154-657: Huaynaputina ( / ˌ w aɪ n ə p ʊ ˈ t iː n ə / WY -nə-puu- TEE -nə ; Spanish: [wajnapuˈtina] ) is a volcano in a volcanic high plateau in southern Peru . Lying in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes , it was formed by the subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American Plate . Huaynaputina is a large volcanic crater , lacking an identifiable mountain profile, with an outer stratovolcano and three younger volcanic vents within an amphitheatre -shaped structure that
308-558: A ghost town ) and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE. Casiri (Tacna) Casiri , also known as Paucarani, is an about 5,650 metres (18,537 ft) high complex volcano in the Barroso mountain range of the Andes , in the Tacna Region of Peru . It consists of four individual volcanic edifices with lava domes ;
462-476: A magma chamber below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called volcanism . On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a mid-ocean ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas
616-461: A phreatomagmatic eruption. These vents lie at an elevation of about 4,200 m (13,800 ft), making them among the highest vents of a Plinian eruption in the world. Slumps have buried parts of the amphitheatre. Dacitic dykes crop out within the amphitheatre and are aligned along a northwest–south trending lineament that the younger vents are also located on. These dykes and a dacitic lava dome of similar composition were formed before
770-436: A 5 kilometre-long chain, and a southeasterly younger edifice with a well preserved lava dome in its crater which is breached to the south. An older lava dome lies in the western part of the complex. The whole Casiri volcano grew on the southern flanks of older volcanoes and rises about 1,050 metres (3,440 ft) above the surrounding terrain. The edifice has a volume of about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi), with
924-454: A bulk volume of 110 km (26 cu mi) of rock, equivalent to a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7. Estimates have been made for the dense-rock equivalent of the Huaynaputina eruption, ranging between 4.6 and 11 km (1.1 and 2.6 cu mi), with a 2019 estimate, that accounts for far-flung tephra, of 13–14 km (3.1–3.4 cu mi). Ash fall from Huaynaputina reached
1078-537: A deep reservoir, while Agua Blanca is influenced by surface waters. Based on historical records, Huaynaputina's eruption commenced on 19 February 1600 (following earthquakes that began four days prior), with the earliest signs of the impending eruption perhaps in December 1599. The duration of the eruption is not well constrained but may have lasted up to 12–19 hours. The event continued with earthquakes and ash fall for about two weeks and ended on 6 March;
1232-789: A deity fighting against the Spanish invaders; one myth states that Omate volcano (Huaynaputina) wanted the assistance of Arequipa volcano (probably El Misti) to destroy the Spaniards but the latter could not, claiming that he was Christian now, and so Huaynaputina proceeded alone. Another states that instead, Huaynaputina asked Machuputina (Misti) to deal with the Catholic Arequipa; when the latter refused as it too had become Catholic Huaynaputina exploded from anger. El Misti had erupted less than two centuries before, and local populations were further concerned that after Huaynaputina, El Misti might erupt next. As
1386-699: A diameter of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). A cirque with a rock glacier is developed on a summit northeast from the main Casiri complex. Close to the Paucarani reservoir is a debris avalanche deposit. Lava flows , stubby and 50–100 metres (160–330 ft) thick owing to viscosity, originate on the younger edifice and spread in several directions. The flows reach widths of 50–500 metres (160–1,640 ft), lengths of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) and are well preserved, displaying flow lines, levees and lobes; on images taken from space they have dark colours. Some parts of
1540-575: A former Inka administrative centre, was destroyed during the Huaynaputina eruption and after a brief reoccupation abandoned in favour of Torata . Likewise, the occupation of the site of Pillistay close to Camana ended shortly after the eruption. Together with earthquakes unrelated to the eruption and El Niño -related flooding, the Huaynaputina eruption led to the abandonment of some irrigated land in Carrizal, Peru. The eruption claimed 1,000–1,500 fatalities, not counting these from earthquakes or flooding on
1694-437: A graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories. The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater. While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano,
SECTION 10
#17328512885571848-609: A large area. Of the volcanic phenomena, the ash and pumice falls were the most destructive. These and the debris and pyroclastic flows devastated an area of about 40 km × 70 km (25 mi × 43 mi) around Huaynaputina, and both crops and livestock sustained severe damage. Between 11 and 17 villages within 20 km (12 mi) from the volcano were buried by the ash, including Calicanto, Chimpapampa, Cojraque, Estagagache, Moro Moro and San Juan de Dios south and southwest of Huaynaputina. The Huayruro Project began in 2015 and aims to rediscover these towns, and Calicanto
2002-547: A latent or potentially active volcano with a moderate threat level. Earthquakes in 2020 and 2021 in the area do not appear to relate to volcanic activity. In 2012, the Geophysical Institute in Peru announced that it would begin monitoring Casiri, along with two other volcanoes in southern Peru, with seismometers . They consider it a "low hazard" volcano. As of 2021 , there are two seismometers and one instrument measuring
2156-481: A number of small farms. A cattle-grazing footpath leads from Quinistaquillas to the volcano, and it is possible to approach the volcano over surrounding ash plains. The landscapes around the volcano have unique characteristics that make them an important geological heritage. Huaynaputina lies at an elevation of about 4,850 m (15,910 ft). It consists of an outer composite volcano, or stratovolcano, and three younger volcanic vents nested within an amphitheatre that
2310-443: A paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as cryovolcanism . It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which magma , as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.' This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See § Volcanoes on other celestial bodies and cryovolcano for more information. The word volcano
2464-534: A protected area. The Paucarani reservoir also could be exploited for tourism purposes as well. The Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year) and causes volcanism along the western margin of South America. This volcanism is distributed over three volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone , the Central Volcanic Zone and
2618-475: A remote region where there is little human activity, but about 30,000 people live in the immediately surrounding area, and another one million in the Arequipa metropolitan area . If an eruption similar to the 1600 event were to occur, it would quite likely lead to a high death toll and cause substantial socioeconomic disruption. The Peruvian Geophysical Institute announced in 2017 that Huaynaputina would be monitored by
