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131-620: The Hong Kong Space Museum is a public astronomy and space science museum located in Tsim Sha Tsui , Hong Kong . Opened on 8 October 1980, it is managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong Government . The building is notable for its hemispherical shape, which contains a planetarium , the only one in Hong Kong. The main facilities of the museum are located in

262-448: A binary black hole . A second gravitational wave was detected on 26 December 2015 and additional observations should continue but gravitational waves require extremely sensitive instruments. The combination of observations made using electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos or gravitational waves and other complementary information, is known as multi-messenger astronomy . One of the oldest fields in astronomy, and in all of science,

393-475: A star ball , slide projector , video , fulldome projector systems, and lasers. Typical systems can be set to simulate the sky at any point in time, past or present, and often to depict the night sky as it would appear from any point of latitude on Earth. Planetaria range in size from the 37 meter dome in St. Petersburg, Russia (called "Planetarium No 1") to three-meter inflatable portable domes where attendees sit on

524-425: A bright image projected on one side of the dome will tend to reflect light across to the opposite side, "lifting" the black level there and so making the whole image look less realistic. Since traditional planetarium shows consisted mainly of small points of light (i.e., stars) on a black background, this was not a significant issue, but it became an issue as digital projection systems started to fill large portions of

655-654: A building next to the planetarium, showcasing information about the Solar System , cosmology , and spaceflight . Accessible from Salisbury Road , it is adjacent to the Hong Kong Cultural Centre , the Hong Kong Museum of Art , and the Tsim Sha Tsui Clock Tower . The Hong Kong Science Museum and the Hong Kong Museum of History are also located in Tsim Sha Tsui . The idea of a planetarium

786-468: A contract with the Carl Zeiss Company to purchase a planetarium and other equipment with a price of HK$ 3,050,000. Construction commenced in 1977 and the museum opened on 8 October 1980. The museum contained the world's first computerized planetarium. In the 2008-2009 financial year, there were about 590,000 visits to the museum. In 2015, in order to carry out renovation work, the exhibition hall in

917-526: A far greater selection of stars. Additional projectors can be added to show twilight around the outside of the screen (complete with city or country scenes) as well as the Milky Way . Others add coordinate lines and constellations , photographic slides, laser displays, and other images. Each planet is projected by a sharply focused spotlight that makes a spot of light on the dome. Planet projectors must have gearing to move their positioning and thereby simulate

1048-406: A favoured "sweet spot" for optimum viewing, centrally about a third of the way up the dome from the lowest point. Tilted domes generally have seating arranged stadium-style in straight, tiered rows; horizontal domes usually have seats in circular rows, arranged in concentric (facing center) or epicentric (facing front) arrays. Planetaria occasionally include controls such as buttons or joysticks in

1179-558: A few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10% of gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars, neutron stars , and black hole candidates such as active galactic nuclei. In addition to electromagnetic radiation, a few other events originating from great distances may be observed from the Earth. In neutrino astronomy , astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE , GALLEX , and Kamioka II/III for

1310-561: A flag of Hong Kong that was placed inside Shenzhou 1, the first unmanned Shenzhou spacecraft from China, was also put on display in the museum. In July the same year, the certificate which named Minor Planet 3297 Hong Kong was also put on display. In 2017, Yang Liwei, the first person sent into space by the Chinese space program, donated his work uniform to the Space Museum. The museum has two wings: east wing and west wing. The former consists of

1441-523: A hollow ball with a light inside, and a pinhole for each star, hence the name "star ball". With some of the brightest stars (e.g. Sirius , Canopus , Vega ), the hole must be so big to let enough light through that there must be a small lens in the hole to focus the light to a sharp point on the dome. In later and modern planetarium star balls, the individual bright stars often have individual projectors, shaped like small hand-held torches, with focusing lenses for individual bright stars. Contact breakers prevent

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1572-766: A lot of attention. Next Zeiss planetariums were opened in Rome (1928, in Aula Ottagona , part of the Baths of Diocletian ), Chicago (1930), Osaka (1937, in the Osaka City Electricity Science Museum ). When Germany was divided into East and West Germany after the war, the Zeiss firm was also split. Part remained in its traditional headquarters at Jena , in East Germany , and part migrated to West Germany . The designer of

1703-472: A mid-size audio-visual firm on Long Island . About thirty canned programs were created for various grade levels and the public, while operators could create their own or run the planetarium live. Purchasers of the Apollo were given their choice of two canned shows, and could purchase more. A few hundred were sold, but in the late 1970s Viewlex went bankrupt for reasons unrelated to the planetarium business. During

