153-524: Himavanta is a legendary forest, also called Himmanpan Mountain, which is said to be located in the Himalayas . Himavanta appears in a piece of Thai literature called Traibhumikatha which explains that Himavanta is a forest where many diverse mythical creatures such as Phaya Naga , Phaya Krut , and Kinnaree , spirits or even gods and goddess reside. The mythical Nariphon tree that often mentioned in Thai folklore
306-411: A dialect continuum . Thai language is spoken by over 69 million people (2020). Moreover, most Thais in the northern (Lanna) and the northeastern (Isan) parts of the country today are bilingual speakers of Central Thai and their respective regional dialects because Central Thai is the language of television, education, news reporting, and all forms of media. A recent research found that the speakers of
459-551: A second language among the country's minority ethnic groups from the mid-late Ayutthaya period onward. Ethnic minorities today are predominantly bilingual, speaking Thai alongside their native language or dialect. Standard Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Northern Thai , Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form
612-560: A Dharma for his mother and to teach his people about Buddhism in order to cultivate virtue and maintain Buddhism. Triphumikatha aimed to teach readers that the three planes are perishable, impermanent and unstable. No certainty can last long, there will always be change. The book is meant to demonstrate an escape from the world to nirvana , or liberation from repeated rebirth. The three landscapes are divided into eight khans ( Thai : กัณฑ์ , meaning "subject", "category" or "chapter") that describe
765-470: A chance to be born in a better realm. Down beneath the continents, there are eight great hells as the next realm. Phra Maha Thammaracha I ( Thai : พระมหาธรรมราชาที่ ๑ ) or Phaya Lithai was the sixth monarch of Sukhothai, the grandson of the Great King Ramkhamhaeng ( Thai : พระหมารามคำแหง ). Phaya Lithai ascended the throne after Phaya Ngua Nam Thom ( Thai : พญางัวนำถม ). From the evidence from
918-399: A distance, on the bank of the river Sithanati ( Thai : สีทานที ). The Wha tree is 14 yods round, 50 yods tall, stretches 1,000 yods from east to west, and 800,000 wa ( Thai : วา , meaning "1 wa = 2 m.") from north to south. In total, the tree covers an area of 2,400,000 wa. The flowers of the tree have a sweet scent, and its fruit is so big, it takes the length of a person's whole arm to reach
1071-547: A fish. Its top half is more like a pig, and its bottom half is more like a fish. It lives underwater. Macha-Mangorn ( Thai : มัจฉามังกร ) has the top half of a dragon, and the bottom half of a fish. Like Sukorntee, it also lives underwater. The Thai word for cashew , mamuanghimmaphan (มะม่วงหิมพานต์) literally means "the mango (mamuang, มะม่วง) of Himmaphan/Himavanta." Himalayas The Himalayas , or Himalaya ( / ˌ h ɪ m ə ˈ l eɪ . ə , h ɪ ˈ m ɑː l ə j ə / HIM -ə- LAY -ə, hih- MAH -lə-yə )
1224-533: A four-way distinction among stops and affricates . The maximal four-way occurred in labials ( /p pʰ b ʔb/ ) and denti-alveolars ( /t tʰ d ʔd/ ); the three-way distinction among velars ( /k kʰ ɡ/ ) and palatals ( /tɕ tɕʰ dʑ/ ), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing. The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split . This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of
1377-510: A location is dependent on the season, orientation and bearing with respect to the Sun , and the mass of the mountain. As the Sun is the major contributor to the temperature, it is often directly proportional to the received radiation from the Sun with faces receiving more sunlight having a higher heat buildup. In narrow valleys between steep mountain faces, the weather conditions may differ significantly on both
1530-473: A meditation place for the righteous. In the deep forests, there dwell gazelles and yaks with precious furs. The mercenary people would use the yaks' fur in house-building. In these places, one can summon food just by imagining it, and all of this food tastes good. All the aquatic regions sprang from the Anodard pond, from which water flows out in four routes. Those four areas are Sihamuk ( Thai : สีหมุข ) estuary of
1683-490: A notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change. The rate of retreat varies across regions depending on the local conditions. Since 1975, a marked increase in the loss of glacial mass from 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr has been observed with an estimated 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas. The resulting climate variations and changes in hydrology could affect
SECTION 10
#17328588196771836-460: A pillar that pointed towards the Sun. The Earth was full of various creatures, which slaughtered each other without mercy. The weak were the victims of the strong. Most of this world was covered by forest. The world was called Loka-Himmapan ( Thai : โลกาหิมพานต์ , meaning "The World of Himmapan"). The pillar that supports the world was located in the heart of the Himavanta Forest. Wrapped under
1989-404: A prize. Even though the sun burns, even if I have to fight with the noble kings." Gabillapaksa flew up to the sky, wrenched his heart from his chest with his bare hand and shouted, “Although I am empty-handed, my weapon is my heart. I am willing to do this for every being in this world and it is called sacrifice.” As he said these words, the heart in his hand transformed into a sword and flew towards
2142-555: A saying, "All things can be changed if change arises from the heart," but no one dared to test this. Kinnaree suggested that anyone who could solve this crisis would win her love as a prize. The situation escalated as the beasts began to fight each other once again, each seeking to claim her incomparable beauty. Gabillapaksa, who fell in love with Kinnaree, bowed his head and held his hands to his heart. Looking at his hands, he said, “I only have empty hands but I am willing to face greatness for her. I will not allow anyone to get her just as
2295-445: A size of 3,000 yods. The third division, 4,000 yods wide, is entirely water. Himavanta is a vast, deep, sacred forest atop Himmapan Mountain. There are a total 84,000 intricate peaks and seven enormous ponds. The beautiful forest is home to gods and the dwelling place for sorcerers, priests, hermits, clerics, and bizarre mythical creatures. Himmapan Mountain is said to be 500 yods tall and 3,000 yods wide. A Wha tree can be seen from
2448-863: A stone slab on a cliff and becoming a 60 yods high waterfall. The harsh water eroded the stone until it shattered, becoming the basin Tiyakla ( Thai : ติยัคคฬา ). The water also carved a tunnel, carring it to Vicha Mountain ( Thai : วิชฌะ ). The waterfall forms five junctions, which the main watersheds for human beings: the Kongkha, Yamuna ( Thai : แม่น้ำยมุนา ), Aciravati ( Thai : แม่น้ำอจิรวดี ), Soraphu ( Thai : แม่น้ำสรภู ), and Mahi ( Thai : แม่น้ำมหิ ) Rivers. The seven named ponds are Anodard ( Thai : สระอโนดาต ), Gunnamunta ( Thai : สระกัณณมุณฑะ ), Rottagara ( Thai : สระรถการะ ), Chuttanna ( Thai : สระฉัททันตะ ), Gunala ( Thai : สระกุณาละ ), Muntakinee ( Thai : สระมัณฑากิณี ), and Srihuppata ( Thai : สระสีหัปปาตะ ). Anodard pond,
2601-420: A stone, carving Kinnaree on every rock. He wailed about her to Wanekamphu ( Thai : วเนกำพู ), a longtime friend of his, and a creature that Gabillapaksa raised as a pet, named Manusa Singh ( Thai : มนุษาสิงห์ ). The conference went badly, because all types of creatures only wanted to show off their talents while also flustered and panicked. Phaya Naga thought to attack the pillar, so that it would strike half of
2754-525: A syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/ ) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3. The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and
2907-805: Is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau . The range has several peaks exceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) including Mount Everest , the highest mountain on Earth. The mountain range runs for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) as an arc from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent. The Himalayas occupy an area of 595,000 km (230,000 sq mi) across six countries – Afghanistan , Bhutan , China , India , Nepal , and Pakistan . The sovereignty of
