsustainable. Huge volumes of uneaten feed and fish excrement pollute the seabed, while chemicals designed to fight sea lice find their way into the food chain. He says: "If people knew this, they wouldn’t eat salmon", describing

1350-480: A general increase in abundance of Pink Salmon in the Broughton Archipelago. Another comment in the scientific literature by Canadian Government Fisheries scientists Brian Riddell and Richard Beamish et al. came to the conclusion that there is no correlation between farmed salmon louse numbers and returns of pink salmon to the Broughton Archipelago. And in relation to the 2007 Krkosek extinction theory: "the data

1500-416: A modified Atlantic salmon which grows nearly twice as fast (yielding a fully grown fish at 16–18 months rather than 30), and is more disease resistant, and cold tolerant. It also requires 10% less food. This was achieved using a chinook salmon gene sequence affecting growth hormones, and a promoter sequence from the ocean pout affecting antifreeze production. Normally, salmon produce growth hormones only in

1650-521: A position whereby they were willing to surrender to Robinson and move to Flinders Island . European and Aboriginal casualties, including the Aboriginal residents who were captured, may be considered as reasonably accurate. The figures for the Aboriginal population shot is likely a substantial undercount. In late 1831, Robinson brought the first 51 Aboriginal people to a settlement on Flinders Island named The Lagoons, which turned out to be inadequate as it

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1800-438: A positive note, further research using the same fish samples used in the previous study, showed that farmed salmon contained levels of beneficial fatty acids that were two to three times higher than wild salmon. A follow-up benefit-risk analysis on salmon consumption balanced the cancer risks with the (n–3) fatty acid advantages of salmon consumption. For this reason, current methods for this type of analysis take into consideration

1950-516: A reigning monarch from any Aboriginal group in Australia, requesting that the promises made to them be honoured. In October 1847, the 47 survivors were transferred to their final settlement at Oyster Cove station. Only 44 survived the trip (11 couples, 12 single men and 10 children) and the children were immediately sent to the orphan school in Hobart. Although the housing and food was better than Wybalenna,

2100-404: A representative, James Munro , to appeal to Governor George Arthur and argue for the women's return, on the basis that they wanted to stay with their sealer husbands and children rather than marry Aboriginal men unknown to them. Arthur ordered the return of some of the women. Shortly thereafter, Robinson began to disseminate stories, told to him by James Munro, of atrocities allegedly committed by

2250-598: A ruse by Robinson or Lieutenant-Governor Arthur to transport the Tasmanians quietly to a permanent exile in the Furneaux Islands . The survivors were moved to Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment on Flinders Island , where disease continued to reduce their numbers. In 1847, the last 47 survivors on Wybalenna were transferred to Oyster Cove , south of Hobart . Two individuals, Truganini (1812–1876) and Fanny Cochrane Smith (1834–1905), are separately considered to have been

2400-418: A significant debate was generated which split the colonists along class lines. The "higher grade" saw the hanging as a dangerous precedent and argued that Aboriginal people were only defending their land and should not be punished for doing so. The "lower grade" of colonists wanted more Aboriginal people hanged to encourage a "conciliatory line of conduct". Governor Arthur sided with the "lower grade" and 1825 saw

2550-485: A system called a seafarm or seasite, with a floating wharf and walkways along the net boundaries. Additional nets can also surround the seafarm to keep out predatory marine mammals. Stocking densities range from 8 to 18 kg (18 to 40 lb)/m for Atlantic salmon and 5 to 10 kilograms (11 to 22 lb)/m for Chinook salmon. In contrast to closed or recirculating systems, the open net cages of salmonid farming lower production costs, but provide no effective barrier to

2700-581: A unique and diverse ecosystem, with its surrounding wetlands, forests, and waterways providing habitats for a variety of species. The river’s lower reaches, especially near the Egg Islands and Huon Island, are particularly important for bird species as part of Tasmania’s network of wetlands. One of the most iconic tree species associated with the Huon River is the Huon pine ( Lagarostrobos franklinii ), an ancient tree species that can live for over 3,000 years. Huon pine

2850-451: A variety of seafood and 12 ounces for lactating mothers, with no upper limits set and no restrictions on eating farmed or wild salmon. In 2018, Canadian dietary guidelines recommended eating at least two servings of fish each week and choosing fish such as char, herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines, and trout. Currently, much controversy exists about the ecological and health impacts of intensive salmonid aquaculture. Of particular concern are

3000-515: A variety of wild predators which can sometimes become entangled in associated netting, leading to injury or death. In Tasmania , Australian salmon-farming sea cages have entangled white-bellied sea eagles . This has prompted one company, Huon Aquaculture, to sponsor a bird rehabilitation centre and try more robust netting. Juvenile farmed Chinook have been shown to have higher rates of predation due to their larger size than wild juveniles upon release into marine environments. Their size correlates with

3150-474: A year; farmed fish from Maine, western Canada and Washington state no more than three to six times a year; and farmed fish from Chile no more than about six times a year. Wild chum salmon can be consumed safely as often as once a week, pink salmon, Sockeye and Coho about twice a month and Chinook just under once a month." In 2005, Russia banned importing chilled fish from Norway, after samples of Norwegian farmed fish showed high levels of heavy metals. According to

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3300-513: Is also a threat to the dwindling stocks of wild salmon. Management strategies include developing a vaccine and improving genetic resistance to the disease. In the wild, diseases and parasites are normally at low levels, and kept in check by natural predation on weakened individuals. In crowded net pens, they can become epidemics. Diseases and parasites also transfer from farmed to wild salmon populations. A recent study in British Columbia links

3450-403: Is being phased out in some countries due to ethical and product quality concerns. More advanced systems use a percussive-stun harvest system that kills the fish instantly and humanely with a blow to the head from a pneumatic piston. They are then bled by cutting the gill arches and immediately immersing them in iced water. Harvesting and killing methods are designed to minimize scale loss, and avoid

3600-555: Is highly valued for its durable, fine-grained timber, which is naturally resistant to rot due to its high oil content. The timber has been historically used in boat building and furniture making. Logging of Huon pine, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries, significantly reduced the number of mature trees, though modern conservation efforts have helped protect remaining populations. Salvaging of naturally fallen Huon pine continues today, allowing timber to be harvested sustainably without cutting down living trees. This practice ensures

3750-523: Is making an effort to reconstruct and reintroduce a Tasmanian language, called palawa kani out of the various records on Tasmanian languages. Other Tasmanian Aboriginal communities use words from traditional Tasmanian languages, according to the language area they were born or live in. Salmon farming In the United States , Chinook salmon and rainbow trout are the most commonly farmed salmonids for recreational and subsistence fishing through

