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153-618: The fabled gardens of Lucullus were among the most influential in the history of gardening . Lucullus had first-hand experience of the Persian gardening style, in the satraps ' gardens of Anatolia ( "Asia" to the Romans ) and in Mesopotamia and Persia itself. As Plutarch pointed out, "Lucullus [was] the first Roman who carried an army over Taurus, passed the Tigris, took and burnt the royal palaces of Asia in

306-425: A toga ". Plutarch, like most of Lucullus's Roman contemporaries, thought these occupations of Lucullus's retirement unbecoming to a Roman, and mere play: For I give no higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticos and baths, still less to his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these curiosities, which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing all the wealth and treasure which he got in

459-426: A Roman author and engineer, wrote the oldest extant design manual in 27 BC. De architectura libri decem ( Ten Books on Architecture ) addressed design theory, landscape architecture, engineering, water supply, and public projects, such as parks and squares. Vitruvius asserted that firmitas (firmness, durability, strength), utilitas (commodity, convenience, utility) and venustas (delight, loveliness, beauty) were

612-546: A Taoist garden would avoid straight lines and use stone and water instead of trees, whereas Asian cities followed Confucian, geometric designs and North American parks typically feature trees and lawns. There are two ways of looking at the signature design characteristics of the Chinese garden: first; the concept of Yin and Yang , and second; the myths of longevity that arose during the Qin dynasty . The philosophy of Yin and Yang portrays

765-509: A bishop, if he were not already a bishop. This actually occurred in the case of Pius III (Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini), who was ordained a priest on 30 September 1503 and consecrated a bishop on 1 October 1503 by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere. Around this time, in 1483, an illegitimate daughter was born, Felice della Rovere . On 3 November 1483, Cardinal della Rovere was named Bishop of Bologna and Papal Legate, succeeding Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, who had died on 21 October. He held

918-847: A canal or the river. However, in the New Kingdom they were often surrounded by walls and their purpose incorporated pleasure and beauty besides utility. Garden produce made out an important part of foodstuff but flowers were also cultivated for use in garlands to wear at festive occasions and for medicinal purposes. While the poor kept a patch for growing vegetables, the rich people could afford gardens lined with sheltering trees and decorative pools with fish and waterfowl. There could be wooden structures forming pergolas to support vines of grapes from which raisins and wine were produced. There could even be elaborate stone kiosks for ornamental reasons, with decorative statues. Temple gardens had plots for cultivating special vegetables, plants or herbs considered sacred to

1071-565: A central axis of symmetry . Persian influences extended to Hellenistic Greece after Alexander the Great . C. 350 BC there were gardens at the Academy of Athens , and Theophrastus , who wrote on botany , supposedly inherited a garden from Aristotle . Epicurus had a garden where he walked and taught, and he bequeathed it to Hermarchus of Mytilene . Alciphron also referenced private gardens in his writing. The most influential ancient gardens in

1224-589: A certain deity and which were required in rituals and offerings like lettuce to Min . Sacred groves and ornamental trees were planted in front of or near both cult temples and mortuary temples. As temples were representations of heaven and built as the actual home of the god, gardens were laid out according to the same principle. Avenues leading up to the entrance could be lined with trees, courtyards could hold small gardens and between temple buildings gardens with trees, vineyards, flowers and ponds were maintained. The ancient Egyptian garden would have looked different from

1377-529: A city of God. Emperor Ashoka 's inscriptions mention the establishment of botanical gardens for planting medicinal herbs, plants, and trees. They contained pools of water, were laid in grid patterns, and normally had chattri pavilions with them. The Kama Sutra mentions details on house gardens and that a good wife should plant vegetables, bunches of sugarcane, clumps of the fig trees, mustard, parsley and fennel, various flowers like jasmine, rose and others likewise be planted and seats and arbours should be made and

1530-554: A crusade and sought aid and money from all Christendom. The rulers of Europe paid little attention, but to show his sincerity Alexander imposed a tithe on all the residents of the Papal States and a tithe on the clergy of the entire world. A list of cardinals and their incomes, drawn up for the occasion, shows that Cardinal della Rovere was the second-richest cardinal, with an annual income of 20,000 ducats . Another break in relations between Pope Alexander and Cardinal Giuliano came at

1683-513: A few exceptions, were intended to be viewed from within the house, somewhat like a diorama . Moreover, Chinese gardens often included a water feature, while Japanese gardens, set in a wetter climate, would often get by with the suggestion of water (such as sand or pebbles raked into a wave pattern). Traditional Chinese gardens are also more likely to treat the plants in a naturalistic way, while traditional Japanese gardens might feature plants sheared into mountain or cloud shapes. This contrasts with

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1836-548: A few unimportant places in the Romagna . With a campaign in 1506, he personally led an army to Perugia and Bologna , freeing the two papal cities from their despots, Gian Paolo Baglioni and Giovanni II Bentivoglio . In December 1503, Julius issued a dispensation allowing the future Henry VIII of England to marry Catherine of Aragon ; Catherine had previously been briefly married to Henry's older brother Prince Arthur , who had died, but Henry later argued that she had remained

1989-405: A house which would be pleasant in summer, but uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with the season." Though a Lucullan feast has passed into proverb, Lucullus was not a mere conspicuous consumer . He formed a fine library and kept it open to scholars, wrote himself and supported writers. His garden

2142-402: A modern garden. It would have seemed more like a collection of herbs or a patch of wild flowers, lacking the specially bred flowers of today. Flowers like the iris, chrysanthemum, lily, and delphinium (blue), were certainly known to the ancients, but were not featured much in garden scenes. Formal bosquets seem to have been composed of mandrake, poppy, cornflower, and/or lotus and papyrus. Due to

2295-547: A papal fief, a Congress was held in Mantua by Julius II to declare the liberation of the peninsula. Nevertheless, although Julius had centralized and expanded the Papal States , he was far from realizing his dream of an independent Italian kingdom. Italy was not at peace either. The French were preparing new campaigns to reconquer Milan, and Julius II confessed to a Venetian ambassador a plan to invest his counselor Luigi d'Aragona with

2448-674: A royal throne for his son fell through, and he was very angry. Louis offered Cesare another of his relatives, the "beautiful and rich" Charlotte d'Albret , whom Cesare married at Blois on 13 May 1499. The marriage produced a complete volta facie in Pope Alexander. He became an open partisan of the French and Venice, and accepted their goal, the destruction of the Sforza hold on Milan. On 14 July, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, della Rovere's sworn enemy, fled Rome with all his property and friends. Meanwhile,

2601-567: A series of complicated stratagems, he first succeeded in rendering it impossible for the Borgias to retain their power over the Papal States . Indeed, on the day of his election, he issued a damnatio memoriae , declaring: I will not live in the same rooms as the Borgias lived. He [Alexander VI] desecrated the Holy Church as none before. He usurped the papal power by the devil's aid, and I forbid under

2754-651: A significant cultural and political legacy. As a result of his policies during the Italian Wars , the Papal States increased their power and centralization, and the office of the papacy continued to be crucial, diplomatically and politically, during the entirety of the 16th century in Italy and Europe. In 1506, Julius II established the Vatican Museums and initiated the rebuilding of the St. Peter's Basilica . The same year he organized