3060-443: Is a tonal and analytic language . Thai has a complex orthography and system of relational markers . Spoken Thai, depending on standard sociolinguistic factors such as age, gender, class, spatial proximity, and the urban/rural divide, is partly mutually intelligible with Lao , Isan , and some fellow Thai topolects . These languages are written with slightly different scripts, but are linguistically similar and effectively form
3213-456: Is a creature that lives here, called the Vimanchimplee ( Thai : วิมานฉิมพลี ) of Phaya Krut. According to Hindu mythology, Mount Krailas is the dwelling place of Lord Shiva. In Buddhism, it is the center of the universe and believed to be the same place as Mount Meru. Gabillapaksa is a half-monkey, half-bird creature, with wings on its shoulders, a bird's tail, and black fur. Above the waist
SECTION 20
#17328588196773366-554: Is also said to grow here. The story of Himavanta and the explanation of the three existing planes were written by the philosopher-king of Si Satchanalai , Phaya Lithai . Since the Himavanta forest relates to Buddhist cosmology, it profoundly influences beliefs, cultures and artworks in the Buddhist and Hindu religions, among others. In the past, when the Earth was still flat, it was supported by
3519-700: Is also the source of major streams of the Ganges river system. The Eastern Himalayas form the eastern most stretch of the range and consist of the states of parts of Tibet in China, Sikkim , Assam , Arunachal Pradesh , parts of other North East Indian states and north West Bengal in India, entirety of Bhutan, mountain regions of central and eastern Nepal, and most of the western lowlands in Nepal. The eastern Himalayas broadly consists of two regions–the western Nepal Himalayas and
3672-507: Is among the highest in the world, at typically around 5,500 m (18,000 ft) while several equatorial mountains such as in New Guinea , the Rwenzoris , and Colombia , have a snow line at 900 m (3,000 ft) lower. As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. The temperature at
3825-474: Is amongst the most affected regions due to climate change . Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat and changes occurring at a far rapid rate. As per a 2019 assessment, the Himalayan region, which had experienced a temperature rise of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade was warming at an increased rate of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade over
3978-484: Is followed by monsoon rains from June to September. The post monsoon season is largely devoid of rain and snow before beginning of cold winters in December-January with intermediate spring before the summer. There are localised wind pressure systems at high altitudes resulting in heavy winds. Due to its high altitude, the range blocks the flow of cold winds from the north into the Indian subcontinent. This causes
4131-585: Is found in the mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the Eastern Himalayas and the Himalayan water shrew are found on the river banks. The forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered Gee's golden langur and the Kashmir gray langur , within highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. The yaks are large domesticated cattle found in
4284-544: Is home to more than a billion people. In 2011, the population in the Himalayan region was estimated to be about 52.8 million with the combined drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers home to nearly 600 million. Of this, 7.96 million (15.1% of the total Himalayan population) live in Eastern Himalayas, 19.22 million in Central Himalayas (36.4%), and 25.59 million reside in Western Himalayas (48.5%). The population of
4437-694: Is known as Thepyapoom ( Thai : เทพยภูมิ , meaning "The Land of Gods"). Kaohsiunggar Mountain ( Thai : ยอดเขาเการีศังการ์ ) is the residence of Lord Shiva, the great god, and the Great Consort who is the daughter of Himawat Mountain ( Thai : ขุนเขาหิมวัต ). Lord Shiva is one of the three great gods who is responsible for agriculture. The three rivers which provide water to much of Asia, Sinthu ( Thai : แม่น้ำสินธุ , "the Indus"), Brahmaputra ( Thai : พรหมบุตร ), and Kongkha ( Thai : แม่น้ำคงคา , "the Ganges") all originate in
4590-431: Is made of antimony . The shape of these two mountain peaks are the same as Mount Suthassana. Mount Khanthamat is also shaped like Mount Suthassana. The top of this mountain is flat, and aromatic plants (aromatic wood, sapwood, fragrant fruits and flowers, and medicinal wood) grow there abundantly. On the day of Ubosot ( Thai : วันอุโบสถ , "Buddhist Holy Day"), at the waning moon the peak is said to glow like embers, and at
4743-478: Is more simian, and below is more avian. This creature also appeared in the Ramayana , as a new type of mixed animal. Kinnaree and Kinorn have humanoid upper bodies, and avian lower bodies, with wings that allow flight. According to the legend, they live in the Himavanta forest at the foothills of Mount Krailas. They are also frequently depicted in many Thai art works. The strange creatures are often destined to live in
Himavanta - Misplaced Pages Continue
4896-599: Is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock . According to the modern theory of plate tectonics , it was formed as a result of a continental collision and orogeny along the convergent boundary between the India and Eurasian Plates . During the Jurassic period (201 to 145 mya ), the Tethys Ocean formed the southern border of then existent Eurasian landmass. When
5049-477: Is the land where Rūpha-Bhrama live, which consists of 16 levels. Similarly, A-Rūpha-Bhrama live in A-Rūphap̣hūmi, which has a total of four levels. Triphumikatha describes the universe as a circle with Mount Meru as the center of the universe. On the top of the mountain is Daowadung Heaven in which Indra is the ruler, and above that are other levels of creation. The Daowadung Heaven ( Thai : สวรรค์ชั้นดาวดึงส์ )
5202-580: Is the lower middle sub-section of the Himalayas. It extends almost along the entire length of the Himalayas and is about 75 km (47 mi) wide. It is mostly composed of rocky surfaces and has an average elevation of 3,700–4,500 m (12,100–14,800 ft). The Greater Himalayas (also known as Himadri ) form the highest section of the Himalayas and extend for about 2,300 km (1,400 mi) from northern Pakistan to northern Arunachal Pradesh in India. The sub-range has an average elevation of more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and contains many of
5355-470: Is the second heaven of the Six Heavens, known as "Chakamaphatchara" ( Thai : ฉกามาพจร ). Below the heavens are the seven Sattribhang Mountains ( Thai : เขาสัตบริภัณฑ์ ) which are each separated by "Tale See Tandorn" ( Thai : ทะเลสีทันดร , meaning "The Blue Sea") where the fish Anon and his attendants live, and they are the cause of the universe's movements. Next to Mount Meru lies a vast ocean that reaches to
5508-742: The Andaman Sea . The Salween , Mekong , Yangtze , and Yellow Rivers all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau, north of the great water divide. These are considered distinct from the Himalayan watershed and are known as circum-Himalayan rivers. The Himalayan region has multiple lakes across various elevations including endorheic freshwater and saline lakes . The geology of the lakes vary across geographies depending on various factors such as altitude, climate, water source, and lithology . Tarns are high altitude mountain lakes situated above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and are formed primarily by
5661-559: The Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of the same tectonic processes that formed the Himalayas. The Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau at about 67 mm (2.6 in) per year, forcing it to continue to move upwards. About 20 mm (0.79 in) per year is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front , which leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm (0.20 in) per year. This makes
5814-528: The Central Thai , Mon , Lao Wiang , Phuan people in Central Thailand and the vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It is the sole official language of Thailand . Thai is the most spoken of over 60 languages of Thailand by both number of native and overall speakers. Over half of its vocabulary is derived from or borrowed from Pali , Sanskrit , Mon and Old Khmer . It