2772-453: A result, natives and Franciscan friars threw sacrifices such as relics of saints into its crater. Shamans in the Tambo valley urged a return to old customs, and processions and sacrifices to Huaynaputina took place. In Arequipa, a new patron saint , San Genaro, was named following the eruption and veneration of Martha – who was believed to have power over earthquakes – increased; she became
2926-545: A secondary road. The region is thinly populated. A rain gauge of the Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú [ es ] was in use on the volcano at 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation from 1946 to 2003. The volcano is considered a potential tourist attraction owing to its scenery. It is also part of the Monumento Natural de Paucarani geopark and has been proposed to become
3080-412: A small mound that is in part nested within the second vent. This third vent is surrounded by concentric faults . At least one of the vents has been described as an ash cone. A fourth vent lies on the southern slope of the composite volcano outside of the amphitheatre and has been described as a maar . It is about 70 m (230 ft) wide and 30 m (98 ft) deep and appears to have formed during
3234-465: A thickness of 1 cm (0.39 in) within a 95,000 km (37,000 sq mi) area of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile, and of over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) closer to the volcano. The tephra was deposited in a major westerly lobe and a minor northerly lobe; this is an unusual distribution, as tephra from volcanoes in the Central Andes is usually carried eastward by winds. The deposition of
SECTION 20
#17328512885573388-632: A volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma. Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases. Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions: Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced [ˈʔaʔa] ) and pāhoehoe ( [paːˈho.eˈho.e] ), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa
3542-555: A volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus . Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash ) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on
3696-465: A volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a catastrophic caldera -forming eruption. Ash flow tuffs emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivalling those of flood basalts . Supervolcano eruptions, while
3850-485: Is 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep. This horseshoe-shaped structure opens eastwards and is set in the older volcano at an elevation of 4,400 m (14,400 ft). The amphitheatre lies at the margin of a rectangular high plateau that is covered by about 2 m (6.6 ft) thick ash, extending over an area of 50 km (19 sq mi). The volcano has generally modest dimensions and rises less than 600 m (2,000 ft) above
4004-727: Is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones. Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon. Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and tephra in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in
4158-419: Is a 70 m (230 ft) trough that cuts into the amphitheatre. The trough appears to be a remnant of a fissure vent . A second vent appears to have been about 400 m (1,300 ft) wide before the development of a third vent, which has mostly obscured the first two. The third vent is steep-walled, with a depth of 80 m (260 ft); it contains a pit that is 200 m (660 ft) wide, set within
4312-575: Is also involved in the regulation of the Rio Caplina . In 2012, a broken floodgate caused a damaging flood. Alterations in the reservoir that increased its storage volume may be responsible for water leaks in the dam; additional problems reported at Paucarani are contamination with heavy metals - especially arsenic . Casiri is located in the Tarata Province of the Tacna Region of Peru; it lies about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast from
4466-412: Is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse. More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where
4620-421: Is derived from rocks underlying the volcano, including sediments and older volcanic rocks, both of which were hydrothermally altered. Pumices from Huaynaputina are white. The amount of volatiles in the magma appears to have decreased during the 1600 eruption, indicating that it originated either in two separate magma chambers or from one zoned chamber. This may explain changes in the eruption phenomena during
4774-554: Is derived from the name of Vulcano , a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan , the god of fire in Roman mythology . The study of volcanoes is called volcanology , sometimes spelled vulcanology . According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's lithosphere , its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to convection in
Huaynaputina - Misplaced Pages Continue
4928-505: Is either a former caldera or a remnant of glacial erosion. The volcano has erupted dacitic magma. In the Holocene , Huaynaputina has erupted several times, including on 19 February 1600 – the largest eruption ever recorded in South America – which continued with a series of events into March. Witnessed by people in the city of Arequipa , it killed at least 1,000–1,500 people in
5082-567: Is expressed using the volcanic explosivity index (VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions. As of December 2022 , the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program database of volcanic eruptions in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for
5236-515: Is far from Huaynaputina and has several local volcanoes that could generate tephra fallout. The Huaynaputina ash layer has been used as a tephrochronological marker for the region, for example in archeology and in geology, where it was used to date an eruption in the Andagua volcanic field and fault movements that could have produced destructive earthquakes . The ash layer, which may have reached as far as East Rongbuk Glacier at Mount Everest in
5390-514: Is genetically related to the activity of Casiri. It has been excavated through trenches and wells; some installations could still be exploitable. Another mine known as San Luis may also be associated with Paucarani; it is located on the northwestern flank. Precious metals might occur in the hydrothermally altered areas at Casiri. The area of Casiri features the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, where about 50 separate vents occur along
5544-411: Is known that non-volcanic mountains in southern Peru received offerings as well. There have been no eruptions since 1600; a report of an eruption in 1667 is unsubstantiated and unclear owing to the sparse historical information. It probably reflects an eruption at Ubinas instead. Fumaroles occur in the amphitheatre close to the three vents, on the third vent, and in association with dykes that crop out in
5698-422: Is often the trigger for explosive eruptions. The magmas erupted early during the 1600 event (in the first stage of the eruption) appear to have originated from depths of more than 20 km (12 mi); petrological analysis indicates that some magmas came from depths greater than 15–25 km (9–16 mi) and others from about 4–6 km (2.5–3.7 mi). An older hypothesis by de Silva and Francis held that
5852-524: Is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analysed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near