2907-565: A strong relation between Florence and Rome, a lasting legacy of Julius II. Yet Machiavelli and his methods would not outlast Julius' Papacy. Julius hired Swiss mercenaries to fight against the French in Milan in May 1512, causing the French army to withdraw across the Alps into Savoy. The papacy gained control of Parma and Piacenza in central Italy. With the French out of Italy and Spain recognizing Naples as

3060-616: A treaty. Innocent looked for new allies and settled on the Republic of Florence. On 2 March 1487, Giuliano was appointed legate in the March of Ancona and to the Republic of Venice. He encouraged trade with the sizable Turkish community at these ports. But urgent reports arrived from King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary that the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II was threatening Italy. He returned on 8 April 1488, and again took up his residence in

3213-406: A virgin for the five months of the marriage. Some twenty years later, when Henry was attempting to wed Anne Boleyn (since his son by Catherine of Aragon survived only a few days, and two of her sons were stillborn, and therefore he had no male heir), he sought to have his marriage annulled, claiming that the dispensation of Pope Julius should never have been issued. The retraction of the dispensation

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3366-609: A war against the Ottoman Turks; and to negotiate the release of Cardinal Jean Balue and Bishop Guillaume d'Harancourt (who by then had been imprisoned by Louis for eleven years on charges of treason). He reached Paris in September, and finally, on 20 December 1480, Louis gave orders that Balue be handed over to the Archpriest of Loudun, who had been commissioned by the Legate to receive him in

3519-450: A woman of Greek ancestry. He had three brothers: Bartolomeo, a Franciscan friar who then became Bishop of Ferrara (1474–1494); Leonardo; and Giovanni , Prefect of the City of Rome (1475–1501) and Prince of Sora and Senigallia. He also had a sister, Lucina (later the mother of Cardinal Sisto Gara della Rovere ). Giuliano was educated by his uncle, Fr. Francesco della Rovere, O.F.M. , among

3672-487: Is crossed by raised walkways of baked brick; the king and his entourage would dine there. At Ugarit (c. 1,400 BC), there was a stone water basin, not located centrally as in later Persian gardens, for the central feature was probably a tree (date, palm, or tamarisk). The 7th century BC, Assyrian king Assurbanipal is shown on a sculpture feasting with his queen, reclining on a couch beneath an arbour of vines, attended by musicians. Trophies of conquest are on display, including

3825-428: Is to live among mountains and water; it is to live with nature, to live like an immortal being (Xian). The garden evokes a healthy lifestyle that makes one immortal, free from the problems of civilization. Thus, Chinese landscape is known as Shan (mountain) and Shui (water). Symbolism is a key element of Chinese garden design. To the earthy tones of the Chinese garden, a touch of red or gold is often added to bring forth

3978-793: The Apulian ports. This war was a conflict in what was collectively known as the " Italian Wars ". In the spring of 1509, the Republic of Venice was placed under an interdict by Julius, In May 1509 Julius sent troops to fight against the Venetians who had occupied parts of the Romagna, winning back the Papal States in the decisive Battle of Agnadello near Cremona. During the War of the Holy League, alliances kept changing: in 1510 Venice and France switched places, and by 1513, Venice had joined France. The achievements of

4131-610: The Chinese garden and its development on the Japanese garden . While the basic gardening techniques were fairly well understood by trial and error from early on, the plants available in a particular location have changed enormously, especially in recent centuries. Many new groups of plants have been introduced from other parts of the world, and the ornamental plants now used are mostly cultivars bred to improve qualities such as colour, length of flowering, size and hardiness . In Europe during

4284-497: The Colonna family supported the Pope in the street fighting that ensued. Ferrante reacted by seizing the fiefs of the barons, and, when the two parties met to negotiate a settlement, Ferrante had them arrested, and eventually executed. The prestige of the della Rovere family was seriously damaged, and in an attempt to exculpate himself Pope Innocent began to withdraw his support for them. Peace

4437-532: The Doge of Venice by remonstrance, he brought about a union of the conflicting interests of France and the Holy Roman Empire , and sacrificed temporarily to some extent the independence of Italy to conclude with them an offensive and defensive alliance against Venice. The combination was, however, at first little more than nominal, and was not immediately effective in compelling the Venetians to deliver up more than

4590-920: The Franciscans , who took him under his special charge. He was later sent by this same uncle (who by that time had become Minister General of the Franciscans (1464–1469)), to the Franciscan friary in Perugia , where he could study the sciences at the University. Della Rovere, as a young man, showed traits of being rough, coarse and inclined to bad language. During the late 1490s, he became more closely acquainted with Cardinal de’ Medici and his cousin Giulio de’ Medici , both of whom would later become Pope, (i.e. Leo X and Clement VII, respectively). The two dynasties became uneasy allies in

4743-654: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon . Temple gardens developed from the representation of a sacred grove; several distinct styles of royal garden are also known. The courtyard garden was enclosed by the walls of a palace, or on a larger scale was a cultivated place inside the city walls. At Mari on the Middle Euphrates (c. 1,800 BC), one of the huge palace courtyards was called the Court of the Palms in contemporary written records. It

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4896-603: The Orsini and Colonna . Decrees were made in the interests of the Roman nobility, in whose shoes the new pope now stepped. Being thus secure in Rome and the surrounding country, he set himself the task to expel the Republic of Venice from Faenza , Rimini , and the other towns and fortresses of Italy which it occupied after the death of Pope Alexander. In 1504, finding it impossible to succeed with

5049-656: The Palazzo Colonna next to the Basilica of the XII Apostles . In the Conclave of 1492, following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal della Rovere was supported for election by both King Charles VIII of France and by Charles' enemy King Ferrante of Naples . It was reported that France had deposited 200,000 ducats into a bank account to promote della Rovere's candidature, while the Republic of Genoa had deposited 100,000 ducats to

5202-523: The Papal States following the reign of Alexander VI . Archduke Maximilian I of Austria was hostile to France and Venice, and desired to descend into Italy in order to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope. The conclave capitulation preceding his election included several terms, such as the opening of an ecumenical council and the organization of a crusade against the Ottoman Turks . Once crowned, Julius II proclaimed instead his goal to centralize

5355-673: The Renaissance , garden design was dominated by the Italian garden , which developed into the French formal garden , dominating the Baroque period. Both were formal styles, attempting to impose architectural principles on the garden. In the 18th century, the English landscape garden developed, apparently informal and natural, but requiring very large spaces, and by the end of the century dominated all Europe in

5508-623: The Sistine Chapel . Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church, which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. He was fiercely satirized after his death by Erasmus of Rotterdam in Julius Excluded from Heaven , in which the drunken pope, denied entry to heaven by St. Peter, justifies his worldly life and plots to create a rival abode from which to conquer heaven. Julius II became pope in

5661-451: The imperial election was sufficient for Maximilian to style himself as Holy Roman Emperor , he later obtained Habsburg support against France as well. Julius II personally led the papal armed forces at the victorious Siege of Mirandola and, despite subsequent defeats and great losses at the Battle of Ravenna , he ultimately forced the French troops of Louis XII to retreat behind the Alps after

5814-510: The "land between the Rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, comprises a hilly and mountainous northern area and a flat, alluvial south. Its peoples ( Sumerians , Akkadians , Assyrians , and Babylonians ) were urban and literate from about 3,000 BC. Evidence for their gardens comes from written texts, pictorial sculpture, and archaeology. In Western tradition, Mesopotamia was the location of the Garden of Eden and