5967-639: The Dihang River to the India-Tibet border. The highest peak is the eastern anchor Namcha Barwa at 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is the source of many of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and consists of major mountain passes such as Nathu La , and Jelep La . Beyond the Dihang valley, the mountains extend as Purvanchal mountain range across the eastern boundary of India. The Himalayan range
6120-485: The Everest . At lower altitudes, the temperature is pleasantly warm during the summers. During winters, the low-pressure weather systems from the west cause heavy snowfall . There are two periods of precipitation with most of the rainfall occurring during the post summer season and moderate amount during the winter storms. The Himalayan range obstructs the path of the south west monsoon winds, causing heavy precipitation on
6273-734: The Indian epic Mahabharata , which is the personification of the Hindu deity Himavan . The mountain range is known as Himālaya in Hindi and Nepali (both written हिमालय ), Himalaya ( ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་ ) in Tibetan , Himāliya ( سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ ) in Urdu , Himaloy ( হিমালয় ) in Bengali , and Ximalaya ( simplified Chinese : 喜马拉雅 ; traditional Chinese : 喜馬拉雅 ; pinyin : Xǐmǎlāyǎ ) in Chinese . It
Himavanta - Misplaced Pages Continue
6426-515: The Indian subcontinent and the regions north of the range. The mountains are spread across more than eight degrees of latitude and hence includes a wide range of climatic zones including sub-tropical , temperate , and semi-arid . The climate in a region is determined by factors such as altitude, latitude, and the impact on monsoon. There are generally five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn or post-monsoon, winter, and spring. The summer in April-May
6579-590: The Kashmir valley . The higher elevations consist of rock fragements and lithosols with very low humus content. The Himalayas and the Central Asian mountain ranges consist of the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after the Antarctic and Arctic regions. It is often referred to as the "Third Pole" as it encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km (2,900 cu mi) of fresh water. The South Col and Khumbu Glacier in
6732-505: The Kumaon region. The northern extremes of the Great Himalayas in Kashmir and Ladakh receive only 3–6 in (76–152 mm) of rainfall per year. During the winter season, a high pressure system develops over Central Asia, which results in winds flowing towards the Himalayas. However, due to the presence of less water bodies in the Central Asian region, the moisture content is low. As
6885-641: The Kumaon region in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in India, Indo-European speakers such as the Kanet and Khasi reside in the lower altitudes along with descendants of migrants from Tibet, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, in the Kalpa and Lahul-Spiti regions. Thai language Thai , or Central Thai (historically Siamese ; Thai: ภาษาไทย ), is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by
7038-1177: The Main Frontal Thrust and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and the Main Central Thrust (MCT); the Higher Himalayan Zone beyond the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
7191-474: The Mount Everest region are amongst the world's highest glaciers. The Gangotri which is 32 km (20 mi) long and is one of the largest glaciers, is one of the sources of the Ganges . The Himalayan glaciers show considerable variation in the rate of descent. The Khumbu moves about 1 ft (0.30 m) daily compared to certain other glaciers which move about 6 ft (1.8 m) per day. During
7344-459: The Northern Thai language (also known as Phasa Mueang or Kham Mueang) have become so few, as most people in northern Thailand now invariably speak Standard Thai, so that they are now using mostly Central Thai words and only seasoning their speech with the "Kham Mueang" accent. Standard Thai is based on the register of the educated classes by Central Thai and ethnic minorities in the area along
7497-450: The Paris agreement , aimed at climate change mitigation and adaptation . The actions are aimed at reducing emissions , increase the usage of renewable energy , and sustainable environmental practices. As the local population increasingly experience the impact of the changes in climate such as variations in temperature and precipitation, and change in vegetation, they are forced to adapt for
7650-703: The Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayas ; the Great Himalayas , which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The Sivalik Hills form the lowest sub-Himalayan range and extends for about 1,600 km (990 mi) from the Teesta River in the Indian state of Sikkim to northern Pakistan. The name derives from Sanskrit meaning "Belonging to Shiva ", which
7803-510: The Southwestern branch of Tai languages . The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family , which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border. Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand. The standard is based on
SECTION 50
#17328588196777956-551: The Sukhothai dynasty , specifically Phra Maha Thammaracha I. "Traiphum Phra Ruang" ( Thai : ไตรภูมิพระร่วง ) can also be called "Triphumkatha" ( Thai : ไตรภูมิกถา ) or "Tephumkatha" ( Thai : เตภูมิกถา ) with the latter two being the original names. Triphumikatha opens with a worship spell in Bali. There is a panel including the author's name, date of composition, the names of the scriptures and their purposes. Phaya Lithai wrote this prose as
8109-749: The Tripitaka and was very interested in preserving Buddhism and developing the country to prosperity, pursuing projects like the Phra Ruang Road ( Thai : ถนนพระร่วง ) from Si Satchanalai through Sukhothai to Nakhon Chum ( Thai : เมืองนครชุม , meaning " Kamphaeng Phet "), restoring the Song Khwae City ( Thai : เมืองสองแคว , meaning " Phitsanulok ") as the city of Luk Luang ( Thai : เมืองลูกหลวง ) and constructing Phra Buddha Chinnarat ( Thai : พระพุทธชินราช ), and Buddha Chinnasi ( Thai : พระพุทธชินสีห์ ). Other writings by Phaya Lithai include Trai Phum Phra Ruang,
8262-529: The Western Himalayas has characteristics of species from Central Asia and Mediterranean region. Fossils of species such as giraffe , and hippopotamus have been found in the foothills, suggesting the presence of African species some time ago. Large mammals such as Indian elephant , and Indian rhinoceros are confined to the densely forested moist ecosystems in the Eastern and Central Himalayas. Many of
8415-401: The Yarlung Tsangpo River . The Himalayas consists of four parallel mountain ranges: the Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayas ; the Great Himalayas , which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east. The Himalayan range is one of
8568-408: The Zanskar , Pir Panjal Ranges , and parts of the Sivalik and Great Himalayas. The western anchor Nanga Parbat is the highest point in the region at 8,126 m (26,660 ft). It is also referred Punjab, Kashmir or Himachal Himalyas from west to east locally. The central Himalayas or Kumaon extend for about 320 km (200 mi) along the state of Uttarakhand in northern India from
8721-464: The last ice age , there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west. The glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram in the west, the Tibetan inland ice in the north, and came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) in the south. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20–32 km (12–20 mi) in length, several of
8874-410: The 18th century till the independence of the constituent states in the mid 20th century. The long history along with various outside influences have resulted in the mixture of various traditions and existence of wide range of ethnicity in the region. People speak various languages belonging to four principal language families– Indo-European , Tibeto-Burman , Austroasiatic , and Dravidian , with