1834-552: A model allows astronomers to select between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists also modify existing models to take into account new observations. In some cases, a large amount of observational data that is inconsistent with a model may lead to abandoning it largely or completely, as for geocentric theory , the existence of luminiferous aether , and the steady-state model of cosmic evolution. Phenomena modeled by theoretical astronomers include: Modern theoretical astronomy reflects dramatic advances in observation since

1965-661: A number of important astronomers. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336) made major contributions to astronomy and horology , including the invention of the first astronomical clock, the Rectangulus which allowed for the measurement of angles between planets and other astronomical bodies, as well as an equatorium called the Albion which could be used for astronomical calculations such as lunar , solar and planetary longitudes and could predict eclipses . Nicole Oresme (1320–1382) and Jean Buridan (1300–1361) first discussed evidence for

2096-445: A planetary equatorium in his Theorica Planetarum , and included instructions on how to build one. The Globe of Gottorf built around 1650 had constellations painted on the inside. These devices would today usually be referred to as orreries (named for the Earl of Orrery ). In fact, many planetariums today have projection orreries, which project onto the dome the Solar System (including

2227-748: A powerful dictatorship. In 2019, following the proposal of the Fugitive Offenders Amendment Bill by the Hong Kong government , the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement was triggered, and protests erupted all over the city. On 6 August, the then president of Hong Kong Baptist University Students' Union Keith Fong Chung-yin was arrested by undercover police for possession of offensive or lethal weapons after buying laser pointers in Sham Shui Po . Responding to

2358-416: A renovation project. It was found that most of the exhibits had been badly damaged, suggesting that they had not been properly preserved. Yet, before the poor state of maintenance was discovered, 400,000 HKD had already been spent repairing the exhibits. Given that the state of the exhibits remained poor, it was said to be a huge waste of money and to have tarnished Hong Kong's image. Another reporter from HK01

2489-562: A repeating cycle known as a saros . Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos estimated the size and distance of the Moon and Sun , and he proposed a model of

2620-481: A resolution of over 53 million pixels, matched globally only by the projection system in the Beijing Planetarium . The Hong Kong Space Museum's planetarium also had all of its seats replaced by a French company. The new seats, which are equipped with an interactive system that supports multiple languages, can be reclined for a better viewing angle inside the projection dome. Also, the audience can view not only

2751-408: A resolution that approaches the limit of human visual acuity . LCD projectors have fundamental limits on their ability to project true black as well as light, which has tended to limit their use in planetaria. LCOS and modified LCOS projectors have improved on LCD contrast ratios while also eliminating the "screen door" effect of small gaps between LCD pixels. "Dark chip" DLP projectors improve on

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2882-517: A room, projecting images onto the white surface of a hemisphere. In August 1923, the first (Model I) Zeiss planetarium projected images of the night sky onto the white plaster lining of a 16 m hemispherical concrete dome, erected on the roof of the Zeiss works. The first official public showing was at the Deutsches Museum in Munich on October 21, 1923. Zeiss Planetarium became popular, and attracted

3013-505: A show because they allow simulation of the view from any point in space, not only the Earth-bound view which we are most familiar with. This new virtual reality capability to travel through the universe provides important educational benefits because it vividly conveys that space has depth, helping audiences to leave behind the ancient misconception that the stars are stuck on the inside of a giant celestial sphere and instead to understand

3144-448: A star ball to address some of their limitations. Digital planetarium manufacturers claim reduced maintenance costs and increased reliability from such systems compared with traditional "star balls" on the grounds that they employ few moving parts and do not generally require synchronisation of movement across the dome between several separate systems. Some planetariums mix both traditional opto-mechanical projection and digital technologies on

3275-608: A substantial amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter , dark energy , and black holes ; whether or not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe . Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution ; stellar dynamics and evolution ; galaxy formation and evolution ; magnetohydrodynamics ; large-scale structure of matter in

3406-427: Is visible light , or more generally electromagnetic radiation . Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields

3537-580: Is a branch of astronomy that studies the universe as a whole. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made methodical observations of the night sky . These include the Egyptians , Babylonians , Greeks , Indians , Chinese , Maya , and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas . In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry , celestial navigation , observational astronomy , and

3668-584: Is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, requiring observations at these wavelengths to be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars ( OB stars ) that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae , supernova remnants , and active galactic nuclei. However, as ultraviolet light

3799-591: Is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may have housed astronomical observatories. In Post-classical West Africa , Astronomers studied the movement of stars and relation to seasons, crafting charts of the heavens as well as precise diagrams of orbits of the other planets based on complex mathematical calculations. Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583. Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in sub-Saharan Africa during

3930-583: Is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data , and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories . This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems , origins of organic compounds in space , rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary habitability , research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on

