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101-490: Frederick William Herschel KH , FRS ( / ˈ h ɜːr ʃ əl / HUR -shəl ; German : Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈhɛʁʃl̩] ; 15 November 1738 – 25 August 1822) was a German-British astronomer and composer . He frequently collaborated with his younger sister and fellow astronomer Caroline Herschel . Born in the Electorate of Hanover , William Herschel followed his father into

202-403: A hitchpin that secures it to the case. While many harpsichords have one string per note, more elaborate harpsichords can have two or more strings for each note. When there are multiple strings for each note, these additional strings are called "choirs" of strings. This provides two advantages: the ability to vary volume and ability to vary tonal quality. Volume is increased when the mechanism of

303-716: A violin concerto , an oboe concerto , and a harpsichord sonata . On 4 October 1767, he performed on the organ for the official opening of the Octagon Chapel. His sister Caroline arrived in England on 24 August 1772 to live with William in New King Street, Bath. The house they shared is now the location of the Herschel Museum of Astronomy . Herschel's brothers Dietrich (1755–1827), Alexander (1745–1821) and Jakob (1734–1792) also appeared as musicians of Bath. In 1780, Herschel

404-556: A 40-foot (12 m) focal length . The 40-foot telescope was, at that time, the largest scientific instrument that had been built. It was hailed as a triumph of "human perseverance and zeal for the sublimest science". In 1785 Herschel approached King George for money to cover the cost of building the 40-foot telescope. He received £4,000. Without royal patronage, the telescope could not have been created. As it was, it took five years, and went over budget. The Herschel home in Slough became

505-570: A 5-octave instrument is F 1 –F 6 (FF–f‴). Tuning pitch is often taken to be A 4  = 415 Hz, roughly a semitone lower than the modern standard concert pitch of A 4  = 440 Hz. An accepted exception is for French baroque repertoire, which is often performed with a = 392 Hz, approximately a semitone lower again. See Jean-Philippe Rameau 's Treatise on Harmony (1722) [Dover Publications], Book One, chapter five, for insight into French baroque tuning; "Since most of these semitones are absolutely necessary in

606-414: A blurred image. Because no one else was making mirrors of the size and magnification desired by Herschel, he determined to make his own. This was no small undertaking. He was assisted by his sister Caroline and other family members. Caroline Herschel described the pouring of a 30-foot-focal-length mirror: A day was set apart for casting, and the metal was in the furnace, but unfortunately it began to leak at

707-467: A clavicytherium, the jacks move horizontally without the assistance of gravity, so that clavicytherium actions are more complex than those of other harpsichords. Ottavini are small spinets or virginals at four-foot pitch . Harpsichords at octave pitch were more common in the early Renaissance, but lessened in popularity later on. However, the ottavino remained very popular as a domestic instrument in Italy until

808-483: A disk. Herschel originally thought it was a comet or a stellar disc, which he believed he might actually resolve. He reported the sighting to Nevil Maskelyne the Astronomer Royal . He made many more observations of it, and afterwards Russian Academician Anders Lexell computed the orbit and found it to be probably planetary. Herschel agreed, determining that it must be a planet beyond the orbit of Saturn. He called

909-438: A harpsichord may have more than one keyboard manual , and even a pedal board . Harpsichords may also have stop buttons which add or remove additional octaves. Some harpsichords may have a buff stop, which brings a strip of buff leather or other material in contact with the strings, muting their sound to simulate the sound of a plucked lute . The term denotes the whole family of similar plucked-keyboard instruments, including

1010-450: A harpsichord with lowest key E is tuned to match the keyboard layout. When scholars specify the pitch range of instruments with this kind of short octave, they write "C/E", meaning that the lowest note is a C, played on a key that normally would sound E. In another arrangement , known as "G/B', the apparent lowest key B is tuned to G, and apparent C-sharp and D-sharp are tuned to A and B respectively. The wooden case holds in position all of

1111-401: A higher content of copper. The mirrors had to be hand-polished, a painstaking process. A mirror was repeatedly put into the telescope and removed again to ensure that it was properly formed. When a mirror deformed or tarnished, it had to be removed, repolished and replaced in the apparatus. A huge rotating platform was built to support the telescope, enabling it to be repositioned by assistants as

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1212-434: A lid that can be raised, a cover for the keyboard, and a music stand for holding sheet music and scores. Harpsichords have been decorated in a great many different ways: with plain buff paint (e.g. some Flemish instruments), with paper printed with patterns, with leather or velvet coverings, with chinoiserie , or occasionally with highly elaborate painted artwork. The virginal is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of

1313-399: A local mirror-builder and having obtained both tools and a level of expertise, started building his own reflecting telescopes . He would spend up to 16 hours a day grinding and polishing the speculum metal primary mirrors . He relied on the assistance of other family members, particularly his sister Caroline and his brother Alexander, a skilled mechanical craftsperson. He "began to look at

1414-462: A mechanism (the "coupler") that couples manuals together, so that a single manual plays both sets of strings. The most flexible system is the French "shove coupler", in which the lower manual slides forward and backward. In the backward position, "dogs" attached to the upper surface of the lower manual engage the lower surface of the upper manual's keys. Depending on choice of keyboard and coupler position,