9027-457: The Brahmaputra river system from the Tibetan rivers to the north. There are 19 major rivers in the Himalayas which form part of the two major river systems of Ganges - Brahmaputra , which follow an easterly course and Indus , which follows a north-westerly course. The northern slopes of Gyala Peri and the peaks beyond the Tsangpo drain into the Irrawaddy River , which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into
9180-420: The Himalayan lakes present the danger of a glacial lake outburst flood as they have grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting. While these lakes support a range of ecosystems and local communities, many of them remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity. Due to its location and size, the Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier which affects the weather conditions of
9333-413: The Himalayan region geologically active and the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. The northern slopes of the Himalayas have a thicker soil cover than the southern slopes due to presence of lesser number of rivers and streams. These soils are loamy and are dark brown in colour, and are covered with forests in
SECTION 60
#17328588196779486-531: The Himalayan region including Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan are amongst the most vulnerable countries in the Global South due to climate change. The temperature rise increases the incidence of tropical diseases such as malaria , and dengue further north. The extreme weather events might cause physical harm directly and indirectly due to lack of access and contamination of drinking water , pollution , exposure to chemicals, and destruction of crops, and drought . The climate change also impact
9639-420: The Himalayan region occurred in 2000 BCE when Aryans came from Central Asia and progressively settled along the plains to the south. Information on the Aryan culture in the region is found in Hindu literature such as the Vedas , and Puranas . Since the second century BCE, the Silk Road in China was connected to the Indian subcontinent by various routes running along the Himalayan region. The northern side of
9792-433: The Himalayan waters. The extremes of high altitude favor the presence of extremophile organisms, which include various species of insects such as spiders , and mites . The Himalayan fauna include endemic plants and animals and critically endangered or endangered species such as Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, musk deer and hangul . There are more than 7,000 endemic plants and 1.9% of global endemic vertebrates in
9945-426: The Himalayas has grown considerably over the last five decades from 19.9 million in 1961 with the annual growth rate (3.31%) more than three times higher than the world average (1.1%) during the same period. The earliest tribes in the Himalayas might have originated from Dravidian people from the south of the Indian subcontinent as evidenced by the presence of Dravidian languages . The major human migration towards
10098-447: The Himalayas reduce by 2 °C (36 °F) for every 300 m (980 ft) increase of altitude. Higher altitudes invariably experience low temperatures. In the Eastern Himalayas, Darjeeling at an altitude of 1,945 m (6,381 ft) has an average minimum temperature of 11 °C (52 °F) during the month of May, while the same has been recorded as −22 °C (−8 °F) at an altitude of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on
10251-425: The Himalayas was under the influence of various Tibetan kingdoms across history. In the middle ages , the southern side came under the influence of various Rajput kings and later under the Mughal rule . Nepal was ruled by various kingdoms from both the Indian and Tibetan regions, until it was conquered by the Gurkha kingdom in the early 18th century. Most of the southern region came under the British influence in
10404-405: The Himavanta forest are described as resembling lions. These lions can be categorised into two main types; lions and mixed lions, those that have features of other animals as well. Kodchasri is a mixed lion with a lion's body and an elephant's head. According to the text, it is as strong as an elephant and a lion combined. Sukrontee ( Thai : สุกรนที ) is a mythical creature, a blend of a pig and
10557-433: The Himmapan forest, which the current position corresponds to the forest at the foot of the Himalayas in the real world. The serpent called Phaya Naga can use a power of disguise or transformation, living close to human beings and changing back and forth from a humanoid form. Garuda ( Thai : ครุฑ ) is an avian beast, and the mount of Lord Vishnu . In the form of an immortal half-eagle, no weapon can harm Garuda, not even
10710-617: The Indian Himalayas. Pangong Lake spread across India and China is the highest saline lake in the world at an altitude of 4,350 m (14,270 ft) and amongst the largest in the region with a surface area of 700 km (270 sq mi). Spread across 189 km (73 sq mi), Wular Lake is amongst the largest fresh water lakes in Asia. Other large lakes include Tso Moriri , and Tso Kar in Ladakh , Nilnag , and Tarsar Lake , in Jammu and Kashmir , Gurudongmar , Chholhamu , and Tsomgo Lakes in Sikkim , Tilicho , Rara , Phoksundo , and Gokyo Lakes in Nepal. Some of
10863-452: The Khmer system first before the Thai borrowed. Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on "live syllables" (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on "dead syllables" (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop that automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel). There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to
11016-594: The Sutlej River in the east to the Kali River in the west. The region comprises parts of Sivalik and Great Himalayas. At lower elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft), the region has a temperate climate and consists of permanent settlements. At elevations higher than 4,300 m (14,100 ft), permanent snow caps cover the Great Himalayas with the highest peaks being Nanda Devi at 7,817 m (25,646 ft) and Kamet at 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region
11169-518: The Tethys ocean. The upliftment of the Himalayas occurred gradually and as the Great Himalayas became higher, they became a climatic barrier and blocked the winds, which resulted in lesser precipitation on the upper slopes. The lower slopes continued to be eroded by the rivers, which flowed in the gaps between the mountains and the folded lower Shivalik Hills and the Lesser Himalayas were formed due to
11322-484: The Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction: However, in the process of these mergers, the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to
11475-585: The Tibetan Himalayas and the plateau beyond. It also played a role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi . The monsoon is triggered by the different rates of heating and cooling between the Indian Ocean and Central Asia, which create large differences in the atmospheric pressure prevailing above each. As the Central Asian landmass heats up during the summer compared to
11628-534: The Western Himalayas. The high altitude mountainous areas are mostly barren or, at the most, sparsely sprinkled with stunted bushes. The Himalayas are home to various medicinal plants such as Abies pindrow used to treat bronchitis , Andrachne cordifolia used for snake bites , and Callicarpa arborea used for skin diseases . Nearly a fifth of the plant species in the Himalayas are used for medicinal purposes. Climate change , illegal deforestation , and introduction of non native species have had an effect on
11781-455: The animal species found in the region are unique and endemic or nearly endemic to the region. Other large animal species found in the Himalayas include Asiatic black bear , clouded leopard , and herbivores such as bharal , Himalayan tahr , takin , Himalayan serow , Himalayan musk deer , and Himalayan goral . Animals found at higher altitudes include brown bear , and the elusive snow leopard , which mainly feed on bharal. The red panda
11934-691: The bend of the Indus River along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region in the north-west to the Satlej river basin in India in the south-east. Most of the region lies in the Kashmir territory disputed between India and Pakistan with certain portions of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh . The Indus forms the division between the Western Himalayas and the Karakoram range to the north. The Western Himalayas include