3900-407: Is necessary in the live salmon until actually being electrically and percussively killed and the gills slit for bleeding. These improvements in processing time and freshness to the final customer are commercially significant and forcing the commercial wild fisheries to upgrade their processing to the benefit of all seafood consumers. An older method of harvesting is to use a sweep net, which operates

4050-507: Is strongly opposed by the Palawa and has drawn an angry reaction from some quarters, as some have claimed " spiritual connection" with Aboriginality distinct from, but not as important as the existence of a genetic link. The Lia Pootah object to the current test used to prove Aboriginality as they believe it favours the Palawa, a DNA test would circumvent barriers to Lia Pootah recognition, or disprove their claims to Aboriginality. In April 2000,

4200-602: Is the development of copper alloys as netting materials. Copper alloys have become important netting materials because they are antimicrobial (i.e., they destroy bacteria , viruses , fungi , algae , and other microbes ), so they prevent biofouling (i.e., the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, tubeworms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms). By inhibiting microbial growth, copper alloy aquaculture cages avoid costly net changes that are necessary with other materials. The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides

4350-648: The British Museum returning ashes to two descendants in 2007. During the 20th century, the absence of Aboriginal people of solely Aboriginal ancestry, and a general unawareness of the surviving populations, meant many non-Aboriginal people assumed they were extinct , after the death of Truganini in 1876. Since the mid-1970s Tasmanian Aboriginal activists such as Michael Mansell have sought to broaden awareness and identification of Aboriginal descent. After campaigning by Tasmanian Aboriginal people in April 2023 UNESCO removed

4500-507: The Cape Grim massacre in 1828 demonstrates the level of frontier violence towards Aboriginal Tasmanians. The Black War of 1828–1832 and the Black Line of 1830 were turning points in the relationship with European settlers. Even though many of the Aboriginal people managed to avoid capture during these events, they were shaken by the size of the campaigns against them, and this brought them to

4650-474: The D'Entrecasteaux Channel , before flowing into the Tasman Sea . At its mouth, the Huon River is over 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide, and in the lower reaches, the river's average depth is 3 metres (9.8 ft), with maximum depths of up to 12 metres (39 ft). The Egg Islands , located in this lower tidal zone, serve as a significant ecological area due to their rich wetlands and birdlife. The Huon River

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4800-520: The European Commission ’s fish health regimen. Amongst other measures, this requires the total eradication of the entire fish stock should an outbreak of the disease be confirmed on any farm. ISAv seriously affects salmon farms in Chile , Norway , Scotland , and Canada , causing major economic losses to infected farms. As the name implies, it causes severe anemia of infected fish . Unlike mammals,

4950-671: The Faroe Islands , 20 to 40 percent of all fish caught were escaped farm salmon. In 2017, about 263,000 farmed non-native Atlantic salmon escaped from a net in Washington waters in the 2017 Cypress Island Atlantic salmon pen break . Sea lice, particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species, including C. clemensi and C. rogercresseyi , can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon. Sea lice are naturally occurring and abundant ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto

5100-590: The Mara languages seem to be a relic of ancient conquests mirroring the hostilities during colonial times. After the sea rose to create Bass Strait, the Australian mainland and Tasmania became separate land masses, and the Aboriginal people who had migrated from mainland Australia became cut off from their cousins on the mainland. Archeological evidence suggests remnant populations on the King and Furneaux highlands were stranded by

5250-476: The National Fish Hatchery System . In Europe, brown trout are the most commonly reared fish for recreational restocking. Commonly farmed non-salmonid fish groups include tilapia, catfish , black sea bass and bream . In 2007, the aquaculture of salmonids was worth USD $ 10.7 billion globally. Salmonid aquaculture production grew over ten-fold during the 25 years from 1982 to 2007. In 2012,

5400-550: The Pacific coast of Canada indicated the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions was over 80%. Later that year, in reaction to the 2007 mathematical study mentioned above, Canadian federal fisheries scientists Kenneth Brooks and Simon Jones published a critique titled "Perspectives on Pink Salmon and Sea Lice: Scientific Evidence Fails to Support the Extinction Hypothesis " The time since these studies has shown

5550-483: The 19th century sealer communities of Bass Strait. Between 1803 and 1823, there were two phases of conflict between the Aboriginal people and the British colonists. The first took place between 1803 and 1808 over the need for common food sources such as oysters and kangaroos, and the second between 1808 and 1823, when only a small number of white females lived among the colonists, and farmers, sealers and whalers took part in

5700-414: The 19th century, also point to the significant role of epidemics and infertility without clear attribution of the sources of the diseases as having been introduced through contact with European, and Bonwick notes that Tasmanian Aboriginal women were infected with venereal diseases by Europeans. Introduced venereal disease not only directly caused deaths but, more insidiously, left a significant percentage of

5850-475: The 20th century, the Tasmanian Aboriginal people were widely, and erroneously, thought of as extinct and intentionally exterminated by white settlers. Contemporary figures (2016) for the number of people of Tasmanian Aboriginal descent vary according to the criteria used to determine this identity, ranging from 6,000 to over 23,000. First arriving in Tasmania (then a peninsula of Australia) around 40,000 years ago,

6000-655: The Aboriginal Tasmanians although gifts were left for them in unoccupied shelters found on Bruny Island. The first known British contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians was on Bruny Island by Captain Cook in 1777. The contact was peaceful. Captain William Bligh also visited Bruny Island in 1788 and made peaceful contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians. More extensive contact between Aboriginal Tasmanians and Europeans resulted when British and American seal hunters began visiting

6150-441: The Aboriginal Tasmanians was identified by the colonists. Rapid pastoral expansion, a depletion of native game and an increase in the colony's population triggered Aboriginal resistance from 1824 onwards when it has been estimated by Lyndall Ryan that 1000 Aboriginal people remained in the settled districts. Whereas settlers and stock keepers had previously provided rations to the Aboriginal people during their seasonal movements across

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6300-564: The Aboriginal Tasmanians. Trading relationships developed between sealers and Tasmanian Aboriginal tribes. Hunting dogs became highly prized by the Aboriginal people, as were other exotic items such as flour, tea and tobacco. The Aboriginal people traded kangaroo skins for such goods. However, a trade in Aboriginal women soon developed. Many Tasmanian Aboriginal women were highly skilled in hunting seals, as well as in obtaining other foods such as seabirds, and some Tasmanian tribes would trade their services and, more rarely, those of Aboriginal men to

6450-464: The Aboriginal Tasmanians. Bonwick also recorded a strong Aboriginal oral tradition of an epidemic even before formal colonisation in 1803. "Mr Robert Clark, in a letter to me, said: 'I have gleaned from some of the Aborigines, now in their graves, that they were more numerous than the white people were aware of, but their numbers were very much thinned by a sudden attack of disease which was general among