4061-427: Is easily absorbed by interstellar dust , an adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary. X-ray astronomy uses X-ray wavelengths . Typically, X-ray radiation is produced by synchrotron emission (the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines), thermal emission from thin gases above 10 (10 million) kelvins , and thermal emission from thick gases above 10 Kelvin. Since X-rays are absorbed by

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4192-414: Is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation, wavelengths longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as planets, circumstellar disks or nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light, allowing

4323-458: Is from these clouds that solar systems form. Studies in this field contribute to the understanding of the formation of the Solar System , Earth's origin and geology, abiogenesis , and the origin of climate and oceans. Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the origins , early evolution , distribution, and future of life in the universe . Astrobiology considers

4454-416: Is given below. Radio astronomy uses radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one millimeter, outside the visible range. Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be treated as waves rather than as discrete photons . Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves, whereas this

4585-645: Is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths. Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission , most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation , which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields . Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas , notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths. A wide variety of other objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including supernovae , interstellar gas, pulsars , and active galactic nuclei . Infrared astronomy

4716-471: Is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an active role . This is especially true for the discovery and observation of transient events . Amateur astronomers have helped with many important discoveries, such as finding new comets. Astronomy (from the Greek ἀστρονομία from ἄστρον astron , "star" and -νομία -nomia from νόμος nomos , "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of

4847-399: Is sometimes used generically to describe other devices which illustrate the Solar System , such as a computer simulation or an orrery . Planetarium software refers to a software application that renders a three-dimensional image of the sky onto a two-dimensional computer screen, or in a virtual reality headset for a 3D representation. The term planetarian is used to describe a member of

4978-476: Is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain the nature of the astronomical objects , rather than their positions or motions in space". Among the objects studied are the Sun , other stars , galaxies , extrasolar planets , the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background . Their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , and

5109-499: Is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects. Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars . Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational perturbations , and an ability to determine past and future positions of

5240-574: The California Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park , San Francisco , which operated 1952–2003. The Korkosz brothers built a large projector for the Boston Museum of Science , which was unique in being the first (and for a very long time only) planetarium to project the planet Uranus . Most planetariums ignore Uranus as being at best marginally visible to the naked eye. A great boost to

5371-472: The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes . The Cherenkov telescopes do not detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Most gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts , objects which only produce gamma radiation for

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5502-520: The Earth's atmosphere , all X-ray observations must be performed from high-altitude balloons , rockets , or X-ray astronomy satellites . Notable X-ray sources include X-ray binaries , pulsars , supernova remnants , elliptical galaxies , clusters of galaxies , and active galactic nuclei . Gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as

5633-633: The Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl observatory of the University of Heidelberg , on a new and novel design, inspired by Wallace W. Atwood 's work at the Chicago Academy of Sciences and by the ideas of Walther Bauersfeld and Rudolf Straubel at Zeiss . The result was a planetarium design which would generate all the necessary movements of the stars and planets inside the optical projector, and would be mounted centrally in

5764-888: The Milky Way , as its own group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe . In 1919, when the Hooker Telescope was completed, the prevailing view was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid variables in several spiral nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum among others, were entire galaxies outside our own, thus proving that

5895-762: The Muslim world by the early 9th century. In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy , the largest galaxy in the Local Group , was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars . The SN 1006 supernova , the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers in 1006. Iranian scholar Al-Biruni observed that, contrary to Ptolemy ,

6026-555: The Renaissance , Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system. His work was defended by Galileo Galilei and expanded upon by Johannes Kepler . Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was Isaac Newton , with his invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation , who finally explained

6157-501: The Solar System where the Earth and planets rotated around the Sun, now called the heliocentric model. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession , calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe . Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy. The Antikythera mechanism ( c.  150 –80 BC)

6288-480: The Sun and planets up to Saturn ) in their regular orbital paths. In 1229, following the conclusion of the Fifth Crusade , Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen brought back a tent with scattered holes representing stars or planets . The device was operated internally with a spinnable table that rotated the tent. The small size of typical 18th century orreries limited their impact, and towards

6419-427: The interstellar medium . The study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites , is also called cosmochemistry , while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it

6550-509: The planetarium . In September 2015, the Leisure and Cultural Services Department announced that the two exhibition halls, which had been in use since 1991, would undergo renovation beginning on 5 October that year. The renovated exhibition halls would be renamed "Hall of the Cosmos" and "Hall of Space Exploration" respectively. Visitors would be offered a novel experience in which they could learn about