12087-510: The cold winds from Central Asia , and plays a significant roles in influencing the monsoons . The vast size, varying altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas result in a wide range of climates, from humid and subtropical to cold and dry desert conditions. The mountains have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia and Tibet . Many Himalayan peaks are considered sacred across various Indian and Tibetan religions such as Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Bon . Hence,
12240-449: The condensation occurs at higher altitudes in the north, there is more precipitation in the Great Himalayas in the west during the winter rains and the precipitation reduces towards the east. In January, the Kumaon region receives about 3 in (76 mm) of rainfall compared to about 1 in (25 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas. The Himalayan region has a highly sensitive ecosystem and
12393-894: The constant state of flux for all humans, animals, and even non-living things such as mountains, rivers, the earth, the sun, and the moon. This uncertainty is called "Anitja Laksana" ( Thai : อนิจจลักษณะ ). The three planes are named "Kamaphumi" ( Thai : กามภูมิ ), "Rūphaphūmi" ( Thai : รูปภูมิ ), and "A-Rūphap̣hūmi" ( Thai : อรูปภูมิ ). Kamaphumi is the world of those who are still trapped in sensual desires, and it has into two divisions, Sukhiphumi and Abaiphumi. Sukhiphumi contains these divisions: "Manudsaphum" ( Thai : มนุสสภูมิ , or "Human world"), "Sawankhaphum" ( Thai : สวรรคภูมิ , or "Heaven"). Abaiphumi contains these divisions: "Narokphum" ( Thai : นรกภูมิ , or "Hell"), "Diradcharnphum" ( Thai : ดิรัจฉานภูมิ , or "Beast world"), "Phredphum" ( Thai : เปรตภูมิ , or "Jinn world"), and "Asuraguyphum" ( Thai : อสูรกายภูมิ , or "Monster world"). Rūphaphūmi
12546-495: The dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai script . Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Tai Lue language Shan language others Northern Thai language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of
12699-467: The downwarping of the intermediate lands. Minor streams ran between the faults within the mountains until they joined the major river systems in the plains. Intermediate valleys such as Kashmir and Kathmandu were formed from temporary lakes that were formed during pleistocene , which dried up later. The Himalayan region is made up of five geological zones– the Sub-Himalayan Zone bound by
12852-504: The eastern Assam Himalayas. The Nepal Himalayas forms the centre of the Himalayan curve and extend for 800 km (500 mi) between the Kali and Teesta Rivers . The Great Himalayas in the region form the highest part of the entire Himalayas and consist of many of the eight-thousanders including Everest, Kanchenjunga at 8,586 m (28,169 ft), and Makalu at 8,463 m (27,766 ft). These mountains host large glaciers that form
13005-495: The ecosystem. At higher altitudes, Eastern and Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests consisting of various conifers occur. Chir pine is the dominant species which occurs at elevations from 800–900 m (2,600–3,000 ft). Other species include Deodar cedar , which grows at altitudes of 1,900–2,700 m (6,200–8,900 ft), blue pine and morinda spruce between 2,200–3,000 m (7,200–9,800 ft). At higher altitudes, alpine shrubs and meadows occur above
13158-774: The edge of the universe. In the midst of this ocean are four continents inhabited by humans: "Uttarakuru" ( Thai : อุตรกุรุทวีป ) to the north, "Bhurhawithi" ( Thai : บูรพวิเทหทวีป ) to the east, "Jambudvipa" ( Thai : ชมพูทวีป ) to the south and "Amorn Koyan" ( Thai : อมรโคยานทวีป ) to the west. Furthermore, humans in each continent have different identities. For instance, humans in Uttarkuru have square faces and beautiful figures. Humans in Burawithha have faces that are rounded as full moons, whereas humans in Amornkoyan have faces like waning moons. Humans born in those three continents all have
13311-410: The elder deity in Hindu religion, also was affiliated with Mount Meru during the time that he was known as the god of lightning, rain and fertility. Himavanta is on the continent of Jambudvipa, which is divided into three main lands. The first land is where human beings exist. The size of that land is 3,000 yods ( Thai : โยชน์ , meaning "1 yod = 10 mile or 16 km"). The second sub-land is Himavanta, with
13464-521: The end, Phaya Krut died. The power of their battle made the pillars supporting the earth tilt and hit the sun, causing the sun to split into two. The world heated up and there was no night, only an orange sky, as all of the water in the forest evaporated. All the Himavanta creatures tried to escape this disaster. There was also a pitiable creature who only observed the conference of all the creatures in Himavanta, named Gabillapaksa ( Thai : กบิลปักษา ). Since he secretly fell in love with Kinnaree, he sat at
13617-417: The flora and fauna of the region. Changes might decrease the territory available for local wildlife and reduction in prey for the predators . This puts the animals in conflict with humans as humans might encroach animal territories and the animals might venture into human habitats for search of food, which might exacerbate the economic loss of the local population. The Himalayan nations are signatories of
13770-509: The flora of the range. The increase in temperature has resulted in shifting of various species to higher elevations, and early flowering and fruiting. Many of the animal species are from the tropics, which have adapted to the various conditions across the Himalayan range. Some of the species of the Eastern Himalayas are similar to those found in East and South East Asia , while the animals of
13923-405: The formation of the Tibetan plateau . During miocene (20 mya), the increasing collision between the plates resulted in the top layer of metamorphic rocks getting peeled, which moved southwards to form nappes with trenches in between. As the mountains received rainfall, the waters flowing down the mountains eroded and steepened the southern slopes. The silt deposited by these rivers and streams in
14076-452: The last ice age , and give rise to some of the world's major rivers such as the Indus , Ganges , and Tsangpo – Brahmaputra . Their combined drainage basin is home to nearly 600 million people including 52.8 million living in the vicinity of the Himalayas. The region is also home to many endorheic lakes. The Himalayas have a major impact on the climate of the Indian subcontinent. It blocks
14229-498: The legendary forest incorporates themes of the cycle of death and birth of all beings in order for people to improve themselves, and the consequences of karma that causes birth into different worlds. The legend of the Himavanta forest has continued to influence Buddhist society in Thailand for a long time. It is often seen in artworks in religious places, in the form of paintings, sculptures, decorations, writings, poems, and even films. In
14382-458: The lightning of Indra . Garuda has another name, Suban ( Thai : สุบรรณ ), which means "magic fur." Garuda is large, with great strength, able to fly quickly. Garuda also has great intelligence, wit, and humility, and is respectful. The word “ramaad” in Khmer means rhinoceros . Ra-maad is a Himavanta creature inspired by the real animal, but distorted from reality, because rhinos are so rare to see in
14535-438: The lion land; Hattimuk ( Thai : หัตถีมุข ) estuary of the elephant land; Assamuk ( Thai : อัสสมุข ) estuary of the horse land; and Uspamuk ( Thai : อุสภมุข ) estuary of the bull land. Four rivers surround Himavanta before draining out to the ocean. To the east, west and north, the rivers flow from Anodard without intersecting, flowing past the land of undead down to the ocean. In the south, the water flows straight, emerging under
14688-458: The livelihoods of the people in the Himalayas and the plains below. Despite its greater size, the Himalayas does not form a water divide across its span because of the multiple river systems that cut across the range. While the mountains were formed gradually, the rivers concurrently cut across deeper gorges ranging from 1,500–5,000 m (4,900–16,400 ft) in depth and 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) in width. The actual water divide lies to
