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42-903: Wildlife recorded during camera trapping surveys between 2001 and 2011 comprised tiger ( Panthera tigris ), leopard ( P. pardus ), clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ), Asian golden cat ( Catopuma temminckii ), marbled cat ( Pardofelis marmorata ), leopard cat ( Prionailurus bengalensis ). yellow-throated marten ( Martes flavigula ), binturong ( Arctictis binturong ), large Indian civet ( Viverra zibetha ), large-spotted civet ( V. megaspila ), small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ), masked palm civet ( Paguma larvata ), Asian palm civet ( Paradoxurus hermaphroditus ), hog badger ( Arctonyx collaris ) and spotted linsang ( Prionodon pardicolor ). More than 200,000 acres of land in Hukawng Valley are being used for gold mining , causing environmental damage. The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)

84-413: A computer . Even though this method is uncommon, it is highly useful and could be the future of this research method. Some cameras are even programmed to take multiple pictures after a triggering event. There are non-triggered cameras that either run continuously or take pictures at specific time intervals. The more common ones are the advanced cameras that are triggered only after sensing movement and/or

126-412: A cost-effective monitoring tool. Infrared flash cameras have low disturbance and visibility. Besides olfactory and acoustic cues, camera flash may scare animals so that they avoid or destroy camera traps. The major alternative light source is infrared, which is usually not detectable by mammals or birds . Camera traps are also helpful in quantifying the number of different species in an area; this

168-473: A definition similar to "all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus ", with Troodon being sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to birds than to Deinonychus . Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical characteristics). Jacques Gauthier , who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight , and

210-442: A group called Paraves . Some basal members of Deinonychosauria, such as Microraptor , have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal , have been able to glide, or both. Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, studies suggest that

252-412: A heat signature to increase the chances of capturing a useful image. Infrared beams can also be used to trigger the camera. Video is also an emerging option in camera traps, allowing researchers to record running streams of video and to document animal behavior. The battery life of some of these cameras is another important factor in which cameras are used; large batteries offer a longer running time for

294-412: A highly negative effect on camera traps and can result in camera malfunction. This can be problematic since the malfunction is often not immediately discovered, so a large portion of research time can be lost. Often a researcher expecting the experiment to be complete will trek back to the site, only to discover far less data than expected – or even none at all. The best type of weather for it to work in

336-406: A sister group, the order Crocodilia , contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria . During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica . However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and

378-442: A successful tool for study. Bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves ( Latin: [ˈaveːs] ), characterised by feathers , toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart , and a strong yet lightweight skeleton . Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to

420-717: A time, sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction . They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds , parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano (bird excrement)

462-601: A useful tool for anti-poaching or other law enforcement effort. One of the most important things to consider when setting up camera traps is choosing the location in order to get the best results. Camera traps near mineral licks or along game trails, where it is more likely that animals will visit frequently, are normally seen. Animals congregate around a mineral lick to consume water and soil, which can be useful in reducing toxin levels or supplement mineral intake in their diet . These locations for camera traps also allow for variety of animals who show up at different times and use

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504-426: Is a camera that is automatically triggered by motion in its vicinity, like the presence of an animal or a human being. It is typically equipped with a motion sensor – usually a passive infrared (PIR) sensor or an active infrared (AIR) sensor using an infrared light beam. Camera traps are a type of remote cameras used to capture images of wildlife with as little human interference as possible. Camera trapping

546-408: Is a method for recording wild animals when researchers are not present, and has been used in ecological research for decades. In addition to applications in hunting and wildlife viewing, research applications include studies of nest ecology , detection of rare species, estimation of population size and species richness, and research on habitat use and occupation of human-built structures. Since

588-404: Is a more effective method than attempting to count by hand every individual organism in a field. It can also be useful in identifying new or rare species that have yet to be well documented. It has been key in recent years in the rediscovery of species such as the black-naped pheasant-pigeon , thought to be extinct for 140 years but captured on a trail camera by researchers. By using camera traps,

630-440: Is any place with low humidity and stable moderate temperatures. There is also the possibility, if it is a motion activated camera, that any movement within the sensitivity range of the camera’s sensor will trigger a picture, so the camera might end up with numerous pictures of anything the wind moves, such as plants. As far as problems with camera traps, it cannot be overlooked that sometimes the subjects themselves negatively affect

672-429: Is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. The first classification of birds

714-503: Is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor. Over 40% of key traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year transition from the earliest bird-line archosaurs to the first maniraptoromorphs , i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than to Tyrannosaurus rex . The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred early during this phase. After

756-516: Is synonymous to Avifilopluma. † Scansoriopterygidae † Eosinopteryx † Jinfengopteryx † Aurornis † Dromaeosauridae † Troodontidae Avialae Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs and, more specifically, members of Maniraptora , a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurids and oviraptorosaurs , among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds,

798-526: Is that they can record very accurate data without disturbing the photographed animal. These data are superior to human observations because they can be reviewed by other researchers. They minimally disturb wildlife and can replace the use of more invasive survey and monitoring techniques such as live trap and release. They operate continually and silently, provide proof of species present in an area, can reveal what prints and scats belong to which species, provide evidence for management and policy decisions, and are

840-513: Is the best technique to use in the specific research is which type of species one is attempting to observe with the camera. Species such as small-bodied birds and insects may be too small to trigger the camera. Reptiles and amphibians will not be able to trip the infrared or heat differential-based sensors, however, methods have been developed to detect these species by utilizing a reflector based sensor system. However, for most medium and large-bodied terrestrial species camera traps have proven to be