5967-548: The 16th century BC are some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental horticulture and landscape design depicting lotus ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of acacias and palms . Another ancient tradition is of Persia : Darius the Great was said to have had a " paradise garden " and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were renowned as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Persian gardens were designed along

6120-535: The 16th century is evidence to the value attributed to the horticultural knowledge of antiquity. These literary sources worked as handbooks, promoting the concepts of walled gardens with plants arranged by type. Such ideals found expression in the suburban parks ( Philopation , Aretai ) and palatial gardens ( Mesokepion , Mangana ) of Constantinople. Pope Julius II Pope Julius II ( Latin : Iulius II ; Italian : Giulio II ; born Giuliano della Rovere ; 5 December 1443 – 21 February 1513)

6273-462: The 16th century they were owned by Felice della Rovere , daughter of Pope Julius II . The Villa Borghese portion was a vineyard in 160–5, when it was returned to be a grand garden. 41°54′29″N 12°29′02″E  /  41.908°N 12.484°E  / 41.908; 12.484 History of gardens The early history of gardening is largely entangled with the history of agriculture , with gardens that were mainly ornamental generally

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6426-463: The 19th century, a welter of historical revivals and Romantic cottage-inspired gardening emerged. In England , William Robinson and Gertrude Jekyll were influential proponents of the wild garden and the perennial garden , respectively. Andrew Jackson Downing and Frederick Law Olmsted adapted European forms for North America, especially influencing the design of public parks , campuses and suburban landscapes. Olmsted's influence extended well into

6579-485: The 20th century. The 20th century saw the influence of modernism in the garden: from the articulate clarity of Thomas Church to the bold colors and forms of the Brazilian Roberto Burle Marx . Environmental consciousness and sustainable design practices, such as green roofs and rainwater harvesting , are becoming widely practiced as innovations in these fields continue to develop. Mesopotamia ,

6732-569: The Borgias by military force. The King entered Rome with his army on 31 December 1494, with Giuliano della Rovere riding on one side and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza riding on the other. The King made several demands of Pope Alexander, one of which was that the Castel Sant'Angelo be turned over to French forces. This Pope Alexander refused to do, claiming that Cardinal della Rovere would occupy it and become master of Rome. Charles soon conquered Naples , making his triumphal entry on 22 February 1495, but he

6885-524: The British used nature outside the home to provide privacy, Chinese homes were compounds made of a number of buildings which all faced one or more courtyards or common areas. Rather than around the home, the Chinese valued natural spaces inside the compound, which is where the family socialized. Furthermore, Courtyards in the Chinese home reflected Taoist philosophies, where families would try to create abstractions of nature rather than recreations of it. For example,

7038-502: The Byzantines’ enthusiasm for pleasure gardens ( locus amoenus ). More formal gardening texts, such as the Geoponika (10th century), were in fact encyclopaedias of accumulated agricultural practices (grafting, watering) and pagan lore (astrology, plant sympathy/antipathy relationships), going back to Hesiod 's time. Their repeated publications and translations to other languages well into

7191-626: The Cardinal was done not only without the consent of the cardinals in consistory, but in fact over their vigorous objections. By June, however, the Pope was in negotiations with the Cardinal for reconciliation and return to Rome. His benefices were restored to him after an apparent reconciliation with the Pope in August 1498. King Charles VIII of France, the last of the senior branch of the House of Valois , died on 7 April 1498 after accidentally striking his head on

7344-669: The Church and the King of Naples, Ferdinand I (Ferrante). On 28 June the Pope sent back to Naples the token gift of a palfrey which symbolized the King of Naples' submission and demanded the full feudal submission of the Kingdom of Naples to the Roman Church according to long-standing tradition . In a second attempt to overthrow the Aragonese monarchy, the Prince of Salerno Antonello II di Sanseverino, on

7497-598: The Church the main force in the Italian Wars was achieved. At the Roman Carnival of 1513, Julius II presented himself as the "liberator of Italy". Julius planned to call for a crusade against the Ottoman Empire in order to retake Constantinople , but died before making official announcements. His successor, Pope Leo X, along with Emperor Maximilian, would re-establish the status quo ante bellum in Italy by ratifying

7650-461: The Conclave of October 1503, Julius had sworn to summon a general council, but it had been delayed, he affirmed, because of the occupation of Italy by his enemies. The real stimulus came from a false council which took place in 1511, later called the Conciliabulum Pisanum , inspired by Louis XII and Maximilian I as a tactic to weaken Julius, threatening to depose him. Julius' reply was

7803-458: The French army crossed the Alps and captured Alessandria in Piedmont. On 1 September 1499 Lodovico Il Moro fled Milan, and on 6 September the city surrendered to the French. Cardinal Giuliano was in the King's entourage when he entered Milan on 6 October. Pope Alexander then turned his attention, stimulated by the Venetians, to the threat of the Ottoman Turks. In the autumn of 1499, he called for

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7956-506: The French to Mirandola . In November 1511, a council met at Pisa , called by rebel cardinals with support from the French king and the Empire; they demanded the deposition of Julius II. He refused to shave, showing utter contempt for the hated French occupation. "per vendicarsi et diceva ... anco fuora scazato el re Ludovico Franza d'Italia." Whereupon Julius entered into another Holy League of 1511 : in alliance with Ferdinand II of Aragon and

8109-597: The Kingdom of Naples in order to end Spanish presence in the south. In fact, after the death of Julius, war would resume and the treaties of Noyon and Brussels in 1516 would again divide much of Italy between French and Spanish influence. In May 1512 a general or ecumenical council, the Fifth Council of the Lateran , was held in Rome. According to an oath taken on his election to observe the Electoral Capitulations of

8262-676: The League soon outstripped the primary intention of Julius. In one single battle, the Battle of Agnadello on 14 May 1509, the dominion of Venice in Italy was practically lost to the pope. Neither the King of France nor the Holy Roman Emperor was satisfied with merely effecting the purposes of the Pope; the latter found it necessary to enter into an arrangement with the Venetians to defend himself from those who immediately before had been his allies. The Venetians, on making humble submission, were absolved at

8415-541: The Middle East and northern Africa. Probably due to this temporal and geographic spread and its turbulent history, there is no single dominant garden style that can be labeled "Byzantine style". Archaeological evidence of public, imperial, and private gardens is scant at best, and researchers over the years have relied on literary sources to derive clues about the main features of Byzantine gardens. Romance novels such as Hysmine and Hysminias (12th century) included detailed descriptions of gardens and their popularity attests to

8568-479: The Ottomans, who had occupied Bari in 1480; and the vigorous efforts of Ferrante to centralize the administrative apparatus of the kingdom, moving it away from a feudal to a bureaucratic system. The barons seized L'Aquila and appealed to the Pope for assistance as their feudal overlord. Genoa and Venice supported the Papacy, while Florence and Milan opted for Naples. In Rome, the Orsini family allied themselves with Ferrante's son Alfonso , and therefore their rivals

8721-410: The Papal States (in large part a patchwork of communes and signorie ) and "free Italy from the barbarians". In his early years as pope, Julius II removed the Borjas from power and exiled them to Spain. Cesare Borgia , Duke of Romagna, shared the same fate and lost his possessions. He joined an anti-Venetian league formed in Cambrai between France , Spain, and Austria , with the goal of capturing

