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102-711: Different to its Right counterpart, the Left was the result of coalition who represented Northern and Southern middle class , urban bourgeoisie , small businessmen, journalists and academics. It also supported a right to vote and the public school for all children. Moreover, the party was against the high tax policies promoted by the Right. After the 1890s, the Left began to show more conservative tendencies, including advocating breaking strikes and protests and promoting an aggressive colonialist policy in Africa . The Left originated from

204-653: A centrist group called the Connubio . D'Azeglio was forced to resign in November 1852 and Cavour was appointed by the King as the new prime minister, ending the Sardinian phase of the Right. In 1861, Italy was united as a Kingdom under the House of Savoy . Cavour, who was Prime Minister of Sardinia since November 1852 with brief interruptions, became the first Prime Minister of Italy . During

306-547: A Triestine and thus Austrian citizen, was executed. When the irredentist movement became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by Agostino Depretis . Irredentism faced a setback when the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 started a crisis in French–Italian relations. The government entered into relations with Austria and Germany , which took shape with

408-565: A parliamentary group inside the Sardinian Parliament as the opposition to the right-wing government of the Marquess of Azeglio . It was not a structured party, but simply an opposition divided in two tendencies: The cooperation between Rattazzi and Cavour grew strong and the two plotted to oust D'Azeglio from office. After the 1851 self-coup of President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte in France,

510-569: A segment of the Savoyard population demonstrated against the annexation. Indeed, the final vote count on the referendum announced by the Court of Appeals was 130,839 in favour of annexation to France, 235 opposed and 71 void, showing questionable complete support for French nationalism (that motivated criticisms about rigged results). At the beginning of 1860, more than 3000 people demonstrated in Chambéry against

612-601: A significant Italian presence in Dalmatia was the city of Zara (now called Zadar ). In the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, the city of Zara had an Italian population of 9,318 (or 69.3% out of the total of 13,438 inhabitants). In 1921 the population grew to 17,075 inhabitants, of which 12,075 Italians (corresponding to 70,76%). In 1941, during the Second World War , Yugoslavia was occupied by Italy and Germany. Dalmatia

714-622: A strong central government , obligatory conscription and during the Cavour era the secular Law of Guarantees , causing Pope Pius IX 's Non Expedit policy of abstention. In foreign relations , their goal was the unification of Italy , primarily aiming for an alliance with the British Empire and the French Empire , but sometimes also with the German Empire against Austria-Hungary . In

816-475: A structured and organized party, but simply a coalition of both Northern and Southern conservatives like Sidney Sonnino , Luigi Luzzatti and Pasquale Villari who rejected perceived opportunism and Depretis' protectionist policies. After ten years in opposition, the Constitutionals gained the majority thanks to an agreement with dissident Left Giovanni Nicotera and radical Felice Cavallotti and Rudinì

918-505: A substantial local ethnic Italian population ( Dalmatian Italians ), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803, but this was reduced to 20% in 1816. In Dalmatia there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations. During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive anti-Italian policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia. According to Austrian census,

1020-648: A sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890-1910, in Rab they went from 225 to 151, in Vis from 352 to 92, in Pag from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations. One consequence of irredentist ideas outside of Italy was an assassination plot organized against the Emperor Francis Joseph in Trieste in 1882, which was detected and foiled. Guglielmo Oberdan ,

1122-512: Is not to be confused with the Risorgimento , the historical events that led to irredentism, nor with nationalism or Imperial Italy , the political philosophy that took the idea further under fascism . During the 19th century, Italian irredentism fully developed the characteristic of defending the Italian language from other people's languages such as, for example, German in Switzerland and in

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1224-714: The Allies that Zara was a chief logistic centre for German forces in Yugoslavia. By overstating its importance, he persuaded them of its military significance. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and over the following year, specifically between 2 November 1943 and 31 October 1944, Allied Forces bombarded the town fifty-four times . Nearly 2,000 people were buried beneath rubble: 10–12,000 people escaped and took refuge in Trieste and slightly over 1,000 reached Apulia. Tito's partisans entered Zara on 31 October 1944 and 138 people were killed. With