6681-503: The 1970s, the OmniMax movie system (now known as IMAX Dome) was conceived to operate on planetarium screens. More recently, some planetariums have re-branded themselves as dome theaters , with broader offerings including wide-screen or "wraparound" films, fulldome video , and laser shows that combine music with laser-drawn patterns. Learning Technologies Inc. in Massachusetts offered

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6812-442: The 1990s, including studies of the cosmic microwave background , distant supernovae and galaxy redshifts , which have led to the development of a standard model of cosmology . This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations. Astrophysics

6943-403: The Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties", while "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena". In some cases, as in the introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical Universe by Frank Shu , "astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of

7074-572: The Hall of Space Science and the Hall of Astronomy on the ground and first floors respectively. The exhibits, predominantly interactive, enable visitors to learn through a series of entertaining and educational experiences. The museum sits within walking distance of both Tsim Sha Tsui station and East Tsim Sha Tsui station of the MTR . It is also near the Star Ferry Pier and a bus terminus. In November 2008,

7205-492: The Hong Kong Space Museum spent 34 million HKD on the first major overhaul of the planetarium since it opened in 1980. The major overhaul mainly involved the installation of a new digital planetarium projection system, a high-resolution projection system that is only available in a few space museums from other parts of the world. Not only can the system play 3D shows and movies on the hemispherical projection dome inside

7336-483: The Sky Hall was closed on 5 October and reopened on 25 April 2018. Because most of the exhibits in the Space Museum are interactive ones, it has a relatively small number of exhibits of historical value. However, since 2019, the museum has had 17 such exhibits. From 1981, the museum started buying meteorites such as iron meteorites, pallasites and tektites. In 1983, the Space Museum acquired an Indian astrolabe. In May 2000,

7467-522: The Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include Al-Battani , Thebit , Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi , Biruni , Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī , Al-Birjandi , and the astronomers of the Maragheh and Samarkand observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars . It

7598-574: The Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system , named after Ptolemy . A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians , who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in

7729-521: The age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe. Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars , which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars , pulsars , blazars , and radio galaxies . Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century. In the early 1900s the model of the Big Bang theory

7860-474: The arm rests of seats to allow audience feedback that influences the show in real time . Often around the edge of the dome (the "cove") are: Traditionally, planetariums needed many incandescent lamps around the cove of the dome to help audience entry and exit, to simulate sunrise and sunset , and to provide working light for dome cleaning. More recently, solid-state LED lighting has become available that significantly decreases power consumption and reduces

7991-444: The arrest, Fong said that he was just buying the laser points for his friends and leaving one for himself for stargazing, and that when he was buying the laser points, he was not aware they could be used as a weapon. On 7 August, the police said during a press conference that the laser pointers Fong had bought, which were 18 centimetres long, had a power output of 100 mW, high enough to classify them as weapons by law. To prove that

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8122-486: The atmosphere itself produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places on Earth or in space. Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This allows the study of the chemistry of space; more specifically it can detect water in comets. Historically, optical astronomy, which has been also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy. Images of observations were originally drawn by hand. In

8253-401: The audience to send short messages to each other, participate in real-time games, answer audience satisfaction surveys, and perform a number of other activities. From 17 November 2008 to June 2009, the planetarium was closed for renovation. It reopened on 1 July 2009 with the new digital planetarium projection system installed, which was manufactured by American company Sky-Skan Inc and boasts

8384-496: The cosmos. It uses mathematics , physics , and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution . Objects of interest include planets , moons , stars , nebulae , galaxies , meteoroids , asteroids , and comets . Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts , quasars , blazars , pulsars , and cosmic microwave background radiation . More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere . Cosmology

8515-408: The department is historically affiliated with a physics department, and many professional astronomers have physics rather than astronomy degrees. Some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field include The Astronomical Journal , The Astrophysical Journal , and Astronomy & Astrophysics . In early historic times, astronomy only consisted of the observation and predictions of

8646-474: The detection of neutrinos . The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun , but 24 neutrinos were also detected from supernova 1987A . Cosmic rays , which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary particles which can be detected by current observatories. Some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to

8777-417: The dome with bright objects (e.g., large images of the sun in context). For this reason, modern planetarium domes are often not painted white but rather a mid grey colour, reducing reflection to perhaps 35-50%. This increases the perceived level of contrast. A major challenge in dome construction is to make seams as invisible as possible. Painting a dome after installation is a major task, and if done properly,

8908-448: The dome) in every elementary school in Japan. Phillip Stern, as former lecturer at New York City 's Hayden Planetarium , had the idea of creating a small planetarium which could be programmed. His Apollo model was introduced in 1967 with a plastic program board, recorded lecture, and film strip. Unable to pay for this himself, Stern became the head of the planetarium division of Viewlex ,