14841-515: The local patois as pronounced in Guangdong Ayutthaya , the old capital of Thailand from 1351 - 1767 A.D., was from the beginning a bilingual society, speaking Thai and Khmer . Bilingualism must have been strengthened and maintained for some time by the great number of Khmer-speaking captives the Thais took from Angkor Thom after their victories in 1369, 1388 and 1431. Gradually toward the end of
14994-577: The lower ranges on the southern slopes speak Indo-European languages. The inhabitants of the Western Himalayas include the Kashmiri people , who speak Kashmiri in the Vale of Kashmir and the Gujjar and Gaddi people , who speak Gujari and Gaddi respectively in the lower altitudes of Jammu and Himachal Pradesh in India. The last two are pastoral and nomadic people, who own flocks of cattle and migrate across
15147-468: The lowlands and grassland meadows in the mid altitudes. The composition and texture of the soils in the Himalayas also vary across regions. In the Eastern Himalayas , the wet soils has a high humus content conducive for growing tea . Podzolic soils occur in the eastern range of the Indus basin between the Indus and Shyok Rivers . The Ladakh region is generally dry with saline soil while fertile alluvial soils occur in select river valleys such as
15300-419: The main valley glaciers were 60–112 km (37–70 mi) long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 m (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate would have been at least 7.0–8.3 °C (12.6–14.9 °F) colder than it is today. Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported
15453-411: The majority of the languages belonging to the first two categories. The Tibetan Himalayas are inhabited by Tibetan people , who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. The Great Himalayas are mostly inhabited by nomadic groups and tribes, with most of the population in Lesser Himalayas , and Shivalik Hills . People towards the Great Himalayas in the north parts mostly speak Tibeto-Burman, while populations in
15606-404: The margins. The mountains act as heat islands and heavier mountains absorb and retain more heat than the surroundings, and therefore influences the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum. However, soil temperatures mostly remain the same on both the sides of a mountain at altitudes higher than 4,500 m (14,800 ft). Temperatures in
15759-547: The most significant changes occurred during the evolution from Old Thai to modern Thai. The Thai writing system has an eight-century history and many of these changes, especially in consonants and tones, are evidenced in the modern orthography . According to a Chinese source, during the Ming dynasty , Yingya Shenglan (1405–1433), Ma Huan reported on the language of the Xiānluó (暹羅) or Ayutthaya Kingdom, saying that it somewhat resembled
15912-488: The most well-known, is surrounded by five peaks which are considered the largest peaks of Himavanta. The five peaks are: Suthassana ( Thai : สุทัสสนะ ), Chitta ( Thai : จิตตะ ), Gala ( Thai : กาฬะ ), Kanthamat ( Thai : คันธมาทน์ ), and Krailas . Each peak is 50 yods wide, 50 yods in long, and 200 yods high. The bottom of the pond holds a living stone slab named Manosila ( Thai : มโนศิลา ) and living soil known as Horadarn ( Thai : หรดาล , meaning " Arsenic Trisulfide "). As
16065-523: The north of the Himalayas with rivers flowing down both the sides of the mountains. Some of the major river systems and their drainage system outdate the formation of the mountains itself. The water divide is formed by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on the west and the Ladakh Range on the east, separating the Indus system from Central Asia. On the east, Kailas and Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains separate
16218-719: The northwest, which extend into Central Asia . Its western anchor Nanga Parbat lies south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and its eastern anchor Namcha Barwa lies to the west of the great eastern bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet Autonomous Region of China . The Himalayas occupies an area of 595,000 km (230,000 sq mi) across six countries – Afghanistan , Bhutan , China, India , Nepal , and Pakistan . The sovereignty of
16371-436: The number of glacial lakes , some of which may be prone to dangerous floods. The region is expected to encounter continued increase in average annual temperature and 81% of the region's permafrost is projected to be lost by the end of the century. The increased warming and melting of snow is projected to accelerate the regional river flows until 2060 after which it would decline due to reduction in ice caps and glacier mass. As
16524-403: The ocean below, the difference in pressure creates a thermal low . The moist air from the ocean is pushed inwards towards the low pressure system causing the monsoon winds. It results in precipitation along the slopes due to the orographic effect as the air rises along the mountains and condenses. The monsoon begins at the end of May in the eastern fringes of the range and moves upwards towards
16677-477: The past half a century. The average warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade while the average cold days and nights had declined by 0.5 and 1 respectively. This has also prolonged the length of the growing season by 4.25 days per decade. The climate change might results in erratic rainfall, varying temperatures, and natural disasters like landslides , and floods . The increasing glacier melt had been followed by an increase in
16830-453: The past, the kings applied the principle of Dharma to rule their people. By espousing the concepts of Heaven and Hell, they could lead their subjects to fear the enduring spiritual consequences of committing an offense, and this cultural trend lead to the creation of the phrase, “Laws may be unfair, but not the law of karma.” Hinduism has its own mythology about Himavanta which is similar but not identical. According to Hindu mythology, this land
16983-462: The period, a language shift took place. Khmer fell out of use. Both Thai and Khmer descendants whose great-grand parents or earlier ancestors were bilingual came to use only Thai. In the process of language shift, an abundance of Khmer elements were transferred into Thai and permeated all aspects of the language. Consequently, the Thai of the late Ayutthaya Period which later became Ratanakosin or Bangkok Thai,
17136-554: The pillar was the huge carcass of the fish Anon ( Thai : อานนท์ ). In the past, it was this fish which had supported the world, and not the pillar. Not so far away, there was a rhino called Ra-maad ( Thai : ระมาด ), the strongest creature on earth. No one could beat him, not even the mighty serpent or the powerful Phaya Krut. Ra-maad wanted to see Kinnaree, a beautiful half-bird, half-human. He tried to approach her but she hurriedly flew away, and Ra-maad grew infuriated. Ra-maad picked up stones and threw them wrathfully all around, and from
17289-486: The pillar. At the same time, Gabillapaksa's body fell to the ground. The sword of sacrifice smashed into the pillar, which fell and hit the sun, ejecting it away. The remaining half of the sun drew the sky back towards the world, changing the world from a flat shape into an oval. Everything went back to normal. Gabillapaksa's body, from which his heart and his mind were gone, was recovered by Kinnaree. After that time, he taught everyone what sacrifice was, that it could change
17442-667: The pit. The fruit is as sweet as honey, with a scent of sandalwood. Gigantic house-sized birds feed on these seeds. When the sap of the Wha tree falls into the river, it turns into pure gold. Around the tree grows a tamarind forest and a myrobalan forest. From the myrobalan forest springs seven great rivers. There are seven named forests in total: Kurapha Forest ( Thai : ป่ากุรภะ ), Korbha Forest ( Thai : ป่าโกรภะ ), Mahaphideha Forest ( Thai : ป่ามหาพิเทหะ ), Tapantala Forest ( Thai : ป่าตะปันทละ ), Samolo Forest ( Thai : ป่าโสโมโล ) and Chaiyet Forest ( Thai : ป่าไชยเยต ). These forests are described as
17595-587: The precipitation is projected to increase concurrently, the annual river flows would be largely unaffected for the Eastern Himalayan rivers fed by monsoons, but would reduce the flows in the Western Himalayan rivers. Almost a billion people live on either side of the mountain and are prone to impact of the climate change. This includes the people who live in the mountains, who are more vulnerable due to temperature variations and other biota. Countries in