1326-563: The Crimean War , which Rattazzi opposed, caused the decline of the Left–Right coalition in 1855. After pressions by now-Emperor Napoleon III over Cavour in 1858, Rattazzi was forced to resign as Minister of the Interior because he was reputed to be too nationalist and intransigent about Italian unification, which Cavour intended only as a Sardinian–Piedmontese expansion. Despite the exclusion from

1428-584: The Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence: His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol , Dalmatia and Littoral for

1530-675: The Italian language and the Lombard language , specifically the Ticinese dialect . Italian irredentism in Switzerland was based on moderate Risorgimento ideals, and was promoted by Italian-Ticinese such as Adolfo Carmine  [ it ] . Following a brief French occupation (1798–1800) the British established control over Malta while it was still formally part of the Kingdom of Sicily . During both

1632-509: The Kingdom of Italy even areas where Italians were a minority or had been present only in the past. In the first case there were the Risorgimento claims on Trento , while in the second there were the fascist claims on the Ionian Islands , Savoy and Malta . The Corsican revolutionary Pasquale Paoli was called "the precursor of Italian irredentism" by Niccolò Tommaseo because he was

1734-725: The Maltese Italians , Corfiot Italians and Corsican Italians in order to control the Mediterranean sea (his Mare Nostrum , from the Latin "Our Sea"). In the 1930s Mussolini promoted the development of an initial Italian irredentism in Durres , in order to occupy all of Albania later. Durres (called "Durazzo" in Italian) has been for centuries, during the Middle Ages, a city with territory under

1836-771: The Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom of Italy , Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded

1938-618: The Sicilian Fasci , a powerful rising socialist protest in Sicily, but also several nationalist groups. After two years, Rudinì was ousted from office after his unpopular ceding of Kassala to the United Kingdom. Constitutional politicians like Luzzatti and Sonnino later formed their own governments, but they were short, and were weakened by the newborn Italian Socialist Party and the first organized political parties. The awareness of that forced

2040-546: The Ten-Day War which saw the participation of thousands of people at the political rally in Piazza della Borsa followed by a long procession through the streets of the city, and on 8 November 1992, again in Trieste. The same Italian Social Movement and National Alliance asked for the review of the peace treaties signed by Italy after World War II, especially with regard to Zone B of the former Free Territory of Trieste , given that

2142-582: The general elections , Depretis proclaimed that anyone who was willing to become a progressive would be accepted into his government. Surprisingly, Minghetti agreed with this, causing various individuals in the Right to join the Left. After this event, the rest of the anti-compromise Right was called the Liberal Constitutional Party or "Constitutional opposition" led by former Finance Minister Quintino Sella and Interior Minister Antonio Starabba, Marquess of Rudinì . The Constitutionals were not

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2244-876: The right-wing groups of the 20th century, was an Italian conservative parliamentary group during the second half of the 19th century. After 1876, the Historical Right constituted the Constitutional opposition toward the left governments . It originated in the convergence of the most liberal faction of the moderate right and the moderate wing of the democratic left. The party included men from heterogeneous cultural, class, and ideological backgrounds, ranging from British-American individualist liberalism to Neo-Hegelian liberalism as well as liberal-conservatives, from strict secularists to more religiously-oriented reformists. Few prime ministers after 1852 were party men; instead they accepted support where they could find it, and even

2346-513: The unification of geographic areas in which indigenous peoples were considered to be ethnic Italians . At the beginning, the movement promoted the annexation to Italy of territories where Italians formed the absolute majority of the population, but retained by the Austrian Empire after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. Even after the Capture of Rome (1871), the final event of

2448-705: The Austrian Empire). Initially, the movement can be described as part of the more general nation-building process in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries when the multi-national Austro-Hungarian , Russian and Ottoman Empires were being replaced by nation-states. The Italian nation-building process can be compared to similar movements in Germany ( Großdeutschland ), Hungary , Serbia and in pre-1914 Poland . Simultaneously, in many parts of 19th-century Europe liberalism and nationalism were ideologies which were coming to