6600-544: The Bass Strait Island community as Aboriginal and do not consider as Aboriginal the Lia Pootah , who claim descent, based on oral traditions, from Tasmanian mainland Aboriginal communities. The Lia Pootah feel that the Palawa controlled Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre does not represent them politically. Since 2007 there have been initiatives to introduce DNA testing to establish family history in descendant subgroups. This

6750-550: The Ben Lomond language meant "dwellings" but is generally translated as "black man's houses". Robinson befriended Truganini, learned some of the local language and in 1833 managed to persuade the remaining 154 "full-blooded" people to move to the new settlement on Flinders Island, where he promised a modern and comfortable environment, and that they would be returned to their former homes on the Tasmanian mainland as soon as possible. At

6900-574: The British colonial society. By 1816, kidnapping of Aboriginal children for labour had become widespread. In 1814, Governor Thomas Davey issued a proclamation expressing "utter indignation and abhorrence" in regards to the kidnapping of the children and in 1819 Governor William Sorell not only re-issued the proclamation but ordered that those who had been taken without parental consent were to be sent to Hobart and supported at government expense. A number of young Aboriginal children were known to be living with settlers. An Irish sealer named Brien spared

7050-503: The Canadian industry. Modern salmonid farming systems are intensive. Their ownership is often under the control of huge agribusiness corporations, operating mechanized assembly lines on an industrial scale. In 2003, nearly half of the world’s farmed salmon was produced by just five companies. Modern commercial hatcheries for supplying salmon smolts to aquaculture net pens have been shifting to recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS)s where

7200-446: The Huon River to transport timber and agricultural goods. Huon pine was harvested and floated down the river, playing a significant role in the economic development of the region. The apple industry later thrived in the 20th century, with apples shipped down the river for export. The Huon River and its surrounding areas, including Huon Island and the Egg Islands, are popular for eco-tourism. Visitors enjoy kayaking and bird-watching around

7350-512: The King highlands (now King Island ). The archeological, geographic and linguistic record suggests successive waves of occupation of Tasmania, and coalescence of three language groups into one broad group. Colonial settlers found two main language and ethnic groups in Tasmania upon their arrival, the western Nara and eastern Mara. The admixture of Nara toponyms (place-names) in the Eastern territory of

7500-457: The Orphan School in Hobart. Lyndall Ryan reports fifty-eight Aboriginal people, of various ages, living with settlers in Tasmania in the period up to 1835. Some historians argue that European disease did not appear to be a serious factor until after 1829. Other historians including Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle , point to introduced disease as the main cause of the destruction of

7650-468: The Russian Minister of Agriculture Aleksey Gordeyev, levels of lead in the fish were 10 to 18 times higher than Russian safety standards and cadmium levels were almost four times higher. In 2006, eight Norwegian salmon producers were caught in unauthorized and unlabeled use of nitrite in smoked and cured salmon. Norway applies EU regulations on food additives, according to which nitrite is allowed as

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7800-577: The Tasmanian Government Legislative Council Select Committee on Aboriginal Lands discussed the difficulty of determining Aboriginality based on oral traditions. An example given by Prof. Cassandra Pybus was the claim by the Huon and Channel Aboriginal people who had an oral history of descent from two Aboriginal women. Research found that both were non-Aboriginal convict women. The Tasmanian Palawa Aboriginal community

7950-460: The Tasmanian coast in the 1790s as part of Bruni d'Entrecasteaux 's expedition. Huon pine ( Lagarostrobos franklinii ) was first discovered as buried logs on the banks of the Huon River by Chaplain Robert Knopwood before 1810. The timber quickly became renowned for its resistance to rot and vermin, its strength, and its light weight, making it ideal for furniture and boat building. However, it

8100-516: The Tasmanian decimation qualifies as genocide by the definition of Raphael Lemkin adopted in the UN Genocide Convention . By 1833, George Augustus Robinson , sponsored by Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur , had persuaded the approximately 200 surviving Aboriginal Tasmanians to surrender themselves with assurances that they would be protected and provided for, and eventually have their lands returned. These assurances were no more than

8250-481: The Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment on Flinders Island, described by historian Henry Reynolds as the "best equipped and most lavishly staffed Aboriginal institution in the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century", they were provided with housing, clothing, rations of food, the services of a doctor and educational facilities. Convicts were assigned to build housing and do most of the work at

8400-428: The accumulated thermal units of water during incubation reduces time to hatching. When they are 12 to 18 months old, the smolt (juvenile salmon) are transferred to floating sea cages or net pens anchored in sheltered bays or fjords along a coast. This farming in a marine environment is known as mariculture . There they are fed pelleted feed for another 12 to 24 months, when they are harvested. Norway produces 33% of

8550-474: The adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel, sometimes via a header pond to settle out sediment. Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods which in some years can wash out the natural redds . Because of the lack of floods, spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment. The same floods which destroy natural redds also clean them out. Spawning channels preserve

8700-637: The ancestors of the Aboriginal Tasmanians were cut off from the Australian mainland by rising sea levels c. 6000 BC. They were entirely isolated from the outside world for 8,000 years until European contact. Before British colonisation of Tasmania in 1803, there were an estimated 3,000–15,000 Aboriginal Tasmanians. The Aboriginal Tasmanian population suffered a drastic drop in numbers within three decades, so that by 1835 only some 400 full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal people survived, most of this remnant being incarcerated in camps where all but 47 died within

8850-503: The bottom but slow enough to prevent pen damage, protection from major storms, reasonable water depth, and a reasonable distance from major infrastructure such as ports, processing plants, and logistical facilities such as airports. Logistical considerations are significant, and feed and maintenance labor must be transported to the facility and the product returned. Siting decisions are complicated by complex, politically driven permit problems in many countries that prevents optimal locations for

9000-481: The capture of those without passes, £5 (equivalent to about £540 or AU$ 1010 in 2023 ) for an adult and £2 for children, a process that often led to organised hunts resulting in deaths. Every dispatch from Governor Arthur to the Secretary of State during this period stressed that in every case where Aboriginal people had been killed it was colonists that initiated hostilities. Though many Aboriginal deaths went unrecorded,

9150-582: The carbohydrate content of barley , making it a high-protein fish feed suitable for salmon. Many other substitutions for fish meal are known, and diets containing zero fish meal are possible. For example, a planned closed-containment salmon fish farm in Scotland uses ragworms , algae, and amino acids as feed. Some of the eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in Omega-3 fatty acids may be replaced by land-based (non-marine) algae oil , reducing

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9300-409: The colony was founded is traceable, as far as our proofs allow us to judge, to the prevalence of epidemic disorders. ' " Roth was referring to James Erskine Calder who took up a post as a surveyor in Tasmania in 1829 and who wrote a number of scholarly papers about the Aboriginal people. "According to Calder, a rapid and remarkable declension of the numbers of the Aborigines had been going on long before