9039-445: The effects of solar activities on earth, and the exhibition hall would provide visitors with a surreal science fiction experience. However, by May 2013, the Space Museum had yet to carry out the renovation work. The Leisure and Cultural Services Department said that it had planned to start the renovation in mid-2015 and finish it by the end of the year, during which the exhibition halls would close but shows would still continue as usual in

9170-438: The end of that century a number of educators attempted to create a larger sized version. The efforts of Adam Walker (1730–1821) and his sons are noteworthy in their attempts to fuse theatrical illusions with education. Walker's Eidouranion was the heart of his public lectures or theatrical presentations. Walker's son describes this "Elaborate Machine" as "twenty feet high, and twenty-seven in diameter: it stands vertically before

9301-412: The event, some protestors shone their laser pointers at the walls of the Space Museum's Stanley Ho Space Theatre, the trees that were planted in front of it, and the walls of the adjacent buildings. They also sang songs to mock the police for using laser points to ignite the newspapers. Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in

9432-564: The evolution of the universe, the exploration of the solar system and beyond, and more. The renovation was finally completed in 2018, and the exhibition halls reopened on 25 April that year. In 2006, the Leisure and Cultural Services Department carried out a survey on the general satisfaction level among visitors to the seven museums it runs (the Hong Kong Space Museum, Hong Kong Museum of Art , Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence , Hong Kong Museum of History , Hong Kong Science Museum and Museum of Tea Ware ) and also their satisfaction level with

9563-571: The first digital planetarium projector displaying computer graphics ( Hansen planetarium , Salt Lake City, Utah)—the Digistar I projector used a vector graphics system to display starfields as well as line art . This gives the operator great flexibility in showing not only the modern night sky as visible from Earth , but as visible from points far distant in space and time. The newest generations of planetarium projectors, beginning with Digistar 3 , offer fulldome video technology. This allows for

9694-477: The first easily portable planetarium in 1977. Philip Sadler designed this patented system which projected stars, constellation figures from many mythologies , celestial coordinate systems, and much else, from removable cylinders (Viewlex and others followed with their own portable versions). When Germany reunified in 1989, the two Zeiss firms did likewise, and expanded their offerings to cover many different size domes. In 1983, Evans & Sutherland installed

9825-598: The first planetariums for Zeiss, Walther Bauersfeld , also migrated to West Germany with the other members of the Zeiss management team. There he remained on the Zeiss West management team until his death in 1959. The West German firm resumed making large planetariums in 1954, and the East German firm started making small planetariums a few years later. Meanwhile, the lack of planetarium manufacturers had led to several attempts at construction of unique models, such as one built by

9956-855: The floor. The largest planetarium in the Western Hemisphere is the Jennifer Chalsty Planetarium at Liberty Science Center in New Jersey , its dome measuring 27 meters in diameter. The Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India is the largest by seating capacity, having 630 seats. In North America, the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City has the greatest number of seats, at 423. The term planetarium

10087-461: The height of the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong , the Hong Kong Space Museum replaced the dome projection screen in the planetarium to improve image quality. The Exhibition Halls There was a plan to renovate the two exhibition halls at a cost of 32 million HKD. Under the renovation plan, which would last half a year, the themes of the exhibition hall on the first floor would be space exploration and

10218-455: The horizon of the dome are arranged to blend together seamlessly. Digital projection systems all work by creating the image of the night sky as a large array of pixels . Generally speaking, the more pixels a system can display, the better the viewing experience. While the first generation of digital projectors were unable to generate enough pixels to match the image quality of the best traditional "star ball" projectors, high-end systems now offer

10349-436: The inaccurate information on the display boards might have misled the public, promising to provide more up-to-date information on the display boards and remove any information that was misleading. The department also promised that some of the permanent exhibits would be replaced with newer ones. In 2018, an Oriental Daily News reporter was again sent to inspect the museum's exhibition halls, 4 months after they reopened following

10480-414: The introduction of new technology, including the spectroscope and photography . Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures , masses , and sizes. The existence of the Earth's galaxy,

10611-418: The laser pointers Fong had bought could cause bodily harm, the police ignited some newspapers with them in front of the public. As the laser pointers Fong had bought were seen as "stargazing pointers" and could indeed be used for stargazing, a "Stargazing Event" was organized that very same night in front of the Space Museum, with thousands of people taking part to protest against Fong's "arbitrary" arrest. During

10742-579: The late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were made using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital detectors, particularly using charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and recorded on modern medium. Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400 nm to 700 nm), that same equipment can be used to observe some near-ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation. Ultraviolet astronomy employs ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm). Light at those wavelengths