6006-685: Is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Other volcanoes in this zone from northwest to southeast include Sara Sara , Solimana , Coropuna , Andagua volcanic field , Huambo volcanic field , Sabancaya , Chachani , El Misti, Ubinas , Ticsani , Tutupaca , Yucamane , Purupuruni and Casiri . Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru; Huaynaputina, El Misti, Sabancaya, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Ubinas and Yucamane have been active in historical time, while Sara Sara, Coropuna, Ampato, Casiri and Chachani are considered to be dormant . Most volcanoes of
6160-637: Is poorly known. Based on rock types that the Casiri volcano has erupted, it can be determined that it is composed of andesite , basaltic andesite and trachyandesite with a porphyric texture; the rocks contain biotite , hornblende , plagioclase and sanidine crystals. Deposition of sulfur from gases has formed sulfur deposits. The Quaternary -age Casiri is one of the youngest volcanic systems in southern Peru with postglacial activity, and Peru's southernmost Holocene volcano. Holocene lavas sourced from fissure vents overlie Pleistocene -age moraines and are uneroded; radiometric dating on
6314-500: Is that the second vent is actually a collapse structure that formed late during the eruption. Much of the excavation of the conduit took place during this stage. After a hiatus the volcano began erupting pyroclastic flows; these were mostly constrained by the topography and were erupted in stages, intercalated by ash fall that extended to larger distances. Most of these pyroclastic flows accumulated in valleys radiating away from Huaynaputina, reaching distances of 13 km (8 mi) from
Huaynaputina - Misplaced Pages Continue
6468-437: Is thinner than the layer produced by the first stage eruption and appears to be partly of phreatomagmatic origin. During this stage the volcano also emitted lava bombs ; the total volume of erupted tephra is about 1.5 km (0.36 cu mi). This third stage destroyed the lava dome and formed the third vent, which then began to settle along the faults as the underlying magma was exhausted. The fourth vent formed late during
6622-466: Is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland , as well. Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount St. Helens , but can also form independently, as in
6776-600: The Cascade Volcanoes or the Japanese Archipelago , or the eastern islands of Indonesia . Hotspots are volcanic areas thought to be formed by mantle plumes , which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off
6930-530: The Council of the Indies to request economic assistance. Religious and political authorities mobilized to respond to the eruption and its effects. Taxes were suspended for years, and indigenous workers were recruited from as far as Lake Titicaca and Cuzco to aid in the reconstruction. Arequipa went from being a relatively wealthy city to be a place of famine and disease in the years after the eruption, and its port of Chule
7084-634: The General Sánchez Cerro Province in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru. The town of Omate lies 16 kilometres (10 mi) southwest of Huaynaputina. The city of Moquegua is 65 kilometres (40 mi) south-southwest of the volcano and Arequipa is 80 km (50 mi) to its north-northwest. The region is generally remote and the terrain extreme, the area around Huaynaputina is not easily accessible and human activity low. Within 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) of Huaynaputina there are
7238-618: The Hawaiian hotspot is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the Sun and cool Earth's troposphere . Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines. Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. Mars has significant volcanoes. In 2009,
7392-591: The Himalaya , has also been used as a tephrochronological marker in Greenland and Antarctic ice cores. It has been proposed as a marker for the onset of the Anthropocene . The eruption had a devastating impact on the region. Ash falls and pumice falls buried the surroundings beneath more than 2 m (6 ft 7 in) of rocks, while pyroclastic flows incinerated everything within their path, wiping out vegetation over
7546-579: The Northern Volcanic Zone , the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone . There are about 400 Pliocene – Quaternary volcanoes in Peru, with Quaternary activity occurring only in the southern part of the country. Peruvian volcanoes are part of the Central Volcanic Zone. Volcanic activity in that zone has moved eastward since the Jurassic . Remnants of
7700-510: The South American tectonic plate ; this process is responsible for volcanic activity and the uplift of the Andes mountains and of the Altiplano plateau. The subduction is oblique, leading to strike-slip faulting . Volcanic activity does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; where subduction is shallow, there are gaps with little volcanic activity. Between these gaps lie volcanic belts:
7854-420: The Southern Volcanic Zone . The Central Volcanic Zone includes the volcanoes of southern Peru, a country with over 300 volcanoes. Of these, El Misti , Huaynaputina , Sabancaya , Ticsani , Tutupaca , Ubinas and Yucamane have been active during historical time . There are also geothermal manifestations such as fumaroles , geysers and hot springs in the country. Despite the activity, volcanism in Peru
SECTION 50
#17328512885578008-551: The Tacna Region has been researched, partly because the Tacna Region covers its electricity demand with either nonrenewable oil or with hydropower (which is subject to climate variations). Mining is both an important economic resource in Tacna and a major consumer of electricity. In the case of the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, the capacity of a 75 megawatt power plant exists; however, despite ongoing research since 1974 and
8162-824: The landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of Kīlauea in Hawaii. Volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with Lake Taupō in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes. Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter , Saturn , and Neptune ; and mud volcanoes , which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when
8316-510: The tributes . Historians' writings about conditions in Arequipa tell of religious processions seeking to soothe the divine anger, people praying all day and those who had lost faith in the church resorting to magic spells as the eruption was underway, while in Moquegua children were reportedly running around, women screaming and numerous anecdotes of people who survived eruption or did not exist. In
8470-493: The " Pompeii of Peru", and the Peruvian Geological, Mining and Metallurgy Institute has published reports detailing geotourism locations around the volcano. The impact was noticeable in Arequipa, where up to 1 m (3.3 ft) of ash fell causing roofs to collapse under its weight. Ash fall was reported in an area of 300,000 km (120,000 sq mi) across Peru, Chile and Bolivia, mostly west and south from
8624-525: The "Dacite 2" geochemical suite that became dominant during the third stage. Pyroclastic flows ran down the slopes of the volcano, entered the Río Tambo valley and formed dams on the river, probably mainly at the mouth of the Quebrada Aguas Blancas; one of the two dammed lakes was about 28 km (17 mi) long. When the dams failed, the lakes released hot water with floating pumice and debris down