2550-654: The Austro-Hungarian Empire or French in Nice and Corsica . The liberation of Italia irredenta was perhaps the strongest motive for Italy's entry into World War I and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 satisfied many irredentist claims. Italian irredentism has the characteristic of being originally moderate, requesting only the return to Italy of the areas with Italian majority of population, but after World War I it became aggressive – under fascist influence – and claimed to

2652-543: The Constitutionals to join in the Liberal Union in 1913, a political alliance between various liberal politicians, many of whom were previously opposed to each other. Italian irridentism Italian irredentism ( Italian : irredentismo italiano , Italian: [irredenˈtizmo itaˈljaːno] ) was a political movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted

2754-647: The Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865. In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers. For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia , (i.e. Dalmatia ), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers. In 1909 the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only (previously both languages were recognized): thus Italian could no longer be used in

2856-642: The Dalmatian coast. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the Treaty of London and by 17 November had seized Fiume as well. In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia. Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia and proceeded to Zara in an Italian warship in December 1918. The last city with

2958-613: The French and British periods, Malta officially remained part of the Sicilian Kingdom, although the French refused to recognise the island as such in contrast to the British. Malta became a British Crown Colony in 1813, which was confirmed a year later through the Treaty of Paris (1814) . Cultural changes were few even after 1814. In 1842, all literate Maltese learned Italian while only 4.5% could read, write and/or speak English. However, there

3060-533: The German general Alfred von Waldersee his desire to annex the Austrian Trentino and French Nice . Despite his successes, Crispi lost the parliamentary confidence in 1891 after a failed attempt to reduce state expensens and prefecture against the interests of many politicians. During the momentary isolation of Crispi, the former Treasury Minister Giovanni Giolitti took over the Left leadership. By contrast with

3162-486: The Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established. Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries, while making up about a third of the population in 1900. Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had

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3264-624: The Giolitti ministry did not survive long and after nine months of stability in January 1893 the Banca Romana scandal erupted, which involved many politicians of the Left, including Giolitti and Crispi. After months of polemics, Giolitti resigned in December 1893. After that short parenthesis, Crispi was re-nominated Prime Minister despite the critics for his involvement in the Banca Romana scandal. One of

3366-571: The Italian intervention in the World War I is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence , in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy , whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence . Italy signed the Treaty of London (1915) and entered World War I with

3468-642: The Italian politician Matteo Renato Imbriani inventing the new term terre irredente ("unredeemed lands") in 1877; in the same year the movement Associazione in pro dell'Italia Irredenta ("Association for the Unredeemed Italy") was founded; in 1885 the Pro Patria movement ("For Fatherland") was founded and in 1891 the Lega Nazionale Italiana ("Italian National League") was founded in Trento and Trieste (in

3570-419: The Italian state, was meant to provoke a nationalist revival through corporatism (first instituted during his rule over Fiume), in front of what was widely perceived as state corruption engineered by governments such as Giovanni Giolitti 's. D'Annunzio briefly annexed to this Italian Regency of Carnaro even the Dalmatian islands of Veglia and Arbe , where there was a numerous Italian community. After

3672-618: The Parliament, D'Azeglio was appointed as Prime Minister of Sardinia by King Victor Emmanuel II . However, there were tensions inside the group caused by D'Azeglio's assertiveness towards the Catholic Church and the King. The tensions caused the group to split into two separate factions: In May 1852, Cavour and his supporters left the Right group and moved toward the moderate Left led by Urbano Rattazzi . The duo Rattazzi–Cavour made an alliance (pejoratively called "a marriage"), forming

3774-500: The Peace Treaty of 1947, Italians still living in Zara followed the Italian exodus from Dalmatia and only about 100 Dalmatian Italians now remain in the city. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947 , Istria , Kvarner , most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus , which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians ( Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ),

3876-432: The Right group like Luigi Farini, Bettino Ricasoli and Marco Minghetti . Starting in 1861, the Right's government pursued a policy of a balanced budget , maintained with austerity and high taxation. The taxes, especially the tax on grains, were unpopular among the rural and middle classes. As a result, the Right progressively lost its support. With that, the Right was split, with the original Northern liberals supporting