10873-444: The list of planets in the Solar System, had yet to be removed from the Solar System model. Also, information on China's space program history was found to be severely lacking, with only a few display boards. On TripAdvisor, an International travel website, some netizens had also criticized the exhibits at the museum for being outdated and unappealing. In response to the criticisms, the Leisure and Cultural Services Department admitted that

11004-603: The maintenance requirement as lamps no longer have to be changed on a regular basis. The world's largest mechanical planetarium is located in Monico, Wisconsin. The Kovac Planetarium . It is 22 feet in diameter and weighs two tons. The globe is made of wood and is driven with a variable speed motor controller. This is the largest mechanical planetarium in the world, larger than the Atwood Globe in Chicago (15 feet in diameter) and one third

11135-576: The making of calendars . Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy

11266-589: The motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that may have had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these observatories could be employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant crops and in understanding the length of the year. As civilizations developed, most notably in Egypt , Mesopotamia , Greece , Persia , India , China , and Central America , astronomical observatories were assembled and ideas on

11397-417: The motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting telescope . Improvements in the size and quality of the telescope led to further discoveries. The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars. More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille . The astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered

11528-449: The museum facilities. The Hong Kong Space Museum scored the lowest among the seven museums, at only 76.1% for general satisfaction and 78% for satisfaction with the facilities. In August 2014, an Oriental Daily News reporter was sent to inspect the museum. Some inaccurate information was found. For example, a satellite program in the 1990s was described as a future space program. In another example, Pluto , which had been removed from

11659-406: The nature of the Universe began to develop. Most early astronomy consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry . From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with

11790-604: The night sky as simulated from the surface of the earth, but also that as simulated from the surface of the other planets in the solar system. In the night sky, the shapes of different constellations can be seen, and the changes in polar nights from outer space can also be tracked. As a result of another renovation project, the Stanley Ho Space Theatre and the Lecture Hall were closed between 1 November 2015 and 1 March 2016. They had since reopened. On 1 May 2020, during

11921-402: The night sky. Finally, in most traditional projectors the various overlaid projection systems are incapable of proper occultation . This means that a planet image projected on top of a star field (for example) will still show the stars shining through the planet image, degrading the quality of the viewing experience. For related reasons, some planetariums show stars below the horizon projecting on

12052-418: The nucleus of the museum's planetarium , which has an egg-shaped dome structure. Beneath it is the Stanley Ho Space Theatre, the Hall of Space Science, workshops and offices. The west wing houses the Hall of Astronomy, the Lecture Hall, a gift shop and offices. The planetarium's egg-shaped dome covers more than 8,000 square metres, making it a famous landmark in Hong Kong. It was the first local planetarium for

12183-480: The observation of young stars embedded in molecular clouds and the cores of galaxies. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters . With the exception of infrared wavelengths close to visible light, such radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, or masked, as

12314-534: The particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere. Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects. A few observatories have been constructed, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO . LIGO made its first detection on 14 September 2015, observing gravitational waves from

12445-497: The planet Uranus , the first new planet found. During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the three-body problem by Leonhard Euler , Alexis Claude Clairaut , and Jean le Rond d'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace , allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations. Significant advances in astronomy came about with

12576-470: The planets with great accuracy, a field known as celestial mechanics . More recently the tracking of near-Earth objects will allow for predictions of close encounters or potential collisions of the Earth with those objects. The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe. Parallax measurements of nearby stars provide an absolute baseline for

12707-402: The planets' movements. These can be of these types:- Despite offering a good viewer experience, traditional star ball projectors suffer several inherent limitations. From a practical point of view, the low light levels require several minutes for the audience to "dark adapt" its eyesight. "Star ball" projection is limited in education terms by its inability to move beyond an Earth-bound view of

12838-562: The popularisation of astronomy and space science. The computerized star imager in the Sky Gallery of the Space Museum is capable of simulating the sky through optical principles, projecting 8,000 stars onto the hemisphere screen of the Planetarium. There is also a mock-up of the nose and cockpit section of the Space Shuttle orbiter. Hong Kong Space Museum has two thematic exhibition halls:

12969-561: The popularity of the planetarium worldwide was provided by the Space Race of the 1950s and 60s when fears that the United States might miss out on the opportunities of the new frontier in space stimulated a massive program to install over 1,200 planetariums in U.S. high schools. Armand Spitz recognized that there was a viable market for small inexpensive planetaria. His first model, the Spitz A,

13100-628: The potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space . Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος ( kosmos ) "world, universe" and λόγος ( logos ) "word, study" or literally "logic") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole. Planetarium A dominant feature of most planetariums is the large dome -shaped projection screen onto which scenes of stars , planets , and other celestial objects can be made to appear and move realistically to simulate their motion. The projection can be created in various ways, such as