9450-589: The concept of "wild" salmon as used by the Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute includes stock enhancement fish produced in hatcheries that have historically been considered ocean ranching . The percentage of the Alaska salmon harvest resulting from ocean ranching depends upon the species of salmon and location. Methods of salmonid aquaculture originated in late 18th-century fertilization trials in Europe. In

9600-461: The contaminants were higher in farmed salmon. Within the farmed salmon, European (particularly Scottish) salmon had the highest levels, and Chilean salmon the lowest. The FDA and Health Canada have established a tolerance/limit for PCBs in commercial fish of 2000 ppb A follow-up study confirmed this, and found levels of dioxins , chlorinated pesticides, PCBs and other contaminants up to ten times greater in farmed salmon than wild Pacific salmon. On

9750-489: The continued use of Huon pine in high-end crafts while preserving the integrity of the forests. The surrounding forests are also home to other valuable species such as eucalyptus, and the river supports populations of native fish, including the rare Australian grayling . The river's ecosystem, however, faces challenges from pollution linked to industries such as salmon farming . In recent years, waste from salmon hatcheries has raised concerns over water quality and its impact on

9900-834: The custom of the sealers was to each have "two to five of these native women for their own use and benefit". A shortage of women available "in trade" resulted in abduction becoming common, and in 1830 it was reported that at least fifty Aboriginal women were "kept in slavery" on the Bass Strait islands. Harrington, a sealer, procured ten or fifteen native women, and placed them on different islands in Bass's Straits, where he left them to procure skins; if, however, when he returned, they had not obtained enough, he punished them by tying them up to trees for twenty-four to thirty-six hours together, flogging them at intervals, and he killed them not infrequently if they proved stubborn. There are numerous stories of

10050-419: The development of salmon aquaculture had no impact on forage fish harvest rates. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with forage fish like herring and sardines , or consuming forage fish, as is the case with fatty predatory fish like salmon. To satisfy this requirement, more than 50% of

10200-479: The discharge of wastes, parasites, and disease into the surrounding coastal waters. Farmed salmon in open net cages can escape into wild habitats, for example, during storms. An emerging wave in aquaculture is applying the same farming methods used for salmonids to other carnivorous finfish species, such as cod, bluefin tuna, halibut, and snapper. However, this is likely to have the same environmental drawbacks as salmon farming. A second emerging wave in aquaculture

10350-456: The early times of the colony, may be safely added ... Robinson always enumerates the sexes of the individuals he took; ... and as a general thing, found scarcely any children amongst them; ... adultness was found to outweigh infancy everywhere in a remarkable degree ..." Robinson recorded in his journals a number of comments regarding the Aboriginal Tasmanians' susceptibility to diseases, particularly respiratory diseases. In 1832 he revisited

10500-451: The entire population previous to the arrival of the English, entire tribes of natives having been swept off in the course of one or two days' illness. ' " Such an epidemic may be linked to contact with sailors or sealers. Henry Ling Roth, an anthropologist, wrote: "Calder, who has gone more fully into the particulars of their illnesses, writes as follows ...: 'Their rapid declension after

10650-404: The event despite reports of bleeding at the base of the fins, a symptom often associated with infections, but not with sea lice exposure under laboratory conditions. Wild salmon are anadromous . They spawn inland in fresh water and when young migrate to the ocean where they grow up. Most salmon return to the river where they were born, although some stray to other rivers. Concern exists about of

10800-401: The farm sea lice population: although the farm sea lice population during the out-migration of juvenile pink salmon was greater in 2000 than that of 2001, there was a record salmon returning to spawn in 2001 (from the juveniles in 2000) compared with a 97% collapse in 2002 (from the juveniles in 2001). The authors also note that initial studies had not investigated bacterial and viral causes for

10950-456: The farmed fish as "the most toxic food in the world". Don Staniford —the former scientist turned activist/investigator and head of a small Global Alliance Against Industrial Aquaculture—agrees, saying that a 10-fold increase in the use of some chemicals was seen in the 2016-2017 timeframe. The use of the toxic drug emamectin is rising fast. The levels of chemicals used to kill sea lice have breached environmental safety limits more than 100 times in

11100-409: The farms. In sites without adequate currents, heavy metals can accumulate on the benthos (seafloor) near the salmon farms, particularly copper and zinc. Contaminants are commonly found in the flesh of farmed and wild salmon. Health Canada in 2002 published measurements of PCBs , dioxins and furans and PDBEs in several varieties of fish. The farmed salmonids population had nearly 3 times

11250-534: The first official acceptance that Aboriginal people were at least partly to blame for conflict. In 1826 the Government gazette, which had formerly reported "retaliatory actions" by Aboriginal people, now reported "acts of atrocity" and for the first time used the terminology "Aborigine" instead of "native". A newspaper reported that there were only two solutions to the problem: either they should be "hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed" or they should be removed from

11400-750: The fish releasing stress hormones, which negatively affect flesh quality. Wild salmonids are captured from wild habitats using commercial fishing techniques. Most wild salmonids are caught in North American, Japanese, and Russian fisheries. The following table shows the changes in production of wild salmonids and farmed salmonids over a period of 25 years, as reported by the FAO . Russia, Japan and Alaska all operate major hatchery based stock enhancement programs. The resulting fish hatchery fish are defined as "wild" for FAO and marketing purposes. The US in their dietary guidelines for 2010 recommends eating 8 ounces per week of

11550-483: The following 12 years. No consensus exists as to the cause, over which a major controversy arose. The traditional view, still affirmed, held that this dramatic demographic collapse was the result of the impact of introduced diseases, rather than the consequence of policy. Others attributed the depletion to losses in the Black War , and the prostitution of women. Many historians of colonialism and genocide consider that

11700-471: The full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal population. Keith Windschuttle argues that while smallpox never reached Tasmania, respiratory diseases such as influenza , pneumonia and tuberculosis and the effects of venereal diseases devastated the Tasmanian Aboriginal population whose long isolation from contact with the mainland compromised their resistance to introduced disease. The work of historian James Bonwick and anthropologist H. Ling Roth, both writing in

11850-430: The goal to strengthen the wild salmon stocks, but caused instead devastation to some of the wild salmon populations affected. In 1984, infectious salmon anemia (ISAv) was discovered in Norway in an Atlantic salmon hatchery. Eighty percent of the fish in the outbreak died. ISAv, a viral disease, is now a major threat to the viability of Atlantic salmon farming. It is now the first of the diseases classified on List One of

12000-463: The ground, with an opening at the top to let out the smoke, and closed at the ends, with the exception of a doorway. They were twenty feet long by ten feet wide. In each of these from twenty to thirty blacks were lodged ... To savages accustomed to sleep naked in the open air beneath the rudest shelter, the change to close and heated dwellings tended to make them susceptible, as they had never been in their wild state, to chills from atmospheric changes, and

