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61-639: His ninety-one prints are extremely rare, with sixty surviving in one impression (copy) only, and none in more than five – there are a total of 124 impressions, 80 in Amsterdam. It is thought that because his prints were made using only the shallow, scratched line of drypoint, probably on tin or a pewter -type alloy , only ten to twenty impressions of each could be taken before the plate wore out. Many engravings by other artists are believed to be copies of missing works by this master. In particular, Israhel van Meckenem seems to have copied more than thirty. His work

122-532: A major "tin crisis" ensued—tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about three years. ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, fell to $ 4 per pound and remained around that level through the 1990s. The price increased again by 2010 with a rebound in consumption following the 2007–2008 economic crisis , accompanying restocking and continued growth in consumption. London Metal Exchange (LME)

183-526: A phenomenon known as " tin pest " or "tin disease". Some unverifiable sources also say that, during Napoleon 's Russian campaign of 1812, the temperatures became so cold that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated over time, contributing to the defeat of the Grande Armée , a persistent legend. The α-β transformation temperature is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it well below 0 °C (32 °F). With

244-552: A solution with most metals and elements so tin does not have much solid solubility. Tin mixes well with bismuth , gallium , lead , thallium and zinc , forming simple eutectic systems. Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72  K and was one of the first superconductors to be studied. The Meissner effect , one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. Tin resists corrosion from water , but can be corroded by acids and alkalis . Tin can be highly polished and

305-412: A symbol with a subscript in these cases. The practice also continues with tritium compounds. When the name of the solvent is given, a lowercase d is sometimes used. For example, d 6 -benzene or C 6 D 6 can be used instead of C 6 [ H 6 ]. The symbols for isotopes of elements other than hydrogen and radon are no longer used in the scientific community. Many of these symbols were designated during

366-608: A tin or tin-lead coolant, the tin would first have to go through isotopic separation to remove the isotopes with odd mass number. Combined, these three isotopes make up about 17% of natural tin but represent nearly all of the capture cross section. Of the remaining seven isotopes tin-112 has a capture cross section of 1 barn. The other six isotopes forming 82.7% of natural tin have capture cross sections of 0.3 barns or less, making them effectively transparent to neutrons. Tin has 31 unstable isotopes, ranging in mass number from 99 to 139. The unstable tin isotopes have half-lives of less than

427-448: A year except for tin-126 , which has a half-life of about 230,000 years. Tin-100 and tin-132 are two of the very few nuclides with a " doubly magic " nucleus which despite being unstable, as they have very uneven neutron–proton ratios , are the endpoints beyond which tin isotopes lighter than tin-100 and heavier than tin-132 are much less stable. Another 30 metastable isomers have been identified for tin isotopes between 111 and 131,

488-569: Is because the material was known in ancient times, while for others, the name is a more recent invention. For example, Pb is the symbol for lead ( plumbum in Latin); Hg is the symbol for mercury ( hydrargyrum in Greek); and He is the symbol for helium (a Neo-Latin name) because helium was not known in ancient Roman times. Some symbols come from other sources, like W for tungsten ( Wolfram in German) which

549-467: Is evidence that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin. Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal contents had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had a tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are believed to be

610-563: Is generated via the long s -process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of the Sun ), and finally by beta decay of the heavy isotopes of indium . Tin is the 49th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 2  ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead. Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 )

671-458: Is given in order of: atomic number , systematic symbol, systematic name; trivial symbol, trivial name. When elements beyond oganesson (starting with ununennium , Uue, element 119), are discovered; their systematic name and symbol will presumably be superseded by a trivial name and symbol. The following ideographic symbols were used in alchemy to denote elements known since ancient times. Not included in this list are spurious elements, such as

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732-528: Is the least common stable isotope. The isotopes with even mass numbers have no nuclear spin , while those with odd mass numbers have a nuclear spin of 1/2. It is thought that tin has such a great multitude of stable isotopes because of tin's atomic number being 50, which is a " magic number " in nuclear physics. Tin is one of the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy , which relies on molecular weight and its chemical shifts are referenced against tetramethyltin ( SnMe 4 ). Of