13231-576: The pre-colonial Middle Ages, but modern discoveries show otherwise. For over six centuries (from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment), the Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy than probably all other institutions. Among the Church's motives was finding the date for Easter . Medieval Europe housed

13362-502: The professional staff of a planetarium. The ancient Greek polymath Archimedes is attributed with creating a primitive planetarium device that could predict the movements of the Sun and the Moon and the planets. The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism proved that such devices already existed during antiquity , though likely after Archimedes' lifetime. Campanus of Novara described

13493-423: The projection of any image. Planetarium domes range in size from 3 to 35 m in diameter , accommodating from 1 to 500 people. They can be permanent or portable, depending on the application. The realism of the viewing experience in a planetarium depends significantly on the dynamic range of the image, i.e., the contrast between dark and light. This can be a challenge in any domed projection environment, because

13624-421: The projectors from projecting below the "horizon". The star ball is usually mounted so it can rotate as a whole to simulate the Earth's daily rotation, and to change the simulated latitude on Earth. There is also usually a means of rotating to produce the effect of precession of the equinoxes . Often, one such ball is attached at its south ecliptic pole. In that case, the view cannot go so far south that any of

13755-458: The properties examined include luminosity , density , temperature , and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics , electromagnetism , statistical mechanics , thermodynamics , quantum mechanics , relativity , nuclear and particle physics , and atomic and molecular physics . In practice, modern astronomical research often involves

13886-468: The properties of more distant stars, as their properties can be compared. Measurements of the radial velocity and proper motion of stars allow astronomers to plot the movement of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy. Astrometric results are the basis used to calculate the distribution of speculated dark matter in the galaxy. During the 1990s, the measurement of the stellar wobble of nearby stars

14017-459: The question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. The term exobiology is similar. Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology , biophysics , biochemistry , chemistry , astronomy, physical cosmology , exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth. The origin and early evolution of life

14148-499: The resulting blank area at the south is projected on the dome. Some star projectors have two balls at opposite ends of the projector like a dumbbell . In that case all stars can be shown and the view can go to either pole or anywhere between. But care must be taken that the projection fields of the two balls match where they meet or overlap. Smaller planetarium projectors include a set of fixed stars, Sun, Moon, and planets, and various nebulae . Larger projectors also include comets and

14279-425: The rotation of the Earth, furthermore, Buridan also developed the theory of impetus (predecessor of the modern scientific theory of inertia ) which was able to show planets were capable of motion without the intervention of angels. Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later. During

14410-428: The same dome. In a fully digital planetarium, the dome image is generated by a computer and then projected onto the dome using a variety of technologies including cathode-ray tube , LCD , DLP , or laser projectors. Sometimes a single projector mounted near the centre of the dome is employed with a fisheye lens to spread the light over the whole dome surface, while in other configurations several projectors around

14541-409: The seams can be made almost to disappear. Traditionally, planetarium domes were mounted horizontally, matching the natural horizon of the real night sky. However, because that configuration requires highly inclined chairs for comfortable viewing "straight up", increasingly domes are being built tilted from the horizontal by between 5 and 30 degrees to provide greater comfort. Tilted domes tend to create

14672-586: The size of the Hayden. Some new planetariums now feature a glass floor , which allows spectators to stand near the center of a sphere surrounded by projected images in all directions, giving the impression of floating in outer space . For example, a small planetarium at AHHAA in Tartu , Estonia features such an installation, with special projectors for images below the feet of the audience, as well as above their heads. Traditional planetarium projection apparatus use

14803-456: The sky tonight?", or shows which pick up on topical issues such as a religious festival (often the Christmas star ) linked to the night sky, have been popular. Live format is preferred by many venues as a live speaker or presenter can answer questions raised by the audience. Since the early 1990s, fully featured 3-D digital planetariums have added an extra degree of freedom to a presenter giving

14934-415: The space museum, but it is also capable of simulating scenes of stars , planets , and other celestial objects from anywhere in the universe, either in real time or at a past point in time. The 300 seats in the planetarium were also replaced with ones that spot a multilingual interactive feature. The wireless Bluetooth headsets and the newly designed display unit installed on the armrest of each seat allow

15065-460: The spectators, and its globes are so large, that they are distinctly seen in the most distant parts of the Theatre. Every Planet and Satellite seems suspended in space, without any support; performing their annual and diurnal revolutions without any apparent cause". Other lecturers promoted their own devices: R E Lloyd advertised his Dioastrodoxon, or Grand Transparent Orrery, and by 1825 William Kitchener