8778-431: The 1600 activity as the "Dacite 1" rocks erupted early during the 1600 event were more buoyant and contained more gas and thus drove a Plinian eruption, while the latter "Dacite 2" rocks were more viscous and only generated Vulcanian eruptions . Interactions with the crust and crystal fractionation processes were involved in the genesis of the magmas as well, with the so-called "Dacite 1" geochemical suite forming deep in
8932-505: The 1600 eruption are dacites , which define a calc-alkaline , potassium -rich suite sometimes described as adakitic . The 1600 rocks also contain rhyolite inclusions and a rhyolite matrix . Andesite has also been found at Huaynaputina. Phenocrysts include biotite , chalcopyrite , hornblende , ilmenite , magnetite and plagioclase ; amphibole , apatite and pyroxene have been reported as well. Aside from newly formed volcanic rocks, Huaynaputina in 1600 also erupted material that
9086-416: The 1600 eruption being its first one. Two other translations are 'young boiling one' – perhaps a reference to earlier eruptions – or 'where young were boiled', which may refer to human sacrifices . Other names for the volcano include Chequepuquina, Chiquimote, Guayta, Omate and Quinistaquillas. The volcano El Misti was sometimes confused with and thus referred to mistakenly as Huaynaputina. The volcano
9240-563: The 1600 eruption. Cerro Las Chilcas also predates the 1600 eruption and appears to be the earliest volcanic centre in the area. The Cerro El Volcán dome formed during the Quaternary and may be the remnant of a cluster of lava domes south of Huaynaputina. Tephra and block-and-ash flow deposits from Holocene eruptions can be found within the amphitheatre. Some tephra layers that are 7,000 to 1,000 years old and close to Ubinas volcano have been attributed to activity at Huaynaputina. Three eruptions of
9394-412: The 1600 eruption. Faults with recognizable scarps occur within the amphitheatre and have offset the younger vents; some of these faults existed before the 1600 eruption while others were activated during the event. The terrain west of the volcano is a high plateau at an elevation of about 4,600 m (15,100 ft); north of Huaynaputina the volcano Ubinas and the depression of Laguna Salinas lie on
SECTION 60
#17328512885579548-538: The Arequipa Volcanics. The vents of Huaynaputina trend from the north-northwest to the south-southeast, and this trend encompasses the neighbouring volcanoes Ubinas and Ticsani. Ubinas is a typical stratovolcano while Ticsani has a similar structure to Huaynaputina. These volcanoes constitute a volcanic field located behind the major volcanic arc, associated with faults at the margin of the Río Tambo graben and regional strike-slip faults. The faults associated with
9702-471: The Central Volcanic Zone are large composite volcanoes that can remain active over the span of several million years, but there are also conical stratovolcanoes with shorter lifespans. In the Central Volcanic Zone, large explosive eruptions with Volcanic Explosivity Index of 6 and higher occur on average every 2,000 to 4,000 years. Huaynaputina is in the Omate and Quinistaquillas Districts , which are part of
9856-522: The Christian rituals led many previously hesitant indigenous inhabitants to embrace Christianity and abandon their clandestine native religion. News of the event was propagated throughout the American colonies and to Europe . Both Christians and native people of Peru interpreted the eruption in religious context. The Spaniards interpreted the event as a divine punishment, while native people interpreted it as
10010-843: The Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the East African Rift , the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field , and the Rio Grande rift in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs from the core–mantle boundary , 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in hotspot volcanism , of which
10164-700: The Peruvian Atacama Desert where it forms discontinuous layers and possibly to the Cordillera Vilcabamba in the north. Ash layers about 8–12 cm (3.1–4.7 in) thick were noted in the ice caps of Quelccaya in Peru and Sajama in Bolivia, although the deposits in Sajama may instead have originated from Ticsani volcano. Reports of Huaynaputina-related ashfall in Nicaragua are implausible, as Nicaragua
10318-612: The Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy. Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has historically posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting explosive eruptions that produce great quantities of ash, as well as pyroclastic surges like
10472-426: The Río Tambo, opposite to the amphitheatre; it may have been formed not long before the 1600 eruption. The existence of a volcano at Huaynaputina was not recognized before the 1600 eruption, with no known previous eruptions other than fumarolic activity. As a result, the 1600 eruption has been referred to as an instance of monogenetic volcanism. The pre-1600 topography of the volcano was described as "a low ridge in
10626-459: The Río Tambo. In Arequipa, houses and the cathedral collapsed during mass after an earthquake on 27 February, concomitant with the beginning of the second stage of the eruption. Tsunamis were reported during the eruption as well. Flooding ensued when volcanic dams in the Río Tambo broke, and debris and lahars reached the Pacific Ocean 120–130 km (75–81 mi) away. Occasionally
10780-432: The Río Tambo. The deposits permanently altered the course of the river. The volume of the ignimbrites has been estimated to be about 2 km (0.48 cu mi), excluding the ash that was erupted during this stage. The pyroclastic flows along with pumice falls covered an area of about 950 km (370 sq mi). In the third stage, Vulcanian eruptions took place at Huaynaputina and deposited another ash layer; it
10934-568: The Southern Volcanological Observatory, and seismic observation began in 2019. The name Huaynaputina, also spelled Huayna Putina, was given to the volcano after the 1600 eruption. According to one translation cited by the Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism , Huayna means 'new', and Putina means 'fire-throwing mountain'; the full name is meant to suggest the aggressiveness of its volcanic activity and refers to
11088-609: The USGS defines a volcano as active whenever subterranean indicators, such as earthquake swarms , ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present. The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in
11242-600: The Yura Group, as well as the Cretaceous Matalaque Formation of volcanic origin – these are all units of rock that existed before the formation of Huaynaputina. During the Tertiary , these were overlaid by a total of 300–500 m-thick (980–1,640 ft) deposits from the ignimbritic Capillune, Llallahui and Sencca Formations – all older rock units. Cretaceous sediments and Paleogene–Neogene volcanic rocks form
11396-570: The accounts of priests, people in Arequipa fled their houses out of fear that they would collapse. The rising magma appears to have intercepted an older hydrothermal system that existed as much as 3 km (1.9 mi) below the vents; parts of the system were expelled during the eruption. Once the magma reached the surface, the eruption quickly became intense. A first Plinian stage took place on 19 and 20 February, accompanied by an increase of earthquake activity. The first Plinian event lasted for about 20 hours and formed pumice deposits close to