12150-454: The harvest of wild fish as fish meal. However, commercial economic animal diets are determined by least-cost linear programming models that are effectively competing with similar models for chicken and pig feeds for the same feed ingredients, and these models show that fish meal is more useful in aquatic diets than in chicken diets, where they can make the chickens taste like fish. Unfortunately, this substitution can result in lower levels of

12300-704: The highlands since the Ice Age. In 1990, archaeologists excavated material in the Warreen Cave in the Maxwell River valley of the south-west, proving Aboriginal occupation from as early as 34,000 BP , making Aboriginal Tasmanians the southernmost population in the world during the Pleistocene era. Digs in southwest and central Tasmania turned up abundant finds, affording "the richest archaeological evidence from Pleistocene Greater Australia" from 35,000 to 11,000 BP. Tasmania

12450-583: The highly valued omega-3 content in the farmed product. However, when vegetable oil is used in the growing diet as an energy source and a different finishing diet containing high omega-3 content fatty acids from either fish oil, algae oils, or some vegetable oils are used a few months before harvest, this problem is eliminated. On a dry-dry basis, 2–4 kg of wild-caught fish are needed to produce 1 kg of salmon. The ratio may be reduced if non-fish sources are added. Wild salmon require about 10 kg of forage fish to produce 1 kg of salmon, as part of

12600-427: The impacts on wild salmonids and other marine life and on the incomes of commercial salmonid fishermen. However, the 'enhanced' production of salmon juveniles – which for instance lead to a double-digit proportion (20-50%) of the Alaska's yearly ‘wild’ salmon harvest - is not void of controversy, and the Alaska salmon harvest are highly dependent on the operation of Alaska’s Regional Aquaculture Associations. Furthermore,

12750-517: The island and the rest of mainland Australia, during the Last Glacial Period . Genetic studies show that once the sea level rose to flood the Bassian Plain , the island's population was isolated for approximately 8,000 years, until European exploration in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The discovery of 19,000-year-old deposits at Kutikina (or Fraser) Cave demonstrated occupation of

12900-442: The islands in Bass Strait as well as the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania from the late 1790s. Shortly thereafter (by about 1800), sealers were regularly left on uninhabited islands in Bass Strait during the sealing season (November to May). The sealers established semi-permanent camps or settlements on the islands, which were close enough for the sealers to reach the main island of Tasmania in small boats and so make contact with

13050-594: The last 10 years. Farmed salmonids can, and often do, escape from sea cages. If the farmed salmonid is not native, it can compete with native wild species for food and habitat. If the farmed salmonid is native, it can interbreed with the wild native salmonids. Such interbreeding can reduce genetic diversity, disease resistance, and adaptability. In 2004, about 500,000 salmon and trout escaped from ocean net pens off Norway. Around Scotland, 600,000 salmon were released during storms. Commercial fishermen targeting wild salmon frequently catch escaped farm salmon. At one stage, in

13200-439: The last people solely of Tasmanian descent. The complete Aboriginal Tasmanian languages have been lost; research suggests that the languages spoken on the island belonged to several distinct language families . Some original Tasmanian language words remained in use with Palawa people in the (a community of people descended from European men and Tasmanian Aboriginal women on the Furneaux Islands off Tasmania, which survives to

13350-574: The late 19th century, salmon hatcheries were used in Europe and North America. From the late 1950s, enhancement programs based on hatcheries were established in the United States, Canada, Japan, and the USSR. The contemporary technique using floating sea cages originated in Norway in the late 1960s. Salmonids are usually farmed in two stages and in some places maybe more. First, the salmon are hatched from eggs and raised on land in freshwater tanks. Increasing

13500-402: The leading producers of salmonids were Norway , Chile , Scotland and Canada . Much controversy exists about the ecological and health impacts of intensive salmonids aquaculture. Of particular concern are the impacts on wild salmon and other marine life. The aquaculture or farming of salmonids can be contrasted with capturing wild salmonids using commercial fishing techniques. However,

13650-666: The level of PCBs, more than 3 times the level of PDBEs, and nearly twice the level of dioxins and furans seen in the wild population. On the other hand, "Update of the monitoring of levels of dioxins and PCBs in food and feed", a 2012 study from the European Food Safety Authority , stated that farmed salmon and trout contained on average a many times lesser fraction of dioxins and PCBs than wild-caught salmon and trout." A 2004 study, reported in Science , analysed farmed and wild salmon for organochlorine contaminants. They found

13800-543: The life of the baby son of a native woman he had abducted, explaining, "as (he) had stolen the dam he would keep the cub". When the child grew up he became an invaluable assistant to Brien but was considered "no good" by his own people as he was brought up to dislike Aboriginal people, whom he considered "dirty lazy brutes". Twenty-six were definitely known (through baptismal records) to have been taken into settlers' homes as infants or very small children, too young to be of service as labourers. Some Aboriginal children were sent to

13950-721: The lipid content of the sample in question. PCBs specifically are lipophilic, so are found in higher concentrations in fattier fish in general, thus the higher level of PCB in the farmed fish is in relation to the higher content of beneficial n–3 and n–6 lipids they contain. They found that recommended levels of (n-3) fatty acid consumption can be achieved eating farmed salmon with acceptable carcinogenic risks, but recommended levels of (n-3) EPA + DHA intake cannot be achieved solely from farmed (or wild) salmon without unacceptable carcinogenic risks. The conclusions of this paper from 2005 were that "...consumers should not eat farmed fish from Scotland, Norway and eastern Canada more than three times

14100-499: The living conditions had deteriorated to the extent that in October Robinson personally took charge of Wybalenna, organising better food and improving the housing. However, of the 220 who arrived with Robinson, most died in the following 14 years from introduced disease and inadequate shelter. As a result of their loss of freedom, the birth rate was extremely low and few children survived infancy. In 1839, Governor Franklin appointed

14250-468: The mid 1980s to the 1990s, bacterial kidney disease (BKD) caused by Renibacterium salmoninarum heavily impacted Chinook hatcheries in Idaho. The disease causes granulomatous inflammation that can lead to abscesses in the liver, spleen, and kidneys. Salmonid farms are typically sited in marine ecosystems with good water quality, high water exchange rates, current speeds fast enough to prevent pollution of

14400-548: The most valuable fishing area in the State” ) was for several years excluded from the MSC-certification (it remained ‘under assessment’ pending further analysis). In 1972, Gyrodactylus , a monogenean parasite, was introduced with live trout and salmon from Sweden (Baltic stocks are resistant to it) into government-operated hatcheries in Norway. From the hatcheries, infected eggs, smolt, and fry were implanted in many rivers with