882-530: Is used by many scientists including adherents to the PhyloCode . Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils , and assigning them, instead, to the broader group Avialae, on the principle that a clade based on extant species should be limited to those extant species and their closest extinct relatives. Gauthier and de Queiroz identified four different definitions for

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924-660: The Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period ( Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi , Xiaotingia zhengi , and Aurornis xui . The well-known probable early avialan, Archaeopteryx , dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany . Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on

966-422: The loss of flight in some birds , including ratites , penguins , and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds , have further evolved for swimming. The study of birds is called ornithology . Birds are feathered theropod dinosaurs and constitute

1008-561: The only known living dinosaurs . Likewise, birds are considered reptiles in the modern cladistic sense of the term, and their closest living relatives are the crocodilians . Birds are descendants of the primitive avialans (whose members include Archaeopteryx ) which first appeared during the Late Jurassic . According to recent estimates, modern birds ( Neornithes ) evolved in the Late Cretaceous and diversified dramatically around

1050-440: The 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) common ostrich . There are over 11,000 living species and they are split into 44 orders . More than half are passerine or "perching" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds . Wings, which are modified forelimbs , gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to

1092-428: The appearance of Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous reduction of body size and the accumulation of neotenic (juvenile-like) characteristics. Hypercarnivory became increasingly less common while braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer. The integument evolved into complex, pennaceous feathers . The oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come from

1134-509: The birds that descended from them. Despite being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997) argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not) will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest relatives. Their alternative definition

1176-439: The camera but can be cumbersome in set up or when lugging the equipment to the field site. Weather proof and waterproof housing for camera traps protect the equipment from damage and disguise the equipment from animals. Noise-reduction housing limits the possibility of disturbing and scaring away animals. Sound recording is another feature that can be added to the camera to record animal calls and times when specific animals are

1218-665: The earliest members of Aves, is removed from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution , though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these researchers. † Coelurus † Ornitholestes † Ornithomimosauria † Alvarezsauridae † Oviraptorosauria   Paraves Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used

1260-451: The first avialans were omnivores . The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It

1302-487: The introduction of commercial infrared-triggered cameras in the early 1990s, their use has increased. With advancements in the quality of camera equipment, this method of field observation has become more popular among researchers. Hunting has played an important role in development of camera traps, since hunters use them to scout for game. These hunters have opened a commercial market for the devices, leading to many improvements over time. The great advantage of camera traps

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1344-724: The licks in different ways allowing for the study of animal behavior . To study more specific behaviors of a particular species, it is helpful to identify the target species' runs, dens, beds, latrines, food caches, favored hunting and foraging grounds, etc. Knowledge of the target species' general habits, seasonal variations in behavior and habitat use, as well as its tracks, scat, feeding sign, and other spoor are extremely helpful in locating and identifying these sites, and this strategy has been described in great detail for many species. Bait may be used to attract desired species. However type, frequency and method of presentation require careful consideration. Another major factor in whether this

1386-453: The most vocal. Wireless transmission allows images and videos to be sent using cellular networks, so users can view activity instantly without disturbing their targets. The use of invisible flash "No-Glow" IR leverages 940   nm infrared waves to illuminate a night image without being detected by humans or wildlife. These waves are outside of the visible light spectrum so the subject doesn't know they are being watched. Humidity has

1428-402: The outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and this process culminated in the appearance of the pygostyle , an ossification of fused tail vertebrae. In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size. Around 95 million years ago, they evolved

1470-528: The previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. By the 2000s, discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrated many small theropod feathered dinosaurs , contributed to this ambiguity. The consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans , are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs , which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids . Together, these form

1512-522: The research. One of the most common things is that animals unknowingly topple a camera or splatter it with mud or water ruining the film or lens . One other method of animal tampering involves the animals themselves taking the cameras for their own uses. There are examples of some animals actually taking the cameras and snapping pictures of themselves. Local people sometimes use the same game trails as wildlife, and hence are also photographed by camera traps placed along these trails. This can make camera traps

1554-452: The same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. They assigned other names to the other groups.   Lizards & snakes   Turtles   Crocodiles   Birds Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx , traditionally considered one of

1596-545: The second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering. Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics , such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). Increasingly stiff tails (especially

1638-600: The time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, which killed off the pterosaurs and all non- ornithuran dinosaurs. Many social species preserve knowledge across generations ( culture ). Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and songs , and participating in such behaviour as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking , and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily sexually) monogamous , usually for one breeding season at

1680-542: The well-being and survival rate of animals can be observed over time. Camera traps are helpful in determining behavioral and activity patterns of animals, such as which time of day they visit mineral licks . Camera traps are also useful to record animal migrations. The earliest models used traditional film and a one-shot trigger function. These cameras contained film that needed to be collected and developed like any other standard camera. Today, more advanced cameras utilize digital photography , sending photos directly to

1722-485: Was criticized for its role in the protected area, particularly for blaming indigenous peoples for environmental damage, though this was found to be untrue since WCS was found to support small infrastructure projects and donate rice and supplies to villagers. This protected areas-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Myanmar location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Camera trap A camera trap

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1764-461: Was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae . Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy . Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the clade Theropoda as an infraclass or a subclass, more recently a subclass. Aves and

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