3978-423: The Right, opposed to the railways nationalization project. King Victor Emmanuel II verified the impossibility for the Right to gain confidence and nominated Depretis as Prime Minister, who formed a Left-only government. In November 1876, the legislative election confirmed the stability of the Left that gained the 56% of votes. The Depretis ministry realized a tax reform and tried to align Italy with Germany against

4080-453: The Right, put the government into a minority because of the tax on grains' question, which damaged the rural economy. Ironically, many Right politicians who sided now with Left were from the North. Since this moment, the Right fell into opposition and Agostino Depretis , leader of the Left, was appointed as the new prime minister. After the fall of Minghetti, the Right progressively saw splits and disbanded. On 8 October 1882, some weeks before

4182-447: The agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919. To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica , Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's italianità . The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice

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4284-453: The annexation to France rumours. On 16 March 1860, the provinces of Northern Savoy (Chablais, Faucigny and Genevois) sent to Victor Emmanuel II , to Napoleon III , and to the Swiss Federal Council a declaration - sent under the presentation of a manifesto together with petitions - where they were saying that they did not wish to become French and shown their preference to remain united to the Kingdom of Sardinia (or be annexed to Switzerland in

4386-466: The aspiration for the birth of a Great Italy and a vast Italian Empire . After World War II, Italian irredentism disappeared along with the defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the House of Savoy . After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the Treaty of Osimo (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the Italian Republic (see Foreign relations of Italy ). The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics. Italian irredentism

4488-399: The borders of several countries around the newly created Kingdom of Italy. The irredentists sought to annex all those areas to the newly unified Italy. The areas targeted were Corsica , Dalmatia , Gorizia , Istria , Malta , County of Nice , Ticino , small parts of Grisons and of Valais , Trentino , Trieste and Fiume . Different movements or groups founded in this period included

4590-439: The case a separation with Sardinia was unavoidable). Giuseppe Garibaldi complained about the referendum that allowed France to annex Savoy and Nice, and a group of his followers (among the Italian Savoyards ) took refuge in Italy in the following years. In 1861, with the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy , the modern Italian state was born. On 21 July 1878, a noisy public meeting was held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi,

4692-410: The city of Fiume , Corsica , the island of Malta , the County of Nice and Italian Switzerland . After the end of World War I, the Italian irredentist movement was hegemonised, manipulated and distorted by fascism, which made it an instrument of nationalist propaganda, placed at the center of a policy, conditioned by belated imperial ambitions, which took the form of "forced Italianizations ", in

4794-456: The coast with the cities of Zadar , Šibenik , Trogir and Split , remained completely unheeded by all the Italian governments that followed one another in that period. Various points were brought forward as arguments in support of the irredentist theses of claim, such as the geographical belonging of those lands to the Italian peninsula or the presence of more or less numerous communities of Italians or Italian speakers. After World War I

4896-487: The consequent settlement of the Treaty of Saint-Germain met some Italian claims, including many (but not all) of the aims of the Italia irredenta party. Italy gained Trieste , Gorizia , Istria and the Dalmatian city of Zara . In Dalmatia, despite the London Pact, only territories with Italian majority as Zara with some Dalmatian islands, such as Cherso , Lussino and Lagosta were annexed by Italy because Woodrow Wilson , supporting Yugoslav claims and not recognizing

4998-566: The control of the Italian states (Naples, Sicily, Venice), and many Italians settled there. The Durazzo section of the Albania Fascist Party was created in 1938, which was formed by some citizens of the city with distant and recent Italian roots (they started the local Italian irredentism). In 1939, all of Albania was occupied and united to the Kingdom of Italy: Italian citizens (more than 11,000) began to settle in Albania as colonists and to own land in 1940 so that they could gradually transform it into Italian territory. The italianization of Albania

5100-430: The currently conservative France and Austria-Hungary , but after strong criticism for his decision to abolish the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Trade he resigned and was substituted by his rival Benedetto Cairoli in 1877. Differently by the pragmatic Depretis, Cairoli was a strong opponent of trasformismo , an irridentist and Francophile . Isolated by the European powers at the Congress of Berlin , Cairoli