14550-534: The murdered. Amalie Dietrich for example became famous for delivering such specimens. Aboriginal people have considered the dispersal of body parts as being disrespectful, as a common aspect within Aboriginal belief systems is that a soul can only be at rest when laid in its homeland. Body parts and ornaments are still being returned from collections today, with the Royal College of Surgeons of England returning samples of Truganini's skin and hair (in 2002), and

14700-804: The natural selection of natural streams as no temptation exists, as in hatcheries, to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases. However, exposing fish to wild parasites and pathogens using uncontrolled water supplies, combined with the high cost of spawning channels, makes this technology unsuitable for salmon aquaculture businesses. This type of technology is only useful for stock enhancement programs. Sea cages, also called sea pens or net pens, are usually made of mesh framed with steel or plastic. They can be square or circular, 10 to 32 m (33 to 105 ft) across and 10 m (33 ft) deep, with volumes between 1,000 and 10,000 m (35,000 and 353,000 cu ft). A large sea cage can contain up to 90,000 fish. They are usually placed side by side to form

14850-520: The new commander for the station, and moved the Aboriginal people back to The Lagoons. Darling ensured a supply of plentiful food and permitted "hunting excursions". In October 1832, it was decided to build a new camp with better buildings ( wattle and daub ) at a more suitable location, Pea Jacket Point. Pea Jacket Point was renamed Civilisation Point but became more commonly known as the Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment . Wybalenna in

15000-456: The normal trophic level energy transfer. The difference between the two numbers is related to farmed salmon feed containing other ingredients beyond fish meal and because farmed fish do not expend energy hunting. In 2017 it was reported that the American company Cargill has been researching and developing alternative feeds with EWOS through its internal COMPASS programs in Norway, resulting in

15150-542: The population unable to reproduce. Josephine Flood, archaeologist, wrote: "Venereal disease sterilised and chest complaints – influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis – killed." Bonwick, who lived in Tasmania, recorded a number of reports of the devastating effect of introduced disease including one report by a Doctor Story, a Quaker , who wrote: "After 1823 the women along with the tribe seemed to have had no children; but why I do not know." Later historians have reported that introduced venereal disease caused infertility amongst

15300-462: The predictions of the failure of salmon runs in Canada indicated by these studies, the wild salmon run in 2010 was a record harvest. A 2010 study that made the first use of sea lice count and fish production data from all salmon farms on the Broughton Archipelago found no correlation between the farm lice counts and wild salmon survival. The authors conclude that the 2002 stock collapse was not caused by

15450-461: The preferred size of prey for predators like birds, seals, and fish. This may have ecological implications because of the effect on feeding. The use of forage fish for fish meal production has been almost a constant for the last 30 years and at the maximum sustainable yield, while the market for fish meal has shifted from chicken, pig, and pet food to aquaculture diets. This market shift at constant production appears an economic decision implying that

15600-552: The presence of light. The modified salmon does not switch growth hormone production off. The company first submitted the salmon for FDA approval in 1996. In 2015, FDA has approved the AquAdvantage Salmon for commercial production. A concern with transgenic salmon is what might happen if they escape into the wild. One study, in a laboratory setting, found that modified salmon mixed with their wild cohorts were aggressive in competing, but ultimately failed. Sea cages can attract

15750-466: The present) and there are some efforts to reconstruct a language from the available wordlists. Today, some thousands of people living in Tasmania describe themselves as Aboriginal Tasmanians, since a number of Tasmanian Aboriginal women bore children to European men in the Furneaux Islands and mainland Tasmania. People crossed into Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between

15900-402: The process. By 1810 seal numbers had been greatly reduced by hunting so most seal hunters abandoned the area, however a small number of sealers, approximately fifty mostly "renegade sailors, escaped convicts or ex-convicts", remained as permanent residents of the Bass Strait islands and some established families with Tasmanian Aboriginal women. Some of the women were taken back to the islands by

16050-496: The proprietary RAPID feed blend. These methods studied macronutrient profiles of fish feed based upon geography and season. Using RAPID feed, salmon farms reduced the time to maturity of salmon to about 15 months, in a period one-fifth faster than usual. As of 2008 , 50-80% of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmonids. Farm raised salmonids are also fed the carotenoids astaxanthin and canthaxanthin , so their flesh colour matches wild salmon, which also contain

16200-523: The rapid depletion of the numbers of Aboriginal women in the northern areas of Tasmania – "by 1830 only three women survived in northeast Tasmania among 72 men" – and thus contributed in a significant manner to the demise of the full-blooded Aboriginal population of Tasmania. However, a mixed-race community of partial Tasmanian Aboriginal descent formed on the Islands, where it remains to the present, and many modern day Aboriginal Tasmanians trace their descent from

16350-448: The red blood cells of fish have ribosomes, and can become infected with viruses. The fish develop pale gills , and may swim close to the water surface, gulping for air. However, the disease can also develop without the fish showing any external signs of illness, the fish maintain a normal appetite, and then they suddenly die. The disease can progress slowly throughout an infected farm, and in the worst cases, death rates may approach 100%. It

16500-403: The region’s environmental significance. Historically, the Huon River was crucial for transporting timber and apples to Hobart for export. Today, the river supports industries such as salmon farming, though this has raised environmental concerns due to pollution near areas like Huon Island and the Egg Islands. Tourism is an important economic driver in the region, with eco-tourism centered around

16650-424: The remnants were gathered together on Flinders Island. Whole tribes (some of which Robinson mentions by name as being in existence fifteen or twenty years before he went amongst them, and which probably never had a shot fired at them) had absolutely and entirely vanished. To the causes to which he attributes this strange wasting away ... I think infecundity , produced by the infidelity of the women to their husbands in

16800-427: The rising waters and died out. Abel Jansen Tasman, credited as the first European to discover Tasmania (in 1642) and who named it Van Diemen's Land, did not encounter any of the Aboriginal Tasmanians when he landed. In 1772, a French exploratory expedition under Marion Dufresne visited Tasmania. At first, contact with the Aboriginal people was friendly; however the Aboriginal Tasmanians became alarmed when another boat

16950-516: The river traverses a variety of terrains before emptying into the D'Entrecasteaux Channel near Surveyors Bay. The river is impounded at Scotts Peak Dam and passes through Lake Pedder before continuing southeast. It is joined by 26 tributaries, including the Anne , Cracroft , Picton , Weld , Arve , Russell , and Mountain River . As the river reaches its lower section, it becomes tidal after passing through

17100-562: The river’s health and surrounding habitats. The Huon River, known as "Taloonne" to the Mellukerdee people of southern Tasmania, holds deep cultural significance. Indigenous communities relied on the river for fishing, transport, and cultural practices. The surrounding landscape, including the Egg Islands, was important in their traditions. The river is named after the French Navy officer and explorer Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec , who explored