11550-452: The air was clear of ash from the eruption on 2 April 1600. Some reports of late ash falls may be due to wind-transported ash, and there are no deposits from a supposed eruption in August 1600; such reports may refer to mudflows or explosions in pyroclastic flows. The eruption of 1600 was initially attributed to Ubinas volcano and sometimes to El Misti. Priests observed and recorded
11704-465: The amphitheatre. In 1962, there were reportedly no fumaroles within the amphitheatre. These fumaroles produce white fumes and smell of rotten eggs. The fumarolic gas composition is dominated by water vapour , with smaller quantities of carbon dioxide and sulfur gases. Investigations in 2010 recorded temperatures of 51.8–78.7 °C (125.2–173.7 °F) for the gases, with seasonal variations. Vegetation has grown at their vents. Hot springs occur in
11858-503: The boundary with the Yukon Territory . Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometres in diameter and reach 700 meters high. The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types: The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to
12012-402: The case of Lassen Peak . Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent. Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down
12166-441: The center of a Sierra", and it is possible that a cluster of lava domes existed at the summit before the 1600 eruption which was blown away during the event. The last eruption before 1600 may have preceded that year by several centuries, based on the presence of volcanic eruption products buried under soil. Native people reportedly offered sacrifices and offerings to the mountain such as birds, personal clothing and sheep, although it
12320-628: The city of Tacna and close to the border with Chile and Bolivia. The volcano is situated north of the town of Paucarani; other human structures in the area south of Casiri are Calachata and Tulipiña. There are also numerous roads in the area, including one which runs south of the volcano and reaches the Capaja camp to its west. The town of Paucarani can be reached from the highway that connects Tacna with Charaña in Bolivia and Villa Industrial in Chile , through
12474-433: The city of Arequipa church authorities organized a series of processions , requiem masses and exorcisms in response to the eruption. In Copacabana and La Paz, there were religious processions, the churches opened their doors and people prayed. Some indigenous people organized their own rituals which included feasting on whatever food and drink they had and battering dogs that were hanged alive. The apparent effectiveness of
12628-519: The city's sole patron saint in 1693. Reportedly, in November 1599 a Jesuit named Alonzo Ruiz had announced in Arequipa that divine punishment would strike the natives for continuing to worship their gods and the Spaniards for promiscuity. Mythology held that before the 1600 eruption the lack of sacrifices had upset the devil. It sent a large snake named chipiroque or pichiniqui to announce "horrifying storms" which eventually ended up killing
12782-399: The crust, while the "Dacite 2" geochemical suite appears to have interacted with the upper crust. The rocks had a temperature of about 780–815 °C (1,436–1,499 °F) when they were erupted, with the "Dacite 1" being hotter than the "Dacite 2". Their formation may have been stimulated by the entry of mafic magmas into the magmatic system; such an entry of new magma in a volcanic system
12936-484: The deformation of the volcano at Casiri. The installation of a network to detect deformation of the volcano is supposed to begin in 2022. The Casiri volcanic complex and surrounding mountains have been prospected for potential geosites . The Gloria sulfur mine lies on Casiri – specifically, on the foot of Paucarani and southeast from the lava flows. The sulfur is contained in heavily altered rocks covering an area of about 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) and
13090-513: The end of the 17th century. Indigenous people from the Quinistacas valley moved to Moquegua because the valley was covered with ash; population movements resulting from the Huaynaputina eruption and a 1604 earthquake may have occurred as far away as Bolivia. The then- Viceroy of Peru , Luis de Velasco, 1st Marquess of Salinas del Río Pisuerga , arrived weeks later in Arequipa. After returning to Lima, he sent dispatches to king Philip III of Spain and
13244-772: The enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful geologic mapping . Known examples include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupō in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra , Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in
13398-496: The entry of water into the magmatic system may have triggered the eruption. A 2006 study argues that the entry of new dacitic magma into an already existing dacitic magma system triggered the 1600 eruption; furthermore movement of deep andesitic magmas that had generated the new dacite produced movements within the volcano. The ancestral composite volcano that holds Huaynaputina is part of the Pastillo volcanic complex, which developed in
13552-445: The eruption deposits have been subdivided into five formations . The eruption may have been triggered when new, "Dacite 1" magma entered into a magmatic system containing "Dacite 2" magma and pressurized the system, causing magma to begin ascending to the surface. In the prelude to the eruption, magma moving upwards to the future vents caused earthquakes beginning at a shallow reservoir at a depth of 6 km (3.7 mi); according to
13706-426: The eruption from Arequipa, and the friar Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa wrote a second-hand account of the eruption based on a witness's report from the city. The scale of the eruption and its impact on climate have been determined from historical records, tree ring data, the position of glaciers , the thickness of speleothems and ice, plant flowering times, wine harvests and coral growth. Stratigraphically ,
13860-456: The eruption, outside of the amphitheatre. The eruption was accompanied by intense earthquakes, deafening explosions and noises that could be heard beyond Lima and as far away as 1,000 km (620 mi). In Arequipa, the sky was illuminated by lightning , and ash fell so thick that houses collapsed. The noise of the eruption was perceived as resembling artillery fire. There and in Copacabana
14014-431: The flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks. Rhyolitic flows typically consist largely of obsidian . Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface . These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from
14168-403: The flows that reached the Pacific Ocean have been described as pyroclastic flows. Reportedly, fish were killed by the flood in the Pacific Ocean at the mouth of the river. Damage to infrastructure and economic resources of the southern then- Viceroyalty of Peru was severe. The colonial wine industry in southern Peru was wiped out; chroniclers tell how all wines were lost during the eruption and
14322-454: The form of 500 m (1,600 ft) thick andesitic rocks after the Miocene, and appears to be of Miocene to Pleistocene age. It underwent sector collapses and glacial erosion , which altered its appearance and its flanks. The amphitheatre which contains the Huaynaputina vents formed probably not as a caldera but either a glacial cirque , a sector collapse scar or another kind of structure that