5202-711: The defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the House of Savoy . After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the Treaty of Osimo (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the Italian Republic (see Foreign relations of Italy ). The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics. Today, Italy, France , Malta , Greece , Croatia and Slovenia are all members of the European Union , while Montenegro and Albania are candidates for accession. The 1947 Constitution of Italy established five autonomous regions ( Sardinia , Friuli-Venezia Giulia , Sicily , Aosta Valley and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol ), in recognition of their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness. In

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5304-406: The difficult relationship with Austria that showed an anti-Italian attitude despite the common adhesion to the Triple Alliance with Germany, and ended the Italian international isolation. Another problem was the rupture with the radical-progressive Left led by Giuseppe Zanardelli and Francesco Crispi , who formed with other dissidents The Pentarchy , allied with the Historical Far Left , forcing

5406-408: The door to Depretis, who was chosen to form a new government. During this long term from 1881 to 1887, the Left led by Depretis achieved a series of success, like the manhood suffrage toward the low-educated citizens and the adoption of protectionism to favour the development of textile, iron and steel industries while facing many internal and international troubles. Particularly, the executive faced

5508-405: The early 1990s, the breakup of Yugoslavia caused nationalistic sentiments to re-emerge in these areas; worthy of note in this regard are the demonstrations in Trieste on 6 October 1991 "for a new Italian irredentism". These were promoted by the Italian Social Movement and inspired by rumours about negotiations for the passage through Trieste of the Yugoslav troops expelled from Slovenia during

5610-522: The early 19th century the ideals of unification in a single Nation of all the territories populated by Italian-speaking people created the Italian irredentism. Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. The current Italian Switzerland belonged to the Duchy of Milan until the 16th century , when it became part of Switzerland . These territories have maintained their native Italian population speaking

5712-414: The end of World War I , the Italian irredentist movement was hegemonised, manipulated and distorted by fascism, which made it an instrument of nationalist propaganda, placed at the centre of a policy, conditioned by belated imperial ambitions, which took the form of "forced Italianizations ", in the aspiration for the birth of a Great Italy and a vast Italian Empire . Fascist Italy strove to be seen as

5814-418: The end of the war. In April 1918, in what he described as an open letter "to the American Nation" Paolo Thaon di Revel , Commander in Chief of the Italian navy , appealed to the people of the United States to support Italian territorial claims over Trento , Trieste , Istria , Dalmatia and the Adriatic , writing that "we are fighting to expel an intruder from our home". The outcome of the World War I and

5916-402: The existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then the independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by the annexation of Corsica into Italy. In 1923, Mussolini temporarily occupied Corfu , using irredentist claims based on minorities of Italians in the island, the Corfiot Italians . Similar tactics may have been used towards the islands around the Kingdom of Italy – through

6018-444: The face of history and in the face of God ... As Corsicans we wish to be neither slaves nor "rebels" and as Italians we have the right to deal as equals with the other Italian brothers ... Either we shall be free or we shall be nothing... Either we shall win or we shall die (against the French), weapons in hand ... The war against France is right and holy as the name of God is holy and right, and here on our mountains will appear for Italy

6120-444: The fake rumors about a same decision by the government caused the fall of D'Azeglio in 1852, orchestrated by Cavour and Rattazzi with the final goal of took the power, with Cavour becoming Prime Minister while Rattazzi became President of the Chamber of Deputies . This unusual coalition between Left and Right was sharply nicknamed Connubio Rattazzi–Cavour (literally "marriage") by conservative opposition. The Sardinian intervention in

6222-446: The first act of the government was the reduction of state expenses together with income , land , salt and treasury bill taxes to face the economic crisis. Despite the initial Left tendencies, Crispi got worried about the Italian Socialist Party and after the suppression of the labour movement of the Fasci Siciliani the executive changed the electoral law, permitting the vote only to the literate citizens, excluding 800,000 voters. At

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6324-461: The first to promote the Italian language and socio-culture (the main characteristics of Italian irredentism) in his island; Paoli wanted the Italian language to be the official language of the newly founded Corsican Republic . Pasquale Paoli's appeal in 1768 against the French invader said: We are Corsicans by birth and sentiment, but first of all we feel Italian by language, origins, customs, traditions; and Italians are all brothers and united in