793-590: Is the nonmetallic form. It is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F) and is brittle . α-tin has a diamond cubic crystal structure, as do diamond and silicon . α-tin does not have metallic properties because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. α-tin is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than specialized semiconductor applications. γ-tin and σ-tin exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F)  and pressures above several GPa . In cold conditions β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin,

854-443: Is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite , cylindrite , franckeite , canfieldite , and teallite . Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock, usually at a level of 1% tin oxide content. Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from

915-628: Is tin's principal trading site. Other tin contract markets are Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) and Indonesia Tin Exchange (INATIN). Due to factors involved in the 2021 global supply chain crisis , tin prices almost doubled during 2020–21 and have had their largest annual rise in over 30 years. Global refined tin consumption dropped 1.6 percent in 2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global manufacturing industries. In 2018, just under half of all tin produced

976-636: Is typical with artists of the period. Along with his contemporary Martin Schongauer , the Housebook Master was the leading artist making old master prints in Germany in his period. Both Schongauer and the Housebook Master had a considerable influence on the prints of Albrecht Dürer . The Master suggests Netherlandish influence in the modelling of light and shade and in some of his figural types. A small number of paintings are also thought to be his work, notably

1037-425: Is used as a protective coat for other metals. When heated in air it oxidizes slowly to form a thin passivation layer of stannic oxide ( SnO 2 ) that inhibits further oxidation. Tin has ten stable isotopes , the greatest number of any element. Their mass numbers are 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, and 124. Tin-120 makes up almost a third of all tin. Tin-118 and tin-116 are also common. Tin-115

1098-412: Is very well drawn and lively, with the interest in detail typical of Early Netherlandish painting . Arthur Mayger Hind notes of his style that "he is an artist with a freedom of draughtsmanship quite remarkable at this epoch. If his manner of engraving has something of the irregularity of an amateur, his power of expression is vigorous and masterly." A high proportion depicts secular subjects, more than

1159-444: Is widely used for food packaging as " tin cans ". Some organotin compounds can be extremely toxic. Tin is a soft, malleable , ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal . When a bar of tin is bent a crackling sound known as the " tin cry " can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. This trait is shared by indium , cadmium , zinc , and mercury in its solid state. Tin melts at about 232 °C (450 °F),

1220-505: The r -process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers . Tin isotopes 115, 117 through 120, and 122 are produced via both the s -process and the r -process, The two lightest stable isotopes, tin-112 and tin-114, cannot be made in significant amounts in the s - or r -processes and are among the p-nuclei whose origins are not well understood. Some theories about their formation include proton capture and photodisintegration . Tin-115 might be partially produced in

1281-532: The Atom form); such a list can instead be found in Template:Navbox element isotopes . The symbols for isotopes of hydrogen , deuterium (D) and tritium (T), are still in use today, as is thoron (Tn) for radon-220 (though not actinon ; An usually instead means a generic actinide ). Heavy water and other deuterated solvents are commonly used in chemistry, and it is convenient to use a single character rather than

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1342-454: The Bronze Age . In modern times, tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin-lead soft solders , which are typically 60% or more tin, and in the manufacture of transparent, electrically conducting films of indium tin oxide in optoelectronic applications. Another large application is corrosion -resistant tin plating of steel . Because of the low toxicity of inorganic tin, tin-plated steel

1403-796: The Pair of Lovers in Gotha , the Speyer Altarpiece (divided among Gemäldegalerie, Berlin , the Städel , Frankfurt, and Augustiner Museum Freiburg , and the Holy Family (Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum , since 2004). However, many scholars feel the Gotha Lovers and the Speyer Altarpiece cannot be by the same artist, and favour attributing only the Lovers to the Housebook Master. Others disagree, and attribute

1464-598: The classical elements fire and water or phlogiston , and substances now known to be compounds. Many more symbols were in at least sporadic use: one early 17th-century alchemical manuscript lists 22 symbols for mercury alone. Planetary names and symbols for the metals – the seven planets and seven metals known since Classical times in Europe and the Mideast – was ubiquitous in alchemy. The association of what are anachronistically known as planetary metals started breaking down with

1525-508: The diamond cubic structure. Metallic tin does not easily oxidize in air and water. The first tin alloy used on a large scale was bronze , made of 1 ⁄ 8  tin and 7 ⁄ 8   copper (12.5% and 87.5% respectively), from as early as 3000 BC. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter , which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper , antimony , bismuth, and sometimes lead and silver, has been used for flatware since

1586-695: The phenyl group , and Me for the methyl group . A list of current, dated, as well as proposed and historical signs and symbols is included here with its signification . Also given is each element's atomic number , atomic weight , or the atomic mass of the most stable isotope , group and period numbers on the periodic table , and etymology of the symbol. The following is a list of symbols and names formerly used or suggested for elements, including symbols for placeholder names and names given by discredited claimants for discovery. These symbols are based on systematic element names , which are now replaced by trivial (non-systematic) element names and symbols. Data

1647-608: The s -process, both directly and as the daughter of long-lived indium-115 , and also from the decay of indium-115 produced via the r -process. The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic * tin-om ; cognates include German Zinn , Swedish tenn and Dutch tin . It is not found in other branches of Indo-European , except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g., Irish tinne from English). The Latin name for tin, stannum , originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in

1708-459: The Near East where arsenic is commonly found with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 ), the oxide form of tin,

1769-637: The United States has neither mined (since 1993) nor smelted (since 1989) tin, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006. New deposits are reported in Mongolia , and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia. Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke. Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used: The ten largest tin-producing companies produced most of

1830-496: The addition of antimony or bismuth the transformation might not occur at all, increasing durability. Commercial grades of tin (99.8% tin content) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase the hardness of tin. Tin easily forms hard, brittle intermetallic phases that are typically undesirable. It does not mix into

1891-578: The arts to stain porcelain . Chemical symbol Chemical symbols are the abbreviations used in chemistry , mainly for chemical elements ; but also for functional groups , chemical compounds, and other entities. Element symbols for chemical elements, also known as atomic symbols , normally consist of one or two letters from the Latin alphabet and are written with the first letter capitalised. Earlier symbols for chemical elements stem from classical Latin and Greek vocabulary. For some elements, this

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1952-588: The complex agreements between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921. Earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a series that effectively collapsed in 1985. Through these agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices. ITC supported the price of tin during periods of low prices by buying tin for its buffer stockpile and

2013-428: The discovery of antimony, bismuth and zinc in the 16th century. Alchemists would typically call the metals by their planetary names, e.g. "Saturn" for lead and "Mars" for iron; compounds of tin, iron and silver continued to be called "jovial", "martial" and "lunar"; or "of Jupiter", "of Mars" and "of the moon", through the 17th century. The tradition remains today with the name of the element mercury, where chemists decided

2074-486: The element itself, additional details may be added to the symbol as superscripts or subscripts a particular isotope , ionization , or oxidation state , or other atomic detail. A few isotopes have their own specific symbols rather than just an isotopic detail added to their element symbol. Attached subscripts or superscripts specifying a nuclide or molecule have the following meanings and positions: Many functional groups also have their own chemical symbol, e.g. Ph for

2135-562: The engravings and the altarpiece to the same master. It was first suggested in 1936 that he should be identified as Erhard Reuwich of Utrecht , an artist and (or) printer working in Mainz , who designed and signed an influential 5-foot-long (1.5 m) woodcut panoramic view of Venice made following a visit in 1483 or 1484 during a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Reuwich printed the account in Latin of

2196-623: The first in print. [3] [4] It was a bestseller, reprinted thirteen times over the next three decades, including editions printed in France and Spain, for which the illustration blocks were shipped out to the local printers. In 1485 Reuwich drew some plants for the woodcuts in a herbal also published in Mainz. His identification with the Housebook Master has not been generally accepted, though A. Hyatt Mayor supported it; other suggestions have also been made. The trend of scholarly opinion has moved against

2257-586: The fourth century —the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum , or "white lead". Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum (meaning the same substance), the origin of the Romance and Celtic terms for tin , such as French étain , Spanish estaño , Italian stagno , and Irish stán . The origin of stannum / stāgnum is unknown; it may be pre- Indo-European . The Meyers Konversations-Lexikon suggests instead that stannum came from Cornish stean , and

2318-439: The great majority of its compounds, tin has the oxidation state II or IV. Compounds containing bivalent tin are called stannous while those containing tetravalent tin are termed stannic . Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states. For Sn(IV), all four halides are well known: SnF 4 , SnCl 4 , SnBr 4 , and SnI 4 . The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds, whereas

2379-565: The identification in more recent works in the 1980s. The design of the woodcuts for a 1473 edition of the Speculum Humanae Salvationis has been attributed to the Housebook Master. Tin Tin is a chemical element ; it has symbol Sn (from Latin stannum ) and atomic number 50. A silvery-colored metal, tin is soft enough to be cut with little force, and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent,

2440-451: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. reduced its strategic tin stockpile, partly to take advantage of historically high tin prices. The 1981–82 recession damaged the tin industry. Tin consumption declined dramatically. ITC was able to avoid truly steep declines through accelerated buying for its buffer stockpile; this activity required extensive borrowing. ITC continued to borrow until late 1985 when it reached its credit limit. Immediately,

2501-460: The lowest in group 14, and boils at 2,602 °C (4,716 °F), the second lowest (ahead of lead ) in its group. The melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11 nm particles. β-tin, also called white tin , is the allotrope (structural form) of elemental tin that is stable at and above room temperature. It is metallic and malleable, and has body-centered tetragonal crystal structure. α-tin, or gray tin ,

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2562-451: The market and mining technology. It is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of mine-able tin in 40 years. In 2006 Lester Brown suggested tin could run out within 20 years based on conservative estimates of 2% annual growth. Scrap tin is an important source of the metal. Recovery of tin through recycling is increasing rapidly as of 2019. Whereas

2623-412: The most stable being tin-121m, with a half-life of 43.9 years. The relative differences in the abundances of tin's stable isotopes can be explained by how they are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis . Tin-116 through tin-120, along with tin-122, are formed in the s -process (slow neutron capture) in most stars which leads to them being the most common tin isotopes, while tin-124 is only formed in

2684-442: The planetary name was preferable to common names like "quicksilver", and in a few archaic terms such as lunar caustic (silver nitrate) and saturnism (lead poisoning). The following symbols were employed by John Dalton in the early 1800s as the periodic table of elements was being formulated. Not included in this list are substances now known to be compounds, such as certain rare-earth mineral blends. Modern alphabetic notation

2745-609: The primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or the sea. The most economical ways of mining tin are by dredging , hydraulicking , or open pits . Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which can contain as little as 0.015% tin. About 253,000 tonnes of tin were mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t). Estimates of tin production have historically varied with

2806-472: The reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin produces SnCl 2 and hydrogen gas. Alternatively SnCl 4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride by a process called comproportionation : Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives. The dioxide SnO 2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air . SnO 2 is amphoteric , which means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions. Stannates with

2867-456: The result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed molds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects appear first in

2928-427: The slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element on Earth, making up 0.00022% of its crust, and with 10 stable isotopes, it has the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table, due to its magic number of protons. It has two main allotropes : at room temperature, the stable allotrope is β-tin, a silvery-white, malleable metal; at low temperatures it is less dense grey α-tin, which has

2989-411: The so-called " tin cry " can be heard as a result of twinning in tin crystals. Tin is a post-transition metal in group 14 of the periodic table of elements. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite , which contains stannic oxide , SnO 2 . Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead , and has two main oxidation states , +2 and

3050-586: The stable isotopes, tin-115 has a high neutron capture cross section for fast neutrons, at 30 barns . Tin-117 has a cross section of 2.3 barns, one order of magnitude smaller, while tin-119 has a slightly smaller cross section of 2.2 barns. Before these cross sections were well known, it was proposed to use tin-lead solder as a coolant for fast reactors because of its low melting point. Current studies are for lead or lead-bismuth reactor coolants because both heavy metals are nearly transparent to fast neutrons, with very low capture cross sections. In order to use

3111-678: The structure [ Sn(OH) 6 ] , like K 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ], are also known, though the free stannic acid H 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ] is unknown. Sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV) sulfide ( mosaic gold ). Stannane ( SnH 4 ), with tin in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable. Organotin hydrides are however well known, e.g. tributyltin hydride (Sn(C 4 H 9 ) 3 H). These compounds release transient tributyl tin radicals, which are rare examples of compounds of tin(III). Organotin compounds, sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–carbon bonds. Of

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3172-420: The tetrafluoride is polymeric. All four halides are known for Sn(II) also: SnF 2 , SnCl 2 , SnBr 2 , and SnI 2 . All are polymeric solids. Of these eight compounds, only the iodides are colored. Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important commercial tin halide. Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give SnCl 4 whereas

3233-523: The tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions : Divalent organotin compounds are uncommon, although more common than related divalent organogermanium and organosilicon compounds. The greater stabilization enjoyed by Sn(II) is attributed to the " inert pair effect ". Organotin(II) compounds include both stannylenes (formula: R 2 Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes ) and distannylenes (R 4 Sn 2 ), which are roughly equivalent to alkenes . Both classes exhibit unusual reactions. Tin

3294-588: The tin compounds, the organic derivatives are commercially the most useful. Some organotin compounds are highly toxic and have been used as biocides . The first organotin compound to be reported was diethyltin diiodide ((C 2 H 5 ) 2 SnI 2 ), reported by Edward Frankland in 1849. Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and water. They adopt tetrahedral geometry. Tetraalkyl- and tetraaryltin compounds can be prepared using Grignard reagents : The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially than

3355-585: The trip, the Sanctae Peregrinationes by Bernhard von Breydenbach of 1486, in which the woodcut was the first ever fold-out plate. The design was later adapted by Michael Wolgemut for the Nuremberg Chronicle . Reuwich was taken as an artist in the entourage of Breydenbach, a wealthy canon of Mainz Cathedral. The book also contained panoramas of six other cities, including Jerusalem [2] , studies of Near Eastern costume, and an exotic alphabet -

3416-586: The world's tin in 2007. Most of the world's tin is traded on LME, from 8 countries, under 17 brands. The International Tin Council was established in 1947 to control the price of tin. It collapsed in 1985. In 1984, the Association of Tin Producing Countries was created, with Australia, Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, and Zaire as members. Tin is unique among mineral commodities because of

3477-458: Was able to restrain the price during periods of high prices by selling from the stockpile. This was an anti-free-market approach, designed to assure a sufficient flow of tin to consumer countries and a profit for producer countries. However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large, and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from 1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies. During

3538-485: Was introduced in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius ; its precursor can be seen in Dalton's circled letters for the metals, especially in his augmented table from 1810. A trace of Dalton's conventions also survives in ball-and-stick models of molecules, where balls for carbon are black and for oxygen red. The following is a list of isotopes which have been given unique symbols. This is not a list of current systematic symbols (in

3599-549: Was most likely the original source of tin. Other tin ores are less common sulfides such as stannite that require a more involved smelting process. Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits because it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the accompanying granite . Cassiterite is usually black or dark in color, and these deposits can be easily seen in river banks . Alluvial ( placer ) deposits may incidentally have been collected and separated by methods similar to gold panning . In

3660-455: Was not known in Roman times. A three-letter temporary symbol may be assigned to a newly synthesized (or not yet synthesized) element. For example, "Uno" was the temporary symbol for hassium (element 108) which had the temporary name of unniloctium , based on the digits of its atomic number. There are also some historical symbols that are no longer officially used. In addition to the letters for

3721-415: Was used in solder. The rest was divided between tin plating, tin chemicals, brass and bronze alloys, and niche uses. Pigment Yellow 38, tin(IV) sulfide , is known as mosaic gold . Purple of Cassius , Pigment Red 109, a hydrous double stannate of gold , was mainly, in terms of painting, restricted to miniatures due to its high cost. It was widely used to make cranberry glass . It has also been used in

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