17748-460: The range in the Kashmir region is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. It is bordered by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on the northwest, Tibetan Plateau in the north, and by the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the south. Its western anchor Nanga Parbat lies south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river and its eastern anchor Namcha Barwa lies to the west of the great bend of
17901-462: The range in the Kashmir region is disputed amongst India, Pakistan, and China. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east. The range has several peaks exceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) including Mount Everest , the highest mountain on Earth at 8,848 m (29,029 ft). The Himalayas consist of four parallel mountain ranges from south to north:
18054-1029: The region tropical and subtropical , temperate , coniferous , and grasslands . Tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests are mostly constricted to the high temperature and humid regions in Eastern and Central Himalayas , and pockets of Kashmir in the west. There are about 4,000 species of Angiosperms with major vegetation include Dipterocarpus , and Ceylon ironwood on porous soils at elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft) and oak , and Indian horse chestnut on lithosol between 1,100–1,700 m (3,600–5,600 ft). Himalayan subtropical pine forests with Himalayan screw pine trees occur above 4,000 m (13,000 ft) and Alder , and bamboo are found on terrains with higher gradient. Temperate forest occur at altitudes between 1,400–3,400 m (4,600–11,200 ft) while moving from south-east to north-west towards higher latitude. Eastern and Western Himalayan broadleaf forests consisting of sal trees dominate
18207-777: The region. More than 800 species of birds have been recorded with a large number of species restricted to the Eastern Himalayas. Amongst the bird species found include magpies such as black-rumped magpie and blue magpie , titmice , choughs , whistling thrushes , and redstarts . Raptors include bearded vulture , black-eared kite , and Himalayan griffon . Snow partridge and Cornish chough are found at altitudes above 5,700 m (18,700 ft). The Himalayan lakes also serve as breeding grounds for species such as black-necked crane and bar-headed goose . There are multiple species of reptiles including Japalura lizards, blind snakes , and insects such as butterflies . Several fresh water fish such as Glyptothorax are found in
18360-491: The region. As of 2022 , there are 575 protected areas established by the nations in the Himalayan-Hindu Kush region, which account for 40% of the land area and 8.5% of the global protected area. There are also four biodiversity hotspots , 12 ecoregions , 348 key biodiversity areas, and six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the region. The Himalayan region with the associated Indo-Gangetic Plain and Tibetan plateau
18513-513: The ring surrounding the Metropolis . In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages . Although most linguists classify these dialects as related but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai". As a dominant language in all aspects of society in Thailand, Thai initially saw gradual and later widespread adoption as
18666-484: The royal vocabulary according to their immediate environment. Thai and Pali, the latter from Theravada Buddhism, were added to the vocabulary. An investigation of the Ayutthaya Rajasap reveals that three languages, Thai, Khmer and Khmero-Indic were at work closely both in formulaic expressions and in normal discourse. In fact, Khmero-Indic may be classified in the same category as Khmer because Indic had been adapted to
18819-593: The same lifespan, and live happily because they always behave according to the 5 precepts. Humans living in Jambudvipa have oval faces and have a life expectancy that is uncertain depending on merit or karma. Nevertheless, this continent is special as it was the birthplace of the Buddha, royal emperor and Arahant. These conditions offer an opportunity for humans in this continent to listen to the Dharma so that when they die, they have
18972-488: The same. The Himalayan region belongs to the Indomalayan realm . The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary broadly across regions depending on the climate and geology. The Himalayas are home to multiple biodiversity hotspots, and is home to an estimated 35,000+ species of plants and 200+ species of animals. An average of 35 new species have been found every year since 1998. There are four types of vegetation found in
19125-593: The same. This has led to increased awareness on the impact of climate change, and adaptations such as change in crop cycles , introduction of drought resistant crops, and plantation of new trees. This has also led to the construction of more dams , canals , and other water structures, to prevent flooding and aid in agriculture. New plantations on barren lands to prevent landslides, and construction of fire lines made of litter and mud to prevent forest fires have been undertaken. However, lack of funding, awareness, access to technology, and government policy are barriers for
19278-419: The sheer force, the whole world began to shake. After the god Phaya Krut heard about this, he tried to stop Ra-maad. Their battle shook the ground even more. All the fish were in danger, so the serpent Phaya Naga also went to stop Ra-maad. But when Phaya Krut saw his old enemy, Phaya Naga, he was shocked and thought that Phaya Naga meant to fight him, and prepared to defend himself. Phaya Naga fought back, and in
19431-413: The slopes and the plains below. The effect of Himalayas on the hydroclimate impacts millions in the plains as the variability in monsoon rainfall is the main factor behind wet and dry years. As the Himalayas force the monsoon winds to give up most of the moisture before ascending up, the winds became dry once its reaches the north of the mountains. This results in the dry and windy cold desert climate in
19584-447: The slopes based on seasons. Various ethnic people such as Ladakhi , Balti , and Dard live on the north of the Great Himalayas along the Indus basin in the Kashmir and Ladakh regions spread across India, Pakistan, and China. The Dard speak Dard , which is part of Indo-European languages, while the Balti and Lakadkhi people speak Balti , and Ladakhi , which are part of Tibeto-Burman. In
19737-417: The snow-melt of the glaciers. The lower altitude lakes are replenished by a combination of rains, underground springs, and streams. Large lakes in the Himalayan basin were formed in the holocene period, when water pooled in the faults and the water supply was subsequently cut off. There are more than 4500 high altitude lakes of which about 12 large lakes contribute to more than 75% of the total lake area in
19890-513: The snowfields of the Himalayas, which became known as Shiva's dwelling place. Both Hindu and Buddhist myths say Mount Meru is the center of the earth, surrounded by the Cosmos. Hindus consider Mount Krailas ( Thai : ไกรลาส ) in the Himalayas in Tibet to be Mount Meru, and also believe that peak to be the residence of Thao Kuwen ( Thai : ท้าวกุเวร ), king of giants, god of wealth and god of treasure. Indra ,
20043-409: The source of various rivers of the Ganges - Brahmaputra river system. The high altitude regions are uninhabitable with few mountain passes inbetween that serve as crossovers with the human settlements in the lower valleys. The Assam Himalaya forms the eastern most sub-section that extends eastward for 720 km (450 mi) from the Indian state of Sikkim through Bhutan and north-east India past
20196-455: The stone inscription of Wat Mahathat ( Thai : วัดมหาธาตุ ) in 1935 BE/1392 CE (discovered in 1956 BE/1411 CE), it can be learned that when Phaya Lithai's predecessor Loe Thai ( Thai : พญาเลอไท ) died in 1884 BE/1341 CE, Phaya Ngua Nam Thom reigned until Phaya Lithai's army came to usurp the throne in 1890 BE/1347 CE. He was named as Phra Chao Sri Suriyaphongsaram Maha Thammarachathirat ( Thai : พระเจ้าศรีสุริยพงสรามมหาธรรมราชาธิราช ). According to