6426-447: The first year after unification, Cavour became more conservative as many radicals and republicans refused to recognize the new government, but instead recognize the Southern Army led by Giuseppe Garibaldi . Fearing a democratic revolution, Cavour became near to the new Right group in the Italian Parliament and led it until his premature death in June 1861. The Cavourian policies were partially continued by his successors aligned with

6528-587: The forefront of political culture. In Eastern Europe, where the Habsburg Empire had long asserted control over a variety of ethnic and cultural groups, nationalism appeared in a standard format. The beginning of the 19th century "was the period when the smaller, mostly indigenous nationalities of the empire – Czechs , Slovaks , Slovenes , Croats , Serbs , Ukrainians , Romanians – remembered their historical traditions, revived their native tongues as literary languages, reappropriated their traditions and folklore, in short, reasserted their existence as nations". In

6630-409: The formation of the Triple Alliance in 1882. The irredentists' dream of absorbing the targeted areas into Italy made no further progress in the 19th century, as the borders of the Kingdom of Italy remained unchanged and the Rome government began to set up colonies in Eritrea and Somalia in Africa. Italy entered the World War I in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason,

6732-409: The government, the Left and Rattazzi, thanks to his friendship with Rosa Vercellana , mistress of the King , rapidly gained Victor Emmanuel II 's favour. During the 1860s after the Italian unification, the Left was in opposition, but the turmoils of that age were also reflected inside the group, which was now divided into three main factions: After the death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis took over

6834-411: The governments of the Historical Right during the 1860s included leftists in some capacity. The Right represented the interests of the Northern bourgeoisie and the Southern aristocracy . Its members were mostly large landowners , industrialists and people related to the military . On economic issues, the Right supported free trade and laissez-faire policies while on social issues it favoured

6936-477: The impairment of many members of the majority after the Banca Romana scandal, confirmed the end of the Left. The Left's remnants now constituted the Ministerial bloc inside the Parliament led by Giolitti, who finally realized the fusion between Right and Left in the Liberal Union in 1913. Historical Right Defunct The Right group ( Italian : Destra ), later called Historical Right ( Italian : Destra storica ) by historians to distinguish it from

7038-410: The intention of gaining those territories perceived by irredentists as being Italian under foreign rule. According to the pact, Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join the Entente Powers . Furthermore, Italy was to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month. The declaration of war was duly published on 23 May 1915. In exchange, Italy was to obtain various territorial gains at

7140-406: The last decades of its history, the Right was often referred to as Constitutional Opposition . The origins of the Historical Right are in the right-wing faction of the Sardinian Parliament , established in 1849. The Right was at the time led by Massimo d'Azeglio , who was also a representative of the moderate movement that tried to unify Italy as a federation of states. As the Right dominated

7242-408: The late 19th century. The term "irredentism", coined from the Italian word, came into use in many countries (see List of irredentist claims or disputes ). This idea of Italia irredenta is not to be confused with the Risorgimento , the historical events that led to irredentism, nor with nationalism or Imperial Italy , the political philosophy that took the idea further under fascism . The term

7344-481: The law of motion, the occurrence of transformations. This statement was the basis of the phenomenon of trasformismo (literally transformism), which consists in a constant changing of political faction motivated by opportunity rather than ideals. In 1876, the Right Prime Minister Marco Minghetti lost parliamentary confidence thanks to an agreement between Depretis and liberist factions of

7446-407: The leadership of the Left. In 1862, Depretis was briefly Minister of Public Works in a government led by Rattazzi with both Left and Right ministers. He justified the agreement with the Right by stating the following: We cannot allow that majorities must remain unchangeable [...]. Ideas grow up with actions, and like science advance and the world moves, so parties are transforming. They also undergo

7548-751: The liberation of Lombardy . On the basis of the Plombières Agreement , the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, an event that caused the Niçard exodus , that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi was elected in 1871 in Nice at the National Assembly where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the newborn Italian unitary state , but he

7650-467: The longtime Depretis died in office and Zanardelli and Crispi were favoured for the succession. King Umberto I finally chose the radical Crispi because he was more favourable to an alliance with Germany rather than progressive Zanardelli. Internally, Crispi reformed justice, supporting a law against administrative abuses and introducing the Zanardelli Code (named after the now Justice Minister), expanded