8874-411: The Papal States annexed Parma and Modena . The conciliarist movement promoted by foreign monarchs was crushed, and Julius II affirmed ultramontanism at the Fifth Lateran Council . This is often presented in traditional historiography as the moment in which Renaissance Italy came the closest to unification after the end of the Italic League of the 15th century. However, Julius II was far away from

9027-402: The Papal States; it was in these endeavors he had enlisted French mercenaries. Urbino 's magnificent Ducal Palace was infiltrated by French soldiers in the pay of the Margrave of Mantua; the Montefeltro Conspiracy against his loyal cousins earned the occupying armies the Pope's undying hatred. Julius relied upon Guidobaldo's help to raise his nephew and heir Francesco Maria della Rovere ;

9180-412: The Pincian Hill on the edge of Rome introduced the Persian garden to Europe in about 60 BC. Both Chinese and Japanese garden design traditionally is intended to evoke the natural landscape of mountains and rivers. However, the intended viewpoint of the gardens differs: Chinese gardens were intended to be viewed from within the garden and are intended as a setting for everyday life. Japanese gardens, with

9333-444: The Pope's new principal advisor) decided to involve themselves in the political affairs of the Kingdom of Naples, in what was called the Conspiracy of the Barons . On Palm Sunday, 20 March, Cardinal della Rovere, concealing his activities from his principal rival, Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI ), rode out of Rome and departed by sea from Ostia , intending to head for Genoa and Avignon to prepare to wage war between

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9486-425: The Pope. Della Rovere at once determined to take refuge from Borgia's wrath at Ostia . On 23 April 1494, the Cardinal took ship, having placed his fortress at Ostia in the hands of his brother Giovanni della Rovere, and traveled to Genoa and then to Avignon. He was summoned by King Charles VIII to Lyons , where the two met on 1 June 1494. He made an agreement with Charles VIII, who undertook to take Italy back from

9639-433: The Pope. The kidnapping party returned to Rome on 12 July, without having accomplished its mission. On 20 July 1502, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Ferrari died in his rooms at the Vatican Palace; he had been poisoned, and his property was claimed by the Borgia. On 3 January 1503, Cardinal Orsini was arrested and sent to the Castel Sant'Angelo; on 22 February he died there, poisoned on the orders of Alexander VI. A veteran of

9792-502: The Sacred College, della Rovere had won influence for the election of Pope Pius III with the help of Florentine ruler, Lorenzo de' Medici . In spite of a violent temper della Rovere succeeded by dexterous diplomacy in winning the support of Cesare Borgia, whom he won over by his promise of money and continued papal backing for Borgia policies in the Romagna. This election was, in Ludwig von Pastor's view, certainly achieved by means of bribery with money, but also with promises. "Giuliano, whom

9945-402: The Venetians he conspired against the Gallican liberties. In a short time, both Henry VIII of England (1509–47), and Maximilian I joined the Holy League of 1511 against France. Ferdinand of Aragon now recognized Naples as a papal fief, invested in 1511, and therefore Julius II now regarded France as the main foreign power in the Italian peninsula hostile to Papal interests. Louis XII defeated

10098-439: The War of the Barons. He also warned King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain that Alexander was intriguing with the French, which brought an immediate visit of a Spanish ambassador to the Pope. In June Federico of Altamura was back in Rome and held conversations with della Rovere, assuring him of Neapolitan protection. On 24 July 1493, Cardinal della Rovere returned to Rome (despite the warnings of Virginio Orsini ) and dined with

10251-479: The Yin/Yang contrast. The colors red and gold also represent luck and wealth. Bats, dragons, and other mystic creatures carved on wooden doors are also commonly found in Chinese gardens; these are seen as signs of luck and protection. Circles portray togetherness, especially for family members, and are depicted in moon gates , moon bridges , and round tables placed within square backgrounds. The moon gate and other whimsical doorways also act to frame views and to force

10404-436: The advice of Antonello Petrucci and Francesco Coppola, gathered together several feudal families belonging to the Guelph faction and supporting the Angevin claim to Naples. Antonello de Sanseverino was the brother-in-law of Cardinal della Rovere's brother Giovanni, who was a noble of Naples because of his fief of Sora. The principal complaints of the barons were the heavy taxation imposed by Ferdinand to finance his war against

10557-507: The alliance at Battle of Ravenna on 11 April 1512. When a desperate battle felled over 20,000 men in a bloodbath the Pope commanded his protege, a newly released young Cardinal Medici to re-take Florence with a Spanish army. The rescue of the city on 1 September 1512 saved Rome from another invasion, ousting Piero Soderini , and returning the dynastic rule of the Medici. Julius had seemingly restored fortuna or control by exercising his manly vertu , just as Machiavelli wrote. This re-asserted

10710-419: The archdiocese until his later election to the papacy. In 1476 the office of Legate was added, and he left Rome for France in February. On 22 August 1476 he founded the Collegium de Ruvere in Avignon . He returned to Rome on 4 October 1476. In 1479, Cardinal Giuliano served his one-year term as Chamberlain of the College of Cardinals . In this office he was responsible for collecting all the revenues owed to

10863-520: The arid climate of Egypt, tending gardens meant constant attention and depended on irrigation. Skilled gardeners were employed by temples and households of the wealthy. Duties included planting, weeding, watering by means of a shadoof , pruning of fruit trees, digging the ground, and harvesting the fruit. It is curious that although the Egyptians and Romans both gardened with vigor, the Greeks did not own private gardens. They did put gardens around temples, and they adorned walkways and roads with statues, but

11016-444: The arrangement, the soils, the seeds, the distance between types of plants and trees, the methods of preparing manure, proper fertilizing and maintaining the garden, which plants and trees are best planted first, when to plant others, watering, signs of overwatering and underwatering, weeds, means of protecting the garden, and other details. Both public parks and woodland gardens are described, with about 40 types of trees recommended for

11169-633: The arrival of Swiss mercenaries from the Holy Roman Empire . At the Congress of Mantua in 1512, Julius II ordered the restoration of Italian families to power in the vacuum of French rule: the Imperial Swiss led by Massimiliano Sforza restored Sforza rule in Milan, and a Spanish army led by Giovanni de Medici restored Medici rule in Florence. The Kingdom of Naples was recognized as a papal fief . The Venetians regained their territories lost to France, and

11322-496: The beginning of 1510, and shortly afterward France was placed under papal interdict. Attempts to cause a rupture between France and England proved unsuccessful; on the other hand, at a synod convened by Louis at Tours in September 1510, the French bishops withdrew from papal obedience and resolved, with the Emperor's co-operation, to seek dethronement of the pope. With some courage Julius marched his army to Bologna and then against

11475-520: The cardinals as a group (from ad limina visits, for example) and for the proper disbursements of appropriate shares to cardinals who were in service in the Roman Curia. Giuliano was again named Papal Legate to France on 28 April 1480, and left Rome on 9 June. As Legate, his mission was threefold: to make peace between King Louis XI and the Archduke Maximilian of Austria ; to raise funds for

11628-451: The citadel is on the eastern edge of this garden. The water gardens are built symmetrically on an east–west axis. They are connected with the outer moat on the west and the large artificial lake to the south of the Sigiriya rock. All the pools are also interlinked using an underground conduit network fed by the lake, and connected to the moats. A miniature water garden is located to the west of