20349-530: The stone inscription of Wat Pa Mamuang, and the stone from Wat Si Chum ( Thai : วัดศรีชุม ), which discusses events and traditions in the construction of Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat ( Thai : วัดพระศรีรัตนมหาธาตุ ) at Wat Pa Mamuang Temple. In Buddhism, Himavanta features heavily in Triphumikatha. The existence of Himavanta and its mythical creatures are no threat to humans, since only virtuous and spiritual people can enter, not just ordinary humans. The story of
20502-501: The stone inscriptions, he was originally called Phaya Lithai, abbreviated as Phra Maha Thammaracha I. He died in 1911 BE/1368 CE. After he reigned for six years, he dedicated himself to Buddhism and invited the Elder of Lanka to be patriarch in Sukhothai. Then he abdicated the throne to be ordained at Pa Mamuang Temple ( Thai : วัดป่ามะม่วง ), outside Sukhothai to the west. Phaya Lithai studied
20655-520: The summits of several peaks in the region such as Gangkhar Puensum , Machapuchare , and Kailash have been off-limits to climbers. The name of the range is derived from the Sanskrit word Himālay ( हिमालय ) meaning 'abode of snow'. It is a combination of the words him ( हिम ) meaning 'frost/cold' and ālay ( आलय ) meaning 'dwelling/house'. The name of the range is mentioned as Himavat ( Sanskrit : हिमवत्) in older literature such as
20808-439: The sun and fling it aside. He gathered all of his power and struck the pillar, but his plan failed. Kinnaree performed music and danced to try to put everyone at ease. The king of lions, Kochasri ( Thai : คชสีห์ ), and other lions also tried to destroy the pillar, and similarly failed. All living creatures soon drew to the brink of death from the heat. Even Manusa Singha, Gabillapaksa's pet, was about to die. Phaya Naga then recalled
20961-569: The super-continent Gondwana broke up nearly 180 mya, the Indo-Australian plate slowly drifted northwards towards Eurasia for 130-140 million years. The Indian Plate broke up with the Australian Plate about 100 mya. The Tethys ocean constricted as the Indian plate moved gradually upward. As both the plates were made of continental crusts , which were less denser than oceanic crusts , the increased compressive forces resulted in folding of
21114-535: The terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as
21267-604: The trees. The Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows extend between 3,200–4,200 m (10,500–13,800 ft) and the Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows occur at altitudes of 3,600–4,500 m (11,800–14,800 ft). Major vegetation include Juniperus , Rhododendron on rocky terrain facing the Sun, various flowering plants at high elevations, and mosses , and lichens in humid, shaded areas. Interspersed Grasslands occur at certain regions, with thorns and semi-desert vegetation at low precipitation areas in
21420-574: The tropical zone to extend farther north in South Asia than anywhere else in the world. The temperatures are more pronounced in the Brahmaputra valley in the eastern section as it lies at a lower latitude and due to the latent heat of the forced air from the Bay of Bengal which condenses before moving past the Namcha Barwa , the eastern anchor of the Himalayas. Due to this, the permanent snow line
21573-539: The trough between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau formed the Indo-Gangetic Plain . About 0.6 mya in the pleistocene period, the Himalayas rose higher and became the highest mountains on Earth. In the northern Great Himalayas , new gneiss and granite formations emerged on crystalline rocks that gave rise to the higher peaks. The summit of Mount Everest is made of unmetamorphosed marine ordovician limestone with fossil trilobites , crinoids , and ostracods from
21726-423: The two marks termed mai ek and mai tho ) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after
21879-531: The underlying rock bed. The thrust faults created between the folds resulted in granite and basalt rocks from the Earth's mantle protruding through the crust . During the paleogene period (about 50 mya), the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate after it completely closed the Tethys ocean gap. The Indian plate continued to subduct under the Eurasian plate over the next 30 million years that resulted in
22032-429: The water is clean and clear, this place is considered to be a fitting home for Buddha, Arahants, powerful sorcerers such as hermits, Wittayathorn ( Thai : วิทยาธร ), giants, Nagas, angels, etc. Mount Suthassana is made of gold and curves along Anodard's bank. The peak wraps around Anodard pond like a curtain, protecting it from direct exposure to sun and moonlight. Mount Chitta is formed from diamonds. Mount Gala
22185-458: The waxing moon, it becomes even brighter. There is also a cave in Mount Khanthamat called Nanthamun ( Thai : นันทมูล ), a residence of the Buddha, composed of gold, silver, and glass. Mount Krailas has a distinctive white surface, and when exposed to sunlight, it shines like a silver plate, leading to its nickname "Silver Mountain." Kailas is also a Sanskrit adverb which means "silver." There
22338-456: The west in June and July. There is heavy precipitation in the east which reduces progressively towards the west as the air becomes drier. Cherrapunji in Eastern Himalayas is one of the wettest places on Earth with an annual precipitation of 428 in (10,900 mm). The average annual rainfall varies from 120 in (3,000 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas to about 120 in (3,000 mm) in
22491-493: The wild. The authors of the original legend could only depict Ra-maad according to descriptions. In Thai artwork, Ra-maad often resembles a tapir with a trunk-like nose, likely based off the Malayan Tapir, a species of tapir native to western Thailand. Wanekamphu is an animal with features of a monkey and a mollusk . Its top half is simian, and its bottom half is a mollusk. It lives in water and eats fruit. Many animals in
22644-413: The world and bring back peace. Ashamed of himself, Ra-maad changed his name to Rad ( Thai : แรด , meaning "Rhino") and always did good things after that time. Triphumikatha was written in prose as descriptive rhetoric. It comes from the word "Tri" ( Thai : ไตร ) meaning "Three" and "Phumi" ( Thai : ภูมิ ) meaning "land" or "world." The word Phra Ruang ( Thai : พระร่วง ) is a term assigned to monarchs of
22797-477: The world's tallest peaks, including Everest. It is mainly composed of granite rocks. The Tibetan Himalayas (also known as Tethys ) form the northern most sub-range of the Himalayas in Tibet . Longitudinally, the range is broadly divided into three regions– western , central , and eastern . The Western Himalayas form the westernmost section of the range and extend for about 560 km (350 mi) from
22950-517: The youngest mountain ranges on Earth and is made up of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It was formed more than 10 mya due to the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate along the convergent boundary . Due to the continuous movement of the Indian plate, the Himalayas keep rising every year, making them geologically and seismically active. The mountains consist of large glaciers , which are remnants of
23103-449: Was a thorough mixture of Thai and Khmer. There were more Khmer words in use than Tai cognates. Khmer grammatical rules were used actively to coin new disyllabic and polysyllabic words and phrases. Khmer expressions, sayings, and proverbs were expressed in Thai through transference. Thais borrowed both the Royal vocabulary and rules to enlarge the vocabulary from Khmer. The Thais later developed
23256-466: Was mentioned as Himmaleh in western literature such as Emily Dickinson 's poetry and Henry David Thoreau 's essays. The Himalayas run as an arc for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent , separating the Indo-Gangetic Plains from the Tibetan Plateau . It is bordered by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on
23409-528: Was originally used to denote the 320 km (200 mi) stretch from Haridwar to the Beas River . The range is about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide on average and the elevation ranges from 900–1,200 m (3,000–3,900 ft). It rises along the Indo-Gangetic Plain and is often separated from the higher northern sub-ranges by valleys. The eastern portion of the range is called Churia Range in Nepal. The Lower or Lesser Himalaya (also known as Himachal )
#676323