7752-579: The majority to fully embrace the trasformismo , opening the government to the Right. Depretis was also unable to start a colonial empire in Africa after the defeat in the Battle of Dogali in 1887. Despite the victory in the election of 1886 , the Left was tested by decline of traformismo , with many opportunist Right politicians who joined in the Liberal Constitutional Party , causing the necessity of Depretis to find an agreement with Crispi and Zanardelli. In 1887,

7854-621: The natural result of war heroism against a " betrayed Italy " that had not been awarded all it "deserved", as well as appropriating the image of Arditi soldiers. In this vein, irredentist claims were expanded and often used in Fascist Italy's desire to control the Mediterranean basin. To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported

7956-745: The others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians , choosing to maintain Italian citizenship. The Istrian-Dalmatian exodus started in 1943 and ended completely only in 1960. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). After World War II, Italian irredentism disappeared along with

8058-466: The provinces of Trento and Trieste and, in a narrow sense, irredentists referred to the Italian patriots living in these two areas. Italian irredentism was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its " natural borders " or unify territories inhabited by Italians. Similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in

8160-563: The public and administrative sphere. The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of Split in 1890 there were 1,969 Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in Zadar 7,423 (64.6%), in Šibenik 1,018 (14.5%), in Kotor 623 (18.7%) and in Dubrovnik 331 (4.6%). In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced

8262-559: The qualification of Slovenia and Croatia as heirs of Yugoslavia was not a given and that the division of Istria between Slovenia and Croatia contradicted the clauses of the peace treaties which guaranteed the unity of the surviving Italian component in Istria ( Istrian Italians ), assigned to Yugoslavia after World War II, proposing the creation of an Istrian Euro-region also including the city of Rijeka . These claims, which also concerned Dalmatia (including islands such as Pag , Ugljan , Vis , Lastovo , Hvar , Korčula and Mljet ) and

8364-606: The return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice . The Fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The Fascists were outraged after World War I, when

8466-572: The same time, Crispi tried to re-obtain popular support prosecuting a colonialist policy in Africa, consolidating the acquisition of Somaliland and Eritrea and starting the First Abyssinian War in 1894. Despite the initial successes, the Italian campaign resulted disastrous, with ruinous defeats at Amba Alagi in 1895 and Adwa in 1896. The last confirmed the end of the Crispi's political rule, who resigned from office. The Crispi's resignation and

8568-504: The son of Giuseppe Garibaldi, as chairman of the forum and a clamour was raised for the formation of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Benedetto Cairoli , then Prime Minister of Italy , treated the agitation with tolerance. However, it was mainly superficial, as most Italians did not wish a dangerous policy against Austria or against Britain for Malta. Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards

8670-408: The statist Crispi, Giolitti was a liberal like Zanardelli and did not support colonialism and militarization. After the fall of the conservative government of the Marquess of Rudinì in 1892, Giolitti was designated to form a new government. As Prime Minister, Giolitti tried to introduce a progressive taxation and stop the trasformismo with the establishment of an organized political party. However,

8772-580: The successes of liberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I. The city of Fiume in the Kvarner was the subject of claim and counter-claim because it had an Italian majority, but Fiume had not been promised to Italy in the London Pact, though it was to become Italian by 1924 (see Italian Regency of Carnaro , Treaty of Rapallo, 1920 and Treaty of Rome, 1924 ). The stand taken by the irredentist Gabriele D'Annunzio , which briefly led him to become an enemy of

8874-653: The suffrage for the communal voters, obtained more executive powers for the government, established undersecretaries in the several ministries and created the Health Superior Council . Despite Crispi being more leftist than Depretis, he was also a strong nationalist and rapidly became near to German chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the Germanophile King Umberto II. Crispi wanted reunite all the Italian-speaking territories in one nation, revealing to

8976-508: The sun of liberty Paoli's Corsican Constitution of 1755 was written in Italian and the short-lived university he founded in the city of Corte in 1765 used Italian as the official language. Paoli was sympathetic to Italian culture and regarded his own native language as an Italian dialect (Corsican is an Italo-Dalmatian tongue closely related to Tuscan ). After the Italian unification and Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, there were areas with Italian-speaking communities within