11781-568: The coast of Romagna from the Venetian Republic . Having achieved this goal, he formed an anti-French "Holy League" with Venice following the defeat of the latter at the Battle of Agnadello . His main goal was now again to "expel the barbarians" ( Fuori i Barbari! ). Julius II brought the Catholic Ferdinand II of Aragon into the alliance, declaring Naples a papal fief and promising a formal investiture. Having previously declared that

11934-447: The company of Duke Federigo of Urbino , who promised his daughter in marriage to Giuliano's brother Giovanni, who was subsequently named Lord of Senigallia and of Mondovì . On 22 December 1475, Pope Sixtus IV created the new Archdiocese of Avignon, assigning to it as suffragan dioceses the Sees of Vaison, Cavaillon, and Carpentras. He appointed Giuliano as the first archbishop. Giuliano held

12087-652: The complex technologies he deployed, calling his palace and garden "a wonder for all peoples". The biblical Book of Genesis mentions the Tigris and Euphrates as two of the four rivers bounding the Garden of Eden . No specific place has been identified, although there are many theories. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are listed by classical Greek writers as one of the Seven Wonders of the World – places to see before you die. The excavated ruins of Babylon do not reveal any suitable evidence, which has led some scholars to suggest that they may have been purely legendary. Alternatively,

12240-501: The connection of a surrounding garden with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architectural elements such as vaulted arches between the outer and interior areas to open up the divide between them. Gardens were much cherished in the Egyptian times and were kept both for secular purposes and attached to temple compounds. Gardens in private homes and villas before the New Kingdom were mostly used for growing vegetables and located close to

12393-509: The context of papal politics. Both houses desired an end to the occupation of Italian lands by the armies of France. He seemed less enthused by theology; rather, Paul Strathern argues, his imagined heroes were military leaders such as Frederic Colonna . After his uncle was elected Pope Sixtus IV on 10 August 1471, Giuliano was appointed Bishop of Carpentras in the Comtat Venaissin on 16 October 1471. In an act of overt nepotism he

12546-667: The context of the Italian Wars , a period in which the major powers of Europe fought for primacy in the Italian Peninsula. Louis XII of France controlled the Duchy of Milan , previously held by the Sforzas , and French influence had replaced that of the Medici in the Republic of Florence . The Kingdom of Naples was under Aragonese rule, and the Borja family from Spain was a major political faction in

12699-416: The death of Innocent VIII in 1492 Borgia by means of a secret agreement and simony with Ascanio Sforza succeeded in being elected by a large majority, under the name of Pope Alexander VI." Della Rovere, jealous and angry, hated Borgia for being elected over him. On 31 August 1492 the new Pope, Alexander VI, held a consistory in which he named six cardinal legates, one of whom was Giuliano della Rovere, who

12852-595: The diocese until 1502. On 28 December 1484, Giuliano participated in the investiture of his brother Giovanni as Captain-General of the Papal Armies by Pope Innocent VIII . By 1484 Giuliano was living in the new palazzo which he had constructed next to the Basilica of the Twelve Apostles, which he had also restored. Pope Sixtus IV paid a formal visit to the newly restored building on 1 May 1482, and it may be that Giuliano

13005-405: The dismembered head of the king of Elam hanging from a fragrant pine branch. A Babylonian text from the same period is divided into sections, as if showing beds of soil with the names of medicinal , vegetable, and herbal plants written into each square, perhaps representing a parterre design. On a larger scale, royal hunting parks were established to hold the exotic animals and plants which

13158-454: The end of 1501 or the beginning of 1502 when Giuliano was transferred from the Bishopric of Bologna to the diocese of Vercelli. On 21 June 1502, Pope Alexander sent his secretary, Francesco Troche (Trochia), and Cardinal Amanieu d'Albret (brother-in-law of Cesare Borgia) to Savona to seize Cardinal della Rovere by stealth and bring him back to Rome as quickly as possible and turn him over to

13311-719: The famous Swiss Guard for his personal protection and commanded a successful campaign in Romagna against local lords. The interests of Julius II lay also in the New World , as he ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas , establishing the first bishoprics in the Americas and beginning the Catholicization of Latin America. In 1508, he commissioned the Raphael Rooms and Michelangelo 's paintings in

13464-458: The favourite of the French monarchy . In the end, as in all papal elections, the vote is made unanimous after the leading candidate has achieved the required number of votes for election. Giuliano Della Rovere took the name Julius, only used by a single fourth-century predecessor, Julius I , and was pope for nine years, from 1503 to 1513. From the beginning, Julius II set out to defeat the various powers that challenged his temporal authority; in

13617-580: The first enclosure was a type of barrier used for excluding animals and marauders , perhaps beginning in West Asia, thereafter spreading to South and East Asia, and westward into Greece , and Europe. The modern words "garden" and "yard" are descendants of the Old English " geard ", which denotes a fence or enclosure. After the emergence of the first civilizations, wealthy citizens began creating gardens for purely aesthetic purposes. Egyptian tomb paintings of

13770-705: The first water garden, consisting of several small pools and watercourses. This recently discovered smaller garden appears to have been built after the Kashyapan period, possibly between the 10th and 13th centuries. All Persian gardens, from the ancient to the high classical were developed in opposition to the harsh and arid landscape of the Iranian Plateau. Unlike historical European gardens, which seemed carved or re-ordered from within their existing landscape , Persian gardens appeared as impossibilities. Their ethereal and delicate qualities emphasized their intrinsic contrast to

13923-672: The formal adhesion of Emperor Maximilian to the Lateran Council and his repudiation of the Conciliabulum Pisanum . This was one of Julius' great triumphs. The Pope was again in attendance at the fourth session on 10 December, this time to hear the accrediting of the Venetian Ambassador as the Serene Republic's representative at the council; he then had the letter of King Louis XI (of 27 November 1461), in which he announced

14076-521: The gardens' immersive blend of art, nature, and water as having "diverted his worried mind with the sound of rippling waters." Ornamental horticulture became highly developed during the development of Roman civilization. The administrators of the Roman Empire (c.100 BC–500 AD) actively exchanged information on agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, hydraulics, and botany. Seeds and plants were widely shared. The Gardens of Lucullus (Horti Lucullani) on

14229-412: The gardens; fragrance pervades the walkways; streams of water as numerous as the stars of heaven flow in the pleasure garden.... Like a squirrel, I pick fruit in the garden of delights." The city garden reached its zenith with the palace design of Sennacherib (704–681 BC), whose water system stretched for 50 km into the hills, whose garden was higher and more ornate than any others, and who boasted of

14382-410: The handling of stone elements: in a Japanese garden, stepping stones are placed in groupings as part of the landscape, but in a Chinese garden, a particularly choice stone might even be placed on a pedestal in a prominent location so that it might be more easily appreciated. The style of Chinese garden varies among economic groups and differs by dynasties. Rocks, water, bridges, and pavilions are among

14535-417: The hostile environment. Trees and trellises largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also structurally prominent in blocking the sun. The heat also makes water important, both in the design and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation may be required, and may be provided via a form of tunnel called a qanat , that transports water from a local aquifer . Well-like structures then connect to