15196-476: The standard DLP design and can offer relatively inexpensive solution with bright images, but the black level requires physical baffling of the projectors. As the technology matures and reduces in price, laser projection looks promising for dome projection as it offers bright images, large dynamic range and a very wide color space . Worldwide, most planetariums provide shows to the general public. Traditionally, shows for these audiences with themes such as "What's in

15327-436: The stars" depending on the translation). Astronomy should not be confused with astrology , the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. "Astronomy" and " astrophysics " are synonyms. Based on strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside

15458-477: The subject, whereas "astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject. However, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Some fields, such as astrometry , are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics. Various departments in which scientists carry out research on this subject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether

15589-534: The universe consists of a multitude of galaxies. With this Hubble formulated the Hubble constant , which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, which became increasingly precise with better meassurements, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years, until 2006 when data of the Hubble Space Telescope allowed a very accurate calculation of

15720-409: The universe; origin of cosmic rays ; general relativity and physical cosmology , including string cosmology and astroparticle physics . Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe , and their interaction with radiation . The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry . The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and

15851-432: The walls below the dome or on the floor, or (with a bright star or a planet) shining in the eyes of someone in the audience. However, the new breed of Optical-Mechanical projectors using fiber-optic technology to display the stars show a much more realistic view of the sky. An increasing number of planetariums are using digital technology to replace the entire system of interlinked projectors traditionally employed around

15982-640: Was used to detect large extrasolar planets orbiting those stars. Theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models and computational numerical simulations ; each has its particular advantages. Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models reveal the existence of phenomena and effects otherwise unobserved. Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models that are based on existing observations and known physics, and to predict observational consequences of those models. The observation of phenomena predicted by

16113-419: Was also sent to inspect the museum the same year. It was found that of the 110 new interactive exhibits, 64% had been repaired at least once. In January 2020, fences were placed around the Space Museum when its exterior walls were being cleaned, leading to a feeling that the Space Museum had been turned into a prison. This was criticized by netizens, who jokingly alluded that to the powerless people's fight against

16244-511: Was an early analog computer designed to calculate the location of the Sun , Moon , and planets for a given date. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe. Astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in

16375-613: Was completed in 1781. In 1905 Oskar von Miller (1855–1934) of the Deutsches Museum in Munich commissioned updated versions of a geared orrery and planetarium from M Sendtner, and later worked with Franz Meyer, chief engineer at the Carl Zeiss optical works in Jena , on the largest mechanical planetarium ever constructed, capable of displaying both heliocentric and geocentric motion. This

16506-465: Was designed to project stars from a dodecahedron , thus reducing machining expenses in creating a globe. Planets were not mechanized, but could be shifted by hand. Several models followed with various upgraded capabilities, until the A3P, which projected well over a thousand stars, had motorized motions for latitude change, daily motion, and annual motion for Sun, Moon (including phases), and planets. This model

16637-407: Was displayed at the Deutsches Museum in 1924, construction work having been interrupted by the war. The planets travelled along overhead rails, powered by electric motors: the orbit of Saturn was 11.25 m in diameter. 180 stars were projected onto the wall by electric bulbs. While this was being constructed, von Miller was also working at the Zeiss factory with German astronomer Max Wolf , director of

16768-532: Was formulated, heavily evidenced by cosmic microwave background radiation , Hubble's law , and the cosmological abundances of elements . Space telescopes have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere. In February 2016, it was revealed that the LIGO project had detected evidence of gravitational waves in the previous September. The main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects

16899-525: Was installed in hundreds of high schools, colleges, and even small museums from 1964 to the 1980s. Japan entered the planetarium manufacturing business in the 1960s, with Goto and Minolta both successfully marketing a number of different models. Goto was particularly successful when the Japanese Ministry of Education put one of their smallest models, the E-3 or E-5 (the numbers refer to the metric diameter of

17030-481: Was offering his Ouranologia, which was 42 feet (13 m) in diameter. These devices most probably sacrificed astronomical accuracy for crowd-pleasing spectacle and sensational and awe-provoking imagery. The oldest still-working planetarium can be found in the Frisian city of Franeker . It was built by Eise Eisinga (1744–1828) in the living room of his house. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetarium, which

17161-567: Was originally proposed in 1961 by the Urban Council . Ten years later, the Urban Services Department (USD) set up a working group to study overseas experience in establishing planetariums. The study was aimed at laying the groundwork for setting up the future Hong Kong Space Museum. The Hong Kong Government decided to build the museum at Tsim Sha Tsui and invited Mr. Joseph Liu to serve as Planetarium Advisor. In 1974, The USD signed

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