14476-592: The formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of Mayotte . Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath ice caps . They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and palagonite . These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas , or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in British Columbia . The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte , which
14630-568: The future. In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's Mount Edgecumbe volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the Alaska Volcano Observatory pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "[t]he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in
14784-461: The glossaries or index", however the USGS still widely employs the term. Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalization is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the Chaitén volcano in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in
14938-562: The high plateau around Huaynaputina. The emplacement of the Capillune Formation continued into the earliest Pliocene; subsequently the Plio-Pleistocene Barroso Group was deposited. It includes the composite volcano that hosts Huaynaputina as well as ignimbrites that appear to come from calderas . One such caldera is located just south of Huaynaputina. The late Pleistocene to Holocene volcanoes have been classified as
15092-492: The interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an aulacogen ), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites . Examples include
15246-564: The largest in the last millennium and the largest historical eruption in the Western Hemisphere . It was larger than the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia and the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo in the Philippines . Huaynaputina's eruption column was high enough to penetrate the tropopause and influence the climate of Earth. The total volume of volcanic rocks erupted by Huaynaputina
15400-441: The magmatic system depressurized during the eruption. Also, part of the northern flank of the amphitheatre collapsed during the eruption, and some of the debris fell into the Río Tambo canyon. The 1600 eruption had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 6 and is considered to be the only major explosive eruption of the Andes in historical time. It is the largest volcanic eruption throughout South America in historical time, as well as one of
15554-419: The mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as Iceland . Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting , water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of
15708-545: The modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style, depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the Yellowstone volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years. Vesuvius
15862-415: The most dangerous type, are very rare; four are known from the last million years , and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. Because of
16016-438: The mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava emerges. Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle effusive eruptions . Since low-viscosity magma
16170-614: The name "Casiri" lies about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north from the volcano; it is a glacial lake and a reservoir which drains into the Mauri River through the Quebrada Chungara and Rio Kallapuma. Casiri is a 5,650 metres (18,540 ft) high stratovolcano with lava domes in the Palca district of Peru, close to the border with Chile . There are five or four individual volcanic edifices at Casiri: three older ones that form
16324-441: The natives. Jesuits interpreted this as a deception attempt by the devil. Such prophecies may reflect prior knowledge about the volcanic nature of Huaynaputina. There are reports that a sacrificial offering was underway at the volcano a few days before the eruption. Volcano A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from
16478-496: The neighbouring mountains Auquitapie and Iñuma are covered with snow . Geologically, Casiri is considered to be part of the so-called "Paucarani Volcanics". The Rio Uchusuma , a tributary of the Rio Mauri , originates on Casiri. A natural lake called Paucarani or Paucarini is on the southeastern foot of Casiri, and is an important bird site. The Quebrada Achuco valley is located south of Casiri, accompanied by wetlands . On
16632-452: The next. Water vapour is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , and hydrogen fluoride . A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen , carbon monoxide , halocarbons , organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides. The form and style of an eruption of
16786-867: The north side of the mountain. Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 metres (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in monogenetic volcanic fields that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as maar explosion craters and tuff rings . Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico , Caja del Rio
16940-490: The ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts . In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected by earthquake monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An oceanographic research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by
17094-420: The ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on chemotrophs feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break
17248-471: The ocean's surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by hydrophones and by the discoloration of water because of volcanic gases . Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb
17402-427: The older volcanism persist in the coastal Cordillera de la Costa but the present-day volcanic arc lies in the Andes, where it is defined by stratovolcanoes . Many Peruvian volcanoes are poorly studied because they are remote and difficult to access. The basement underneath Huaynaputina is formed by almost 2 km-thick (1.2 mi) sediments and volcanic intrusions of Paleozoic to Mesozoic age including
17556-462: The one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars . Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs . Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 metres (4 ft) across and weigh several tons. A supervolcano is defined as
17710-627: The onset of the Little Ice Age . Floods, famines, and social upheavals resulted, including a probable link with the Russian Time of Troubles . This eruption has been computed to measure 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). The volcano has not erupted since 1600. There are fumaroles in the amphitheatre-shaped structure, and hot springs occur in the region, some of which have been associated with Huaynaputina. The volcano lies in
17864-491: The other side, the southeastward-flowing Quebrada Mamuta lies to the north and northeast of the volcano, and to the northwest lie streams which flow through the lake Casiri and the lake Liñuma into the Rio Mauri . Volcanic activity has influenced the drainages through the formation of lava dams , altering watersheds. An earth dam on the Rio Uchusuma was built in 1982-1986 and forms a reservoir also called Paucarani on