9078-435: The taxation and the newly arrived Southern conservatives who opposed the modernization and taxation. In the 1870s, in a time of rising tensions inside the Right governments, the group split into different factions for specific goals and territorial composition: On 25 March 1876, Prime Minister Marco Minghetti was forced to resign after the so-called Parliamentary Revolution. The Left , together with dissident members from

9180-420: The treaty, rejected Italian requests on other Dalmatian territories, so this outcome was denounced as a " Mutilated victory ". The rhetoric of "Mutilated victory" was adopted by Benito Mussolini and led to the rise of Italian fascism , becoming a key point in the propaganda of Fascist Italy . Historians regard "Mutilated victory" as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel Italian imperialism and obscure

9282-446: The unification of Italy, many ethnic Italian speakers ( Trentino-Alto Adigan Italians, Savoyard Italians , Corfiot Italians , Niçard Italians , Swiss Italians , Corsican Italians , Maltese Italians , Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ) remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy and this situation created the Italian irredentism. During World War I the main "irredent lands" ( terre irredente ) were considered to be

9384-696: The unification of the Julian March , Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento : as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia. During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at

9486-519: Was a huge increase in the number of Maltese magazines and newspapers in the Italian language during the 1800s and early 1900s, so as a consequence the Italian was understood (but not spoken fluently) by more than half the Maltese people before WW1 . The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France , resulting in

9588-570: Was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the Triple Entente Allies in 1915 upon agreeing to the Treaty of London (1915) that guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Lissa , Lagosta , Sebenico , and other localities on

9690-751: Was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi , a native of Nizza (now called Nice ) himself, who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through Italy first encouraging

9792-570: Was charged to form a new government in substitution of Francesco Crispi . During his short government, overthrown after one year, Rudinì worked to reduce to public expenditure , limit the rising imperialist sentiment and keep Italy aligned with the Triple Alliance . Rudinì was recalled in office after the political fall of Crispi, following the defeat in the First Italo-Ethiopian War . During this second term, Rudinì worked to repress

9894-633: Was divided between Italy, which constituted the Governorate of Dalmatia , and the Independent State of Croatia , which annexed Ragusa and Morlachia . After the Italian surrender (8 September 1943) the Independent State of Croatia annexed the Governorate of Dalmatia, except for the territories that had been Italian before the start of the conflict, such as Zara. In 1943, Josip Broz Tito informed

9996-632: Was forced to resign in 1878 after a failed life attempt to King Umberto I and after lesser than nine months of government. Despite a short break with a new Depretis cabinet (survived eight months), Cairoli formed a new executive with Depretis support in 1879. Despite the Left's electoral success in the election of 1880 , the Cairoli ministry was unable to prevent the French conquest of the Beylik of Tunis in 1881 that resulted his political death, becoming unpopular with both Left and Right. The decline of Cairoli opened

10098-455: Was later expanded to also include multilingual and multiethnic areas, where Italians were a relative majority or a substantial minority, within the northern Italian region encompassed by the Alps, with German , Italian , Slovene , Croatian , Ladin and Istro-Romanian population, such as South Tyrol , Istria , Gorizia and Gradisca and part of Dalmatia . The claims were further extended also to

10200-445: Was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its " natural borders " or unify territories inhabited by Italians. Similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the late 19th century. The term irredentism , coined from the Italian word, came into use in many countries (see List of irredentist claims or disputes ). This idea of Italia irredenta

10302-520: Was one of Mussolini's plans. During World War II , large parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy into the Governorship of Dalmatia from 1941 to 1943. Corsica and Nice were also administratively annexed by Italy in November 1942. Malta was heavily bombed, but was not occupied due to Erwin Rommel 's request to divert to North Africa the forces that had been prepared for the invasion of the island. Dalmatia

10404-482: Was prevented from speaking. Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called " Niçard Vespers ", which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy. Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced. In the spring of 1860 Savoy was annexed to France after a referendum and the administrative boundaries changed, but

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