17250-455: The river’s historical significance as a transportation route. Aboriginal Tasmanians#South East The Aboriginal Tasmanians ( Palawa kani : Palawa or Pakana ) are the Aboriginal people of the Australian island of Tasmania , located south of the mainland. At the time of European contact, Aboriginal Tasmanians were divided into a number of distinct ethnic groups . For much of

17400-661: The river’s natural beauty and its islands. Kayaking, bird-watching, and the Tahune Airwalk all attract visitors to the area. The Huon River has several important crossings, both current and historical, that have contributed to the region's transport and economic development. In the 19th century, several rope bridges were erected to help timber workers and locals cross the river. These rudimentary crossings, often made of timber and rope, were particularly important for remote communities that had limited access to established road networks. Though none of these structures remain, they reflect

17550-406: The river’s wetlands. The Tahune Airwalk offers scenic views of the river, and cold-water swimming in the river has gained popularity as a wellness activity. The Egg Islands and Huon Island are also important for conservation efforts, with programs focused on protecting the delicate ecosystems and wildlife of the area. Tourists are encouraged to participate in eco-friendly activities and learn about

17700-401: The role of genetic diversity within salmon runs. The resilience of the population depends on some fish being able to survive environmental shocks, such as unusual temperature extremes. The effect of hatchery production on the genetic diversity of salmon is also unclear. Salmon have been genetically modified in laboratories so they can grow faster. A company, Aqua Bounty Farms, has developed

17850-531: The rural township of Glen Huon and continues through Huonville , Franklin , and Cygnet (Port Cygnet) before reaching the sea. Key points of interest along the river include the Tahune Airwalk and Huon Island , a small island near the river’s mouth that plays an important role in local conservation efforts. The Egg Islands are also significant, located in the lower tidal section of the river and known for their ecological diversity. The Huon River supports

18000-544: The salmon smolts are produced in raceways. The waste products from the growing salmon fry and the feed are usually discharged into the local river. Conventional flow-through hatcheries, for example the majority of Alaska's enhancement hatcheries, use more than 100 tonnes (16,000 st) of water to produce a kg of smolts. An alternative method to hatching in freshwater tanks is to use spawning channels. These are artificial streams, usually parallel to an existing stream with concrete or rip-rap sides and gravel bottoms. Water from

18150-413: The same carotenoid pigments from their diet in the wild. Modern harvesting methods are shifting towards using wet-well ships to transport live salmon to the processing plant. This allows the fish to be killed, bled, and filleted before rigor has occurred. This results in superior product quality to the customer, along with more humane processing. To obtain maximum quality, minimizing the level of stress

18300-469: The sealers against Aboriginal people, and against Aboriginal women in particular. Brian Plomley , who edited Robinson's papers, expressed scepticism about these atrocities and notes that they were not reported to Archdeacon William Broughton 's 1830 committee of inquiry into violence towards Tasmanians. Abduction and ill-treatment of Aboriginal Tasmanians certainly occurred, but the extent is debated. The raids for and trade in Aboriginal women contributed to

18450-527: The sealers being confident that they would return. Bonwick also reports a number of claims of brutality by sealers towards Aboriginal women including some of those made by Robinson. An Aboriginal woman by the name of Bulrer related her experience to Robinson, that sealers had rushed her camp and stolen six women including herself "the white men tie them and then they flog them very much, plenty much blood, plenty cry." Sealing captain James Kelly wrote in 1816 that

18600-528: The sealers for dogs and flour. Walyer was later to gain some notoriety for her attempts to kill the sealers to escape their brutality. Walyer, a Punnilerpanner, joined the Plairhekehillerplue band after eventually escaping and went on to lead attacks on employees of the Van Diemen's Land Company . Walyer's attacks are the first recorded use of muskets by Aboriginal people. Captured, she refused to work and

18750-416: The sealers for the seal-hunting season. Others were sold on a permanent basis. This trade incorporated not only women of the tribe engaged in the trade but also women abducted from other tribes. Some may have been given to incorporate the new arrivals into Aboriginal society through marriage. Sealers engaged in raids along the coasts to abduct Aboriginal women and were reported to have killed Aboriginal men in

18900-473: The sealers involuntarily and some went willingly, as in the case of a woman called Tarenorerer (Eng: Walyer). Differing opinions have been given on Walyer's involvement with the sealers. McFarlane writes that she voluntarily joined the sealers with members of her family, and was responsible for attacking Aboriginal people and white settlers alike. Ryan comes to a different conclusion, that Walyer had been abducted at Port Sorell by Aboriginal people and traded to

19050-490: The sealers' brutality towards the Aboriginal women; with some of these reports originating from Robinson. In 1830, Robinson seized 14 Aboriginal women from the sealers, planning for them to marry Aboriginal men at the Flinders Island settlement. Josephine Flood , an archaeologist specialising in Australian mainland Aboriginal peoples, notes: "he encountered strong resistance from the women as well as sealers". The sealers sent

19200-413: The settled districts, and recognised this practice as some form of payment for trespass and loss of traditional hunting grounds, the new settlers and stock keepers were unwilling to maintain these arrangements and the Aboriginal people began to raid settlers' huts for food. The official Government position was that Aboriginal people were blameless for any hostilities, but when Musquito was hanged in 1825,

19350-431: The settled districts. The colonial Government assigned troops to drive them out. A Royal Proclamation in 1828 established military posts on the boundaries and a further proclamation declared martial law against the Aboriginal people. As it was recognised that there were fixed routes for seasonal migration, Aboriginal people were required to have passes if they needed to cross the settled districts with bounties offered for

19500-422: The settlement including the growing of food in the vegetable gardens. After arrival, all Aboriginal children aged between six and 15 years were removed from their families to be brought up by the storekeeper and a lay preacher. The Aboriginal people were free to roam the island and were often absent from the settlement for extended periods on hunting trips as the rations supplied turned out to be inadequate. By 1835

19650-573: The skin of salmon during planktonic nauplii and copepodid larval stages, which can persist for several days. Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result. Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. In 2007, mathematical studies of data available from

19800-418: The spread of parasitic sea lice from river salmon farms to wild pink salmon in the same river. The European Commission (2002) concluded, "The reduction of wild salmonid abundance is also linked to other factors but there is more and more scientific evidence establishing a direct link between the number of lice-infested wild fish and the presence of cages in the same estuary." It is reported that wild salmon on

19950-406: The station was a former convict station that had been abandoned earlier that year due to health issues as it was located on inadequately drained mudflats . According to the guards, the Aboriginal people developed "too much independence" by trying to continue their culture which they considered "recklessness" and "rank ingratitude". Their numbers continued to diminish, being estimated in 1859 at around