18018-425: The overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma . This magma tends to be extremely viscous because of its high silica content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools and solidifies at depth . When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called volcanic arcs . Typical examples are the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire , such as
18172-549: The path of the Quebrada Chungará and the Kallapuma River; they reach temperatures of 83.4 °C (182.1 °F). These phenomena appear to relate to the activity of neighbouring volcanoes, which supply the heat to the geothermal field, while rainfall supplies the water and faults the paths for the ascending water; the hot springs are currently used as spas by the local population. The geothermal power potential of
18326-484: The plateau, while the peaks Cerro El Volcán and Cerro Chen are situated south of it. The lava dome Cerro El Volcán and another small lava dome, Cerro Las Chilcas, lie 3 km (1.9 mi) south from Huaynaputina. Northeast-east of Huaynaputina, the terrain drops off steeply (2.3 km or 1.4 mi vertically and 6 km or 3.7 mi horizontally) into the Río Tambo valley, which rounds Huaynaputina east and south of
18480-595: The plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The Hawaiian Islands are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the Snake River Plain , with the Yellowstone Caldera being part of the North American plate currently above the Yellowstone hotspot . However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under
18634-420: The region and some of these have been associated with Huaynaputina; these include Candagua and Palcamayo northeast, Agua Blanca and Cerro Reventado southeast from the volcano on the Río Tambo and Ullucan almost due west. The springs have temperatures ranging from 22.8–75.4 °C (73.0–167.7 °F) and contain large amounts of dissolved salts . Cerro Reventado and Ullucan appear to be fed from magmatic water and
18788-515: The region, wiped out vegetation, buried the surrounding area with 2 metres (7 ft) of volcanic rock and damaged infrastructure and economic resources. The eruption had a significant impact on Earth's climate, causing a volcanic winter : temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere decreased; cold waves hit parts of Europe, Asia and the Americas; and the climate disruption may have played a role in
18942-412: The regional tectonics or the absence of a shallow magma chamber, which prevented the collapse of the chamber from reaching the surface; most of the magma erupted in 1600 originated at a depth of 20 km (12 mi). Some collapse structures did nevertheless develop at Huaynaputina, in the form of two not readily recognizable circular areas within the amphitheatre and around the three vents, probably when
19096-435: The same time interval. Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an eruption recurrence ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as erupting , active , dormant , or extinct , but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform among volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon
19250-485: The same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes". Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the Holocene Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above
19404-506: The sky became dark. The blasts of the eruption could be heard (anecdotally) as far as Argentina and in the coastal localities of Lima, Chiquiabo and Arica . In these coastal localities it was thought that the sound came from naval engagements, likely with English corsairs . In view of this, the Viceroy of Peru sent reinforcement troops to El Callao . Closer to the vents, inhabitants of the village of Puquina saw large tongues of fire rising into
19558-427: The sky from Huaynaputina before they were enveloped by raining pumice and ash. It was initially assumed that caldera collapse took place during the 1600 event, as accounts of the eruption stated that the volcano was obliterated to its foundation; later investigation suggested otherwise. Normally very large volcanic eruptions are accompanied by the formation of a caldera, but exceptions do exist. This might reflect either
19712-460: The sky, obscuring the sun and the stars. Afterwards, collapses in the amphitheatre and within the vent enlarged both features; they also decreased the intensity of the eruption. A first pyroclastic flow was deposited already during this time when the column became unstable. The Plinian stage was channelled by a fracture and had the characteristics of a fissure-fed eruption. Possibly, the second vent formed during this stage, but another interpretation
19866-622: The solidified erupted material that makes up the mantle of a volcano may be stripped away that its inner anatomy becomes apparent. Using the metaphor of biological anatomy , such a process is called "dissection". Cinder Hill , a feature of Mount Bird on Ross Island , Antarctica , is a prominent example of a dissected volcano. Volcanoes that were, on a geological timescale, recently active, such as for example Mount Kaimon in southern Kyūshū , Japan , tend to be undissected. Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism
20020-595: The southeastern foot of the volcano just southwest from the natural lake Paucarani. This reservoir, which is run by the Junta de Usuarios del Valle de Tacna, has a capacity of 10,500,000 cubic metres (370,000,000 cu ft) of water and is a key part of the water supply of Tacna ; water is transferred from the Paucarani reservoir through the Canal Uchusuma to Tacna, covering 90% of Tacna's water consumption for both irrigation and human use. The Paucarani reservoir
20174-510: The southeasternmost edifice has been active during the Holocene , producing thick lava flows that have overrun moraines of Pleistocene age. The youngest lava flow has been dated to 2,600 ± 400 years ago. Although no historical eruptions are known, the volcano is considered to be potentially active and is monitored. The volcano features geothermal manifestations and is linked to a larger geothermal field that has been prospected for geothermal power generation. There are two sulfur mines on
20328-406: The surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat , thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital Plymouth into
20482-448: The surrounding terrain, but the products of the volcano's 1600 eruption cover much of the region especially west, north and south from the amphitheatre. These include pyroclastic flow dunes that crop out from underneath the tephra . Deposits from the 1600 eruption and previous events also crop out within the amphitheatre walls. Another southeastward-opening landslide scar lies just north of Huaynaputina. One of these funnel-shaped vents
20636-495: The tephra was influenced by topography and wind changes during the eruption, which led to changes in the fallout pattern. The ash deposits from the eruption are visible to this day, and several archeological sites are preserved under them. Some tephra was deposited on the volcanoes El Misti and Ubinas, into lakes of southern Peru such as Laguna Salinas, possibly into a peat bog close to Sabancaya volcano where it reached thicknesses of 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in), as far south as in