1515-719: A most capital speculum " of his own manufacture, in October 1779, Herschel began a systematic search for such stars among "every star in the Heavens", with new discoveries listed through 1792. He soon discovered many more binary and multiple stars than expected, and compiled them with careful measurements of their relative positions in two catalogues presented to the Royal Society in London in 1782 (269 double or multiple systems) and 1784 (434 systems). A third catalogue of discoveries made after 1783

1616-538: A new 20-foot telescope came into service for William. During this time, William was attempting to observe and then record all of the observations. He had to run inside and let his eyes readjust to the artificial light before he could record anything, and then he would have to wait until his eyes were adjusted to the dark before he could observe again. Caroline became his recorder by sitting at a desk near an open window. William would shout out his observations and she would write them down along with any information he needed from

1717-471: A new residence on Windsor Road in Slough . Herschel lived the rest of his life in this residence, which came to be known as Observatory House . It was demolished in 1963. William Herschel's marriage in 1788 caused a lot of tension in the brother-sister relationship. Caroline has been referred to as a bitter, jealous woman who worshipped her brother and resented her sister-in-law for invading her domestic life. With

1818-413: A pedal harpsichord, most pedal harpsichords were built based on the designs of extant pedal pianos from the 19th century, in which the instrument is as wide as the pedalboard. While these were mostly intended as practice instruments for organists, a few pieces are believed to have been written specifically for the pedal harpsichord. However, the set of pedals can augment the sound from any piece performed on

1919-603: A reference book. Caroline began to make astronomical discoveries in her own right, particularly comets . In 1783, William built her a small Newtonian reflector telescope, with a handle to make a vertical sweep of the sky. Between 1783 and 1787, she made an independent discovery of M110 (NGC 205), which is the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy . During the years 1786–1797, she discovered or observed eight comets. She found fourteen new nebulae and, at her brother's suggestion, updated and corrected Flamsteed's work detailing

2020-544: A result of this discovery, George III appointed him Court Astronomer. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and grants were provided for the construction of new telescopes. Herschel pioneered the use of astronomical spectrophotometry , using prisms and temperature measuring equipment to measure the wavelength distribution of stellar spectra. In the course of these investigations, Herschel discovered infrared radiation . Other work included an improved determination of

2121-406: A scramble of "labourers and workmen, smiths and carpenters". A 40-foot telescope tube had to be cast of iron. The tube was large enough to walk through. Mirror blanks were poured from Speculum metal , a mix of copper and tin . They were almost four feet (1.2 m) in diameter and weighed 1,000 pounds (450 kg). When the first disk deformed due to its weight, a second thicker one was made with

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2222-432: A single concave mirror rather than a convex lens. This avoids chromatic aberration. The concave mirror gathered more light than a lens, reflecting it onto a flat mirror at the end of the telescope for viewing. A smaller mirror could provide greater magnification and a larger field of view than a convex lens. Newton's first mirror was 1.3 inches in diameter; such mirrors were rarely more than 3 inches in diameter. Because of

2323-422: A string adjacent to the gap. The English diarist Samuel Pepys mentions his "tryangle" several times. This was not the percussion instrument that we call triangle today; rather, it was a name for octave-pitched spinets, which were triangular in shape. A clavicytherium is a harpsichord with the soundboard and strings mounted vertically facing the player, the same space-saving principle as an upright piano . In

2424-561: A sweep progressed. A platform near the top of the tube enabled the viewer to look down into the tube and view the resulting image. In 1789, shortly after this instrument was operational, Herschel discovered a new moon of Saturn : Mimas , only 250 miles (400 km) in diameter. Discovery of a second moon ( Enceladus ) followed, within the first month of observation. The 40-foot (12-metre) telescope proved very cumbersome, and in spite of its size, not very effective at showing clearer images. Herschel's technological innovations had taken him to

2525-559: A table. Such tables were often quite high – until the late 18th century people usually played standing up. Eventually, harpsichords came to be built with just a single case, though an intermediate stage also existed: the false inner–outer , which for purely aesthetic reasons was built to look as if the outer case contained an inner one, in the old style. Even after harpsichords became self-encased objects, they often were supported by separate stands, and some modern harpsichords have separate legs for improved portability. Many harpsichords have

2626-423: A telescope. An essential part of constructing and maintaining telescopes was the grinding and polishing of their mirrors. This had to be done repeatedly, whenever the mirrors deformed or tarnished during use. The only way to test the accuracy of a mirror was to use it. The largest and most famous of Herschel's telescopes was a reflecting telescope with a 49 1 ⁄ 2 -inch-diameter (1.26 m) primary mirror and

2727-616: A tuning other than equal temperament is used, the instrument requires retuning once the keyboard is shifted. Throughout the historical period, the harpsichord was characteristically decorated; for extensive discussion and illustration see Kottick (2003). Cases were painted in bright colors (especially in 18th century France), or covered with elaborate wood veneer (18th century England), or adorned with sculptural moldings and knobs (Italy). Soundboards bore paintings, either of individual items such as flowers and animals (Flanders, also France), or even (in expensive instruments), full-scale paintings of

2828-492: A very perfect metal was found in the mould, which had cracked in the cooling. Herschel is reported to have cast, ground, and polished more than four hundred mirrors for telescopes, varying in size from 6 to 48 inches in diameter. Herschel and