14688-400: The idea of balance and harmony. The Chinese garden expresses the relationship to nature and the idea of balance through the art of mimicking natural setting, thus the existence of mountains, rocks, water, and wind elements. Yin and Yang juxtapose complementary opposites: as hard as rock can be, the softness of water can dissolve it. Lake Tai rocks, limestone eroded by the water of Lake Tai, are

14841-472: The impression of a man who is guided rather by the advice of others than by his own lights." The ambassador of Ferrara stated, "While with his uncle [Della Rovere] had not the slightest influence, he now obtains whatever he likes from the new Pope." Della Rovere was one of the five cardinals named to the committee to make the arrangements for the Coronation. In 1485 Pope Innocent and Cardinal della Rovere (as

14994-592: The inhabitants their dense and protective shade. There are accounts of four kinds of gardens in Ancient India: udyan, paramadodvana, vrikshavatika, and nandanavana . Vatika was a small garden inside homes. Margeshu vriksha was the practice of planting trees on the roadside for shade. Manasollasa, a twelfth century text giving details on garden design , asserts that it should include rocks and raised mounds of summits, manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties, artificial ponds, and flowing brooks. It describes

15147-681: The intricate web of nepotism helped secure the Italian Papacy. Moreover, the Pope's interest in Urbino was widely known in the French court. Julius left a spy at the Urbino Palace, possibly Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere , Cardinal of San Pietro, to watch the Mantua stables in total secret; the secular progress of the Papal Curia was growing in authority and significance. In Rome, the Pope watched from his private chapel to see how his court behaved. This

15300-427: The issuing of the bull Non-sini gravi of 18 July 1511, which fixed the date of 19 April 1512 for the opening of his own council. The Council actually convened on 3 May 1512, and Paris de Grassis reports that the crowd at the basilica was estimated at 50,000. It held its first working session on 10 May. In the third plenary session, on 3 December 1512, Julius attended, though ill; but he wanted to witness and receive

15453-740: The king had acquired on his foreign campaigns. King Tiglath-Pileser I (c. 1,000 BC) lists horses, oxen, asses, deer of two types, gazelle and ibex, boasting "I numbered them like flocks of sheep." From around 1,000 BC, the Assyrian kings developed a style of city garden incorporating a naturalistic layout, running water supplied from river headwaters, and exotic plants from their foreign campaigns. Assurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) lists pines of different kinds, cypresses and junipers of different kinds, almonds, dates, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth and ash, fir pomegranate, pear, quince, fig and grapevines: "The canal water gushes from above into

15606-409: The largest new gardens. Gardening may be considered as aesthetic expressions of beauty through art and nature, a display of taste or style in civilized life, an expression of an individual's or culture's philosophy, and sometimes as a display of private status or national pride —in private and public landscapes. The enclosure of outdoor space probably began around 10,000 BC. Historians imagine

15759-515: The late 15th and early 16th centuries. The Spanish Crown built the first public parks of this era in the 16th century, both in Europe and the Americas. The formal garden à la française , exemplified by the Gardens of Versailles , became the dominant horticultural style in Europe until the middle of the 18th century, when the English landscape garden and the French landscape garden acceded to dominance. In

15912-579: The lintel of a door at the Château d'Amboise . When Cesare Borgia passed through southern France in October 1498 on his way to meet King Louis XII for his investiture as Duke of Valentinois , he stopped in Avignon and was magnificently entertained by Cardinal della Rovere. They then moved on to meet the King at Chinon , where Cesare Borgia fulfilled one of the terms of the treaty between Louis and Alexander by producing

16065-467: The middle of the garden should have a well, a tank or a pond, various other treatises also mention establishing lotus shaped baths, lakes, lotus-shaped seats, swings, roundabouts, Menageries. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentions accounts of Nalanda where "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer

16218-652: The morning of 24 June Paris found the Pope to be very weak. On Christmas Eve, Julius ordered Paris to summon the College of Cardinals and the Sacristan of the Apostolic Palace, since he was so ill that he did not expect to be able to stay alive very long. From then until 6 January he was confined to bed, and most of the time with a fever; he had lost his appetite, but the doctors were unable to diagnose his languor. On 4 February he had an extensive conversation with Paris concerning

16371-687: The most common features of scholar gardens for the wealthy classes, while courtyards, wells, and terra cotta fish tanks are common among the general population. Other features such as moon gates and leaky windows (openwork screens that pierce surrounding walls) are seen in both groups. The development of landscape design in China was historically driven by philosophies of both Confucianism and Taoism . Geometric symmetry and reinforcement of class boundaries were typical characteristics of landscape design in Asian cities, and both characteristics reflect Confucian ideals. While

16524-463: The name of the Pope. He returned to Rome on 3 February 1482. Shortly thereafter the sum of 300,000 ecus of gold was received from the French in a subsidy of the war. On 31 January 1483 Cardinal della Rovere was promoted suburbicarian Bishop of Ostia , in succession to Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville who had died on 22 January. It was the privilege of the Bishop of Ostia to consecrate an elected pope

16677-401: The oldest surviving models of this form. The second contains two long, deep pools set on either side of the path. Two shallow, serpentine streams lead to these pools. Fountains made of circular limestone plates are placed here. Underground water conduits supply water to these fountains which are still functional, especially during the rainy season. Two large islands are located on either side of

16830-462: The ornate and pleasure gardens that demonstrated wealth in the other communities is seemingly absent. Roman gardens were a place of peace and solitude, a refuge from urban life. Gaius Maecenas , a culturally influential confidante of the emperor Augustus , built the first private garden estate of Rome to fulfill his creative ambitions and restore his delicate health. Seneca the Younger characterized

16983-420: The pain of excommunication anyone to speak or think of Borgia again. His name and memory must be forgotten. It must be crossed out of every document and memorial. His reign must be obliterated. All paintings made of the Borgias or for them must be covered over with black crepe. All the tombs of the Borgias must be opened and their bodies sent back to where they belong – to Spain. Others indicate that his decision

17136-642: The park in the Vana-krida chapter. In medieval India , courtyard gardens are also essential elements of Mughal and Rajput palaces. Indian text Shilparatna (16th century AD) states that Pushpavatika (flower garden or public park) should be located in the northern portion of the town. According to Kalidasa , a garden was elaborately laid out with tanks, arbors of creepers, seats (Kridasaila), mock hills, swings in bowers or in open, raised seats, or vedika under large shady tree. Arthashastra , sukraniti, and Kamandakanti mention public gardens which were situated outside

17289-515: The pope was, and who in that capacity governed the universal Roman Church." Julius, who modeled himself after his namesake Caesar, would personally lead his army across the Italian peninsula under the imperial war-cry, "Drive out the barbarians." Yet, despite the imperial rhetoric, the campaigns were highly localized. Perugia voluntarily surrendered in March 1507 to direct control, as it had always been within

17442-523: The pope. As part of the Renaissance program of reestablishing the glory of antiquity for the Christian capital, Rome, Julius II took considerable effort to present himself as a sort of emperor-pope, capable of leading a Latin-Christian empire. On Palm Sunday, 1507, "Julius II entered Rome ... both as a second Julius Caesar , heir to the majesty of Rome's imperial glory, and in the likeness of Christ, whose vicar

17595-424: The popular voice seemed to indicate as the only possible pope, was as unscrupulous as any of his colleagues in the means which he employed. Where promises and persuasions were unavailing, he did not hesitate to have recourse to bribery." Indeed, his election on 1 November 1503 took only a few hours, and the only two votes he did not receive were his own and the one of Georges d'Amboise , his most vigorous opponent and