20100-554: The sustainability of enhanced/hatchery-based ‘wild’ caught salmon has long been hotly debated, both from a scientific and political/marketing perspective. Such debate and positions were central to a 'halt' in the re-certification of Alaska salmon fisheries by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) in 2012. The Alaska salmon fisheries subsequently re-attained MSC-certification status; however the heavily hatchery-dependent Prince William Sound (PWS) unit of certification (“one of

20250-422: The trading, and the abduction, of Aboriginal women as sexual partners. These practices also increased conflict over women among Aboriginal tribes. This in turn led to a decline in the Aboriginal population. Historian Lyndall Ryan records 74 Aboriginal people (almost all women) living with sealers on the Bass Strait islands in the period up to 1835. In 1804, the first major massacre of Aboriginal Tasmanians occurred

20400-468: The use of clothes had a most mischievous effect on their health. By January 1832 a further 44 captured Aboriginal residents had arrived and conflicts arose between the tribal groups. To defuse the situation, Sergeant Wight took the Big River group to Green Island , where they were abandoned, and he later decided to move the rest to Green Island as well. Two weeks later Robinson arrived with Lieutenant Darling,

20550-419: The water is recycled within the hatchery. This allows location of the hatchery to be independent of a significant fresh water supply and allows economical temperature control to both speed up and slow down the growth rate to match the needs of the net pens. Conventional hatchery systems operate flow-through, where spring water or other water sources flow into the hatchery. The eggs are then hatched in trays and

20700-545: The west coast of Canada are being driven to extinction by sea lice from nearby salmon farms. These predictions have been disputed by other scientists and recent harvests have indicated that the predictions were in error. In 2011, Scottish salmon farming introduced the use of farmed ballan wrasse for the purpose of cleaning farmed salmon of ectoparasites. Globally, salmon production fell around 9% in 2015, in large part due to acute outbreaks of sea lice in Scotland and Norway. Lasers are used to reduce lice infections. In

20850-408: The west coast of Tasmania, far from the settled regions, and wrote: "The numbers of Aborigines along the western coast have been considerably reduced since the time of my last visit [1830]. A mortality has raged amongst them which together with the severity of the season and other causes had rendered the paucity of their number very considerable." Between 1825 and 1831 a pattern of guerilla warfare by

21000-703: The white man's musket. The Oyster Cove people attracted contemporaneous international scientific interest from the 1860s onwards, with many museums claiming body parts for their collections. Scientists were interested in studying Aboriginal Tasmanians from a physical anthropology perspective, hoping to gain insights into the field of paleoanthropology . For these reasons, they were interested in individual Aboriginal body parts and whole skeletons . Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into craniofacial anthropometry . Truganini herself entertained fears that her body might be exploited after her death and two years after her death her body

21150-470: The world's farmed salmonids, and Chile produces 31%. The coastlines of these countries have suitable water temperatures and many areas well protected from storms. Chile is close to large forage fisheries which supply fish meal for salmon aquaculture. Scotland and Canada are also significant producers; and it was reported in 2012 that the Norwegian government at that time controlled a significant fraction of

21300-680: Was [sic] used selectively and conclusions do not match with recent observations of returning salmon". A 2008 meta-analysis of available data shows that salmonid farming reduces the survival of associated wild salmonid populations. This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon. The decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50%. However, these studies are all correlation analysis and correlation doesn't equal causation, especially when similar salmon declines were occurring in Oregon and California, which have no salmon aquaculture or marine net pens. Independent of

21450-771: Was banished to Penguin Island . Later imprisoned on Swan Island she attempted to organise a rebellion. Although Aboriginal women were by custom forbidden to take part in war, several Aboriginal women who escaped from sealers became leaders or took part in attacks. According to Lyndall Ryan , the women traded to or kidnapped by sealers became "a significant dissident group" against European/white authority. Historian James Bonwick reported Aboriginal women who were clearly captives of sealers but he also reported women living with sealers who "proved faithful and affectionate to their new husbands", women who appeared "content" and others who were allowed to visit their "native tribe", taking gifts, with

21600-507: Was colonised by successive waves of Aboriginal people from southern Australia during glacial maxima , when the sea was at its lowest. The archeological and geographic record suggests a period of drying during the colder glacial period, with a desert extending from southern Australia into the midlands of Tasmania, with intermittent periods of wetter, warmer climate. Migrants from southern Australia into peninsular Tasmania would have crossed stretches of seawater and desert, and finally found oases in

21750-731: Was dispatched towards the shore. It was reported that spears and stones were thrown and the French responded with musket fire, killing at least one Aboriginal person and wounding several others. Two later French expeditions led by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux in 1792–93 and Nicolas Baudin in 1802 made friendly contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians; the d'Entrecasteaux expedition doing so over an extended period of time. The Resolution under Captain Tobias Furneaux (part of an expedition led by Captain James Cook ) had visited in 1773 but made no contact with

21900-490: Was exhumed and sent to Melbourne for scientific study. Her skeleton was then put up for public display in the Tasmanian Museum until 1947, and was only laid to rest, by cremation, in 1976. Another case was the removal of the skull and scrotum – for a tobacco pouch – of William Lanne , known as King Billy, on his death in 1869. However, many of these skeletons were obtained from Aboriginal "mummies" from graves or bodies of

22050-567: Was exposed to gales, had little water and no land suitable for cultivation. Supplies to the settlement were inadequate and if sealers had not supplied potatoes, the Aboriginal people would have starved. The Europeans were living on oatmeal and potatoes while the Aboriginal people, who detested oatmeal and refused to eat it, survived on potatoes and rice supplemented by mutton birds they caught. Within months 31 Aboriginal people had died. Roth wrote: They were lodged at night in shelters or "breakwinds." These "breakwinds" were thatched roofs sloping to

22200-664: Was historically a transportation route for early settlers, the timber industry, and agricultural goods. The development of roads in the Huon Valley over the 19th century eventually overtook the river as the primary transport route. The Huon River rises below Junction Hill in the Southwest National Park , drawing much of its water from the Marsden Range and associated peaks, including Mount Anne, Mount Bowes, and Mount Wedge. Flowing through Tasmania’s rugged South West Wilderness,

22350-434: Was only too well calculated to induce those severe pulmonary diseases which were destined to prove so fatal to them. The same may be said of the use of clothes ... At the settlement they were compelled to wear clothes, which they threw off when heated or when they found them troublesome, and when wetted by rain allowed them to dry on their bodies. In the case of Tasmanians, as with other wild tribes accustomed to go naked,

22500-429: Was recognised early on that Huon pine forests were a finite resource, and it became clear that these slow-growing trees could not be replaced within the lifetime of any generation. As a result, plantations were deemed unfeasible, and early settlers understood that they had to make the most of the existing timber. This led to the extensive use of Huon pine in shipbuilding and the timber industry. European settlers also used

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