20790-434: The theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are polygenetic with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are monogenetic (meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region. At the mid-ocean ridges , two tectonic plates diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath
20944-444: The thinned oceanic crust . The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to adiabatic expansion and the partial melting of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor . Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where
21098-501: The tsunamis that accompanied it. Before the eruption the Moquegua region had been a source of wine, and afterwards the focus of viticulture shifted to Pisco, Ica and Nazca; later sugarcane became an important crop in Moquegua valley. Tephra fallout fertilized the soil and may have allowed increased agriculture in certain areas. Cattle ranching also was severely impacted by the 1600 eruption. The Arequipa and Moquegua areas were depopulated by epidemics and famine; recovery only began towards
21252-431: The underlying ductile mantle , and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created). During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in
21406-427: The vent that were 18–23 m (59–75 ft) thick. The pumice was buried by the ash erupted during this stage, which has been recorded as far as Antarctica . This stage of the eruption produced at least 26 km (6.2 cu mi) of rocks, comprising the bulk of the output from the 1600 eruption. A sustained eruption column about 34–46 km (21–29 mi) high likely created a mushroom cloud that darkened
21560-400: The vents. Winds blew ash from the pyroclastic flows, and rain eroded freshly deposited pyroclastic deposits. Ash fall and pyroclastic flows alternated during this stage, probably caused by brief obstructions of the vent; at this time a lava dome formed within the second vent. A change in the composition of the erupted rocks occurred, the "Dacite 1" geochemical suite being increasingly modified by
21714-506: The volcanic complex have influenced the evolution of the constituent volcanoes including Huaynaputina by acting as conduits for ascending magma especially at fault intersections. The volcanic rocks produced by these volcanoes have similar compositions, and historical seismic and volcanic activity at Ubinas and Ticsani indicate that they share a magma reservoir. A 40 km × 60 km (25 mi × 37 mi) magma reservoir may underpin this volcanic system. The eruption products of
21868-439: The volcano has yielded ages of 50,000 years and surface exposure dating has found ages of 6,000 ± 900 and 2,600 ± 400 years for two dark lava flows southwest and south of Casiri's main summit, respectively. There are no reported eruptions, but activity may or may not have occurred in historical time; there are hot springs and solfataras that are probably powered by Casiri's magmatic system. Casiri has been classified as
22022-462: The volcano have been dated to 9,700 ± 190, less than 7,480 ± 40 years ago and 5,750 years Before Present , respectively. The first two eruptions produced pumice falls and pyroclastic flows . The first of these, a Plinian eruption, also deposited tephra in Laguna Salinas, north of Huaynaputina, and produced a block-and-ash flow to its south. A debris avalanche deposit crops out on the eastern side of
22176-509: The volcano underwent hydrothermal alteration, producing gray-white rocks and clay , and wind-blown ash covers part of the lava flows. Casiri is part of the Cordillera del Barroso [ es ] mountain range; generally, the terrain around Casiri is dominated by various volcanic and fluvioglacial formations along with some moraines . The mountain chains Barroso and Huancune lie southwest and south from Casiri, respectively, and
22330-488: The volcano, and the Paucarani reservoir that contains the bulk of Tacna 's water supply is associated with Casiri: The Rio Uchusuma that flows through the reservoir originates on the volcano and the reservoir is located on the foot of Casiri. The name "Casiri" might mean "bawler" in Aymara . Casiri is also known as Paucarani or Paugarani, although Casiri and Paucarani are sometimes treated as distinct volcanoes. A lake with
22484-520: The volcano, including in La Paz , Cuzco , Camaná , where it was thick enough to cause palm trees to collapse, Potosi , Arica as well as in Lima where it was accompanied by sounds of explosions. Ships observed ash fall from as far as 1,000 km (620 mi) west of the coast. The surviving local population fled during the eruption and wild animals sought refuge in the city of Arequipa. The site of Torata Alta,
22638-492: The volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( sand-sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash. Tephra and other volcaniclastics (shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism. Through natural processes, mainly erosion , so much of
22792-528: The volcano. Some tributary valleys join the Río Tambo from Huaynaputina; clockwise from the east these are the Quebradas Huaynaputina, Quebrada Tortoral, Quebrada Aguas Blancas and Quebrada del Volcán. The Río Tambo eventually flows southwestward into the Pacific Ocean . The oceanic Nazca tectonic plate is subducting at a rate of 10.3 cm/year (4.1 in/year) beneath the continental part of
22946-424: The volcanoes of the East African Rift . A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic edifice , typically a volcanic cone or mountain. The most common perception of
23100-471: Was abandoned. Despite the damage, recovery was fast in Arequipa. The population declined in the region, although some of the decline may be due to earthquakes and epidemics before 1600. New administrative surveys – called revisitas – had to be carried out in the Colca Valley in 1604 after population losses and the effects of the Huaynaputina eruption had reduced the ability of the local population to pay
23254-579: Was about 30 km (7.2 cu mi), in the form of dacitic tephra, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges, although smaller estimates have been proposed. It appears that the bulk of the fallout originated during the first stage of the eruption, the second and third stage contributing a relatively small portion. For comparison, another large Holocene eruption in the Central Andes—the eruption of Cerro Blanco in Argentina about 2,300 ± 60 BCE —produced
23408-430: Was altered by fluvial and glacial erosion. Other extinct volcanoes in the area have similar amphitheatre structures. It is likely that the development of the later Huaynaputina volcano within the composite volcano is coincidental, although a similar tectonic stress field controlled the younger vents. Recently emplaced, postglacial dacite bodies occur in the Huaynaputina area, some of which probably formed shortly before
23562-407: Was christened one of the 100 International Union of Geological Sciences heritage sites in 2021. The death toll in villages from toxic gases and ash fall was severe; reportedly, some villages lost their entire populations to the eruption and a priest visiting Omate after the eruption claimed to have "found its inhabitants dead and cooked with the fire of the burning stones". Estagagache has been deemed
23716-421: Was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected eruption of 79 CE , which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii . Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness. Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in
#556443