17748-468: The possibility to form a single Italian kingdom, if that was his goal at all, since foreign armies were largely involved in his wars and the French were preparing new campaigns against the Swiss for Milan. Naples, even if recognized as a papal fief, was still under Aragon and in fact Julius II was planning to end Spanish presence in the south. Nevertheless, by the end of his pontificate, the papal objective to make

17901-625: The preserve of the elite until quite recent times. Smaller gardens generally had being a kitchen garden as their first priority, as is still often the case. The broad traditions that have dominated gardening since ancient times include those of the Ancient Near East , which became the Islamic garden , the Mediterranean, which produced the Roman garden , hugely influencing later European gardening, and

18054-505: The primary objectives of design. Some still consider these elements essential to quality design of landscape. Byzantium and Moorish Spain continued horticultural traditions after the 4th century AD and the decline of Rome . By this time, a separate horticultural tradition formed in China , which was transmitted to Japan , where it developed into aristocratic gardens featuring miniaturized and simulated natural landscapes centered on ponds, and

18207-496: The pulpit a papal bull, Si summus rerum , dated that very day and containing within its text the complete bull of 14 January 1505, Cum tam divino . The bull was submitted to the Council fathers for their consideration and ratification. Julius wanted to remind everyone of his legislation on papal conclaves, in particular against simony , and to fix his regulations firmly in canon law so that they could not be dispensed or ignored. Julius

18360-445: The qanat, enabling the drawing of water. Alternatively, an animal-driven Persian well would draw water to the surface. Such wheel systems also moved water around surface water systems, such as those in the chahar bāgh style. Trees were often planted in a ditch called a juy , which prevented water evaporation and allowed the water quick access to the tree roots. The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with outdoors through

18513-416: The quintessential example. Water, air, and light run through the rock as it sits still on display. The leaky windows of the Chinese garden wall portray both steadiness and movement. The windows create a solid painting on walls, however, that steadiness changes once the wind blows or the eyes move. Chinese garden's structure is based upon the culture's creation myth, rooted in rocks and water. To have longevity

18666-512: The red hat of a cardinal, which had been promised for the Archbishop of Rouen , Georges d'Amboise . It was Cardinal della Rovere, the Papal Legate, who placed the hat on Amboise's head. Louis wanted an annulment from Queen Joan so he could marry Anne of Brittany , in the hope of annexing the Duchy of Brittany ; Alexander, in turn, wanted a French princess as wife for Cesare. Della Rovere, who

18819-615: The revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction, read out to the assembly, and demanded that all persons who accepted the Pragmatic Sanction appear before the Council within sixty days to justify their conduct. This was directed against the current French King Louis XII. The fifth session was held on 16 February, but Pope Julius was too ill to attend. Cardinal Raffaele Riario , the Dean of the College of Cardinals and Bishop of Ostia, presided. The Bishop of Como , Scaramuccia Trivulzio , then read from

18972-406: The river. The water gardens of Sigiriya can be seen in the central section of the western precinct. Three principal gardens are found here. The first garden consists of a plot surrounded by water. It is connected to the main precinct using four causeways, with gateways placed at the head of each causeway. This garden is built according to an ancient garden form known as char bagh , and is one of

19125-470: The same end. Della Rovere, however, had enemies, both because of the influence he had exercised over Pope Sixtus IV and because of his French sympathies. His rivals included Cardinal Ardicio della Porta and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza , both patronized by the Milanese. Kellogg, Baynes & Smith, continue, a "rivalry had, however, gradually grown up between [della Rovere] and [then-Cardinal] Rodrigo Borgia , and on

19278-428: The second water garden. Summer palaces are built on the flattened surfaces of these islands. Two more islands are located farther to the north and the south. These islands are built in a manner similar to the island in the first water garden. The third garden is situated on a higher level than the other two. It contains a large, octagonal pool with a raised podium on its northeast corner. The large brick and stone wall of

19431-538: The severe Zen garden form featured at temples. In Europe, the medieval garden developed slowly, perhaps with a particular revival in Languedoc and the Île-de-France in the 13th century. By the end of the period, an interest in ornamental gardens was well developed. The rediscovery of descriptions of antique Roman villas and gardens led to the creation of a new form of garden, the Italian Renaissance garden , in

19584-815: The sight of the kings, Tigranocerta , Cabira, Sinope, and Nisibis, seizing and overwhelming the northern parts as far as the Phasis, the east as far as Media , and making the South and Red Sea his own through the kings of the Arabians." These comments indicate that it was well understood in Rome that this new luxury of gardening originated in Persia. Lucullus's rural villas in the hills at Tusculum , near modern Frascati , and at Naples were also set in lavish garden settings. Plutarch, in 'Lucullus' ch. 37, mentions "the chambers and galleries, with their sea-views, built at Naples by Lucullus, out of

19737-551: The spoils of the barbarians.", and Pliny writes of Lucullus cutting a channel through a mountain on his Naples estate to allow seawater to circulate in his fishpond, which recalled the channel that had been cut through the isthmus at Mount Athos by the Persian king. Because of the massive piles which he built in the sea at his villa in Naples, Pompey mockingly nicknamed Lucullus "the Roman Xerxes ", and Tubero called him "Xerxes in

19890-757: The story may have originated from Sennacherib's garden in Nineveh . Gardens in Indian subcontinent finds mentions in early literature, which mentions different types of gardens and method to build them. Archeologically, the gardens at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka is the best-preserved water gardens in South Asia and is also one of the oldest landscaped gardens in the world. Ancient Indian gardens are mentioned in several ancient Hindu texts including Rigveda , Ramayana , and Mahabharata . Buddhist accounts mention bamboo grove which

20043-487: The then owner, Valerius Asiaticus , to commit suicide – Tac. Annals XI.1 ), and was the site of her murder in 48 AD on the orders of the Emperor Claudius, her husband. From shortly afterwards, in around 55 AD, mosaics excavated in the gardens have provided the earliest known use of tesserae made with the technique of gold sandwich glass , which was to remain an essential component of Byzantine and Western mosaics. In

20196-582: The town and provided by the government where people would go and spend whole day in picnic, Panini mentions a kind of garden sport peculiar to eastern India (pracam kridayam), Salabhanjika was the activity of plucking sala flowers and spending the time in merry making. Upavan Vinoda chapter in Sharngadhara-paddhati (14th century AD) an encyclopediac work has been dedicated to horticulture and gardening. Indian gardens were also built around large water reservoirs or water tanks, which were also built along

20349-459: The treaties of Brussels and Noyon in 1516; France regained control of Milan after the victory of Francis I at the Battle of Marignano , and Spain was recognized as the ruler of Naples. Giuliano della Rovere was born in Albisola near Savona in the Republic of Genoa . He was of the House of della Rovere , a noble but impoverished family, the son of Raffaello della Rovere and Theodora Manerola,

20502-447: The viewer to pause for a transition into a new space. Paths in Chinese gardens are often uneven and sometimes consciously zigzag. These paths are like the passages of a human life. There is always something new or different when seen from a different angle, while the future is unknown and unpredictable. The Byzantine empire spanned a period of more than 1000 years (330–1453 AD), and a geographic area from modern day Spain and Britain to

20655-653: The war upon them, insomuch that even now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullan gardens are counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero , the stoic , when he saw his buildings at Naples , where he suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round his house, and pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in a toga. He had also fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes , and large open balconies for men's apartments, and porticos to walk in, where Pompey coming to see him, blamed him for making

20808-540: The western world were those of Ptolemy in Alexandria , Egypt and the horticultural tradition that Lucullus brought to Rome . Wall paintings in Pompeii , Italy attest to later elaborate development. The wealthiest Romans built extensive villa gardens with water features, including fountains and rivulets, topiary , roses, and shaded arcades. Archeological evidence survives at sites such as Hadrian's Villa . Vitruvius ,

20961-534: Was already in residence then. Sixtus IV died on 12 August 1484 and was succeeded by Innocent VIII . After the ceremonies of the election of Pope Innocent were completed, the cardinals were dismissed to their own homes, but Cardinal della Rovere accompanied the new Pope to the Vatican Palace and was the only one to remain with him. Ludwig Pastor quotes the Florentine ambassador as remarking, "[Pope Innocent] gives

21114-503: Was an age of Renaissance conspiracy. In addition to an active military policy, the new pope personally led troops into battle on at least two occasions, the first to expel Giovanni Bentivoglio from Bologna (17 August 1506 – 23 March 1507), which was achieved successfully with the assistance of the Duchy of Urbino. The second was an attempt to recover the Duchy of Ferrara for the Papal States (1 September 1510 – 29 June 1512). In 1508, Julius

21267-536: Was appointed Legate in Avignon. Cardinal Giuliano was increasingly alarmed by the powerful position assumed by Cardinal Ascanio Sforza and the Milanese faction in the Court of Alexander VI, and after Christmas Day in December 1492 chose to withdraw to his fortress in the town and diocese of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber River. In that same month, Federico of Altamura, the second son of King Ferdinando (Ferrante) of Naples

21420-565: Was filled with works of art, particularly Greek sculpture, both originals and copies of “old masters”, and has thus been a rich archaeological source of ancient sculpture: for example, the statue of the Scythian knife sharpener (now thought to depict the executioner getting ready to flay Marsyas ) which the Medici removed to Florence was found in this garden. The gardens became the favourite playground of Claudius 's Empress Messalina (after she forced

21573-517: Was forced to remove most of his army. As he was returning to the north, his army was defeated at the Battle of Fornovo on 5 July 1495, and his Italian adventure came to an end. The last remnants of the French invasion were gone by November 1496. Ostia, however, remained in French hands until March 1497, causing difficulties in the provisioning of the city of Rome. Back in Lyon in 1496, Charles VIII and Giuliano della Rovere were planning another war. Giuliano

21726-464: Was fortuitously able to form the League of Cambrai with King Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (proclaimed without coronation as emperor by Pope Julius II at Trent in 1508) and King Ferdinand II of Aragon . The League fought against the Republic of Venice . Among other things, Julius wanted possession of Venetian Romagna ; Emperor Maximilian I wanted Friuli and Veneto ; Louis XII wanted Cremona , and Ferdinand II desired

21879-426: Was fully aware that his death was imminent, and wished to establish a major reform in his final days. Though he had been a witness to a good deal of simony at papal conclaves and had been a practitioner himself, he was determined to stamp out this abuse. The reading of the bull Cum tam divino became a regular feature of the first day of every conclave. On the Vigil of Pentecost in May 1512, Pope Julius, aware that he

22032-436: Was gifted by King Bimbisara to Buddha. Digha Nikaya, a Buddhist text, also mentions Buddha staying in the mango orchard of the Jivaka monastery, gifted by the physician Jivaka. Arama in Sanskrit means garden, and sangharama is a place where buddhist monk community lived in a garden like place. In Buddha's time, Vaishali was a prosperous and populous town full of parks and gardens and according to Lalit Vistara , it resembled

22185-421: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 to his death, in February 1513. Nicknamed the Warrior Pope , the Battle Pope or the Fearsome Pope , it is often speculated that he had chosen his papal name not in honor of Pope Julius I but in emulation of Julius Caesar . One of the most powerful and influential popes, Julius II was a central figure of the High Renaissance and left

22338-527: Was immediately raised to the cardinalate on 16 December 1471, and assigned the same titular church as that formerly held by his uncle, San Pietro in Vincoli . Guilty of serial simony and pluralism , he held several powerful offices at once: in addition to the archbishopric of Avignon he held no fewer than eight bishoprics, including Lausanne from 1472, and Coutances (1476–1477). In 1474, Giuliano led an army to Todi , Spoleto , and Città di Castello as papal legate. He returned to Rome in May in

22491-419: Was in Rome to pay homage to the new pope, and he reported back to his father that Alexander and Cardinal Sforza were working on establishing new alliances, which would upset Ferrante's security arrangements. Ferrante, therefore, decided to use della Rovere as the center of an anti-Sforza party at the papal court, a prospect made easier since Ferrante had prudently repaired his relations with Cardinal Giuliano after

22644-424: Was refused by Pope Clement VII . The Bull entitled Ea quae pro bono pacis , issued on 24 January 1506, confirmed papal approval of the mare clausum policy being pursued by Spain and Portugal amid their explorations , and approved the changes of the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas to previous papal bulls. In the same year, Julius II founded the Swiss Guard to provide a constant corps of soldiers to protect

22797-406: Was restored in 1487, but Innocent VIII's papacy was discredited. On 23 March 1486, the pope sent Giuliano as Papal Legate to the Court of King Charles VIII of France to ask for help. A French entourage arrived in Rome on 31 May, but immediately relations broke down with the pro-Spanish Cardinal Borgia. But Ferrante's army decided the pope's humiliation, Innocent backed down and on 10 August signed

22950-450: Was seriously ill and that his health was failing, despite comments on the part of some cardinals about how well he looked, remarked to Paris de Grassis , "They are flattering me; I know better; my strength diminishes from day to day and I cannot live much longer. Therefore I beg you not to expect me at Vespers or at Mass from henceforth." Nonetheless, he continued his restless activities, including Masses, visits to churches, and audiences. On

23103-482: Was taken on 26 November 1507, not in 1503. The Borgia Apartments were turned to other uses. The Sala de Papi was redecorated by two pupils of Raphael by order of Pope Leo X . The rooms were used to accommodate Emperor Charles V on his visit to the Vatican after the Sack of Rome (1527) , and subsequently, they became the residence of the Cardinal-nephew and then the Cardinal Secretary of State . Julius used his influence to reconcile two powerful Roman families,

23256-418: Was traveling back and forth from Lyon to Avignon, raising troops. It was being reported in France by June 1496, moreover, that King Charles intended to have a papal election in France and to have Cardinal della Rovere elected pope. In March 1497 Pope Alexander deprived Cardinal della Rovere of his benefices as an enemy of the Apostolic See, and Giovanni della Rovere of the Prefecture of Rome. His action against

23409-441: Was trying to repair his relations with the House of Borgia, was also involved in another clause of the treaty, the marriage between Cesare Borgia and Carlotta , the daughter of the King of Naples, who had been brought up at the French Court. Della Rovere was in favor of the marriage, but, according to Pope Alexander, King Louis XII was not, and, most especially, Carlotta was stubbornly refusing her consent. Alexander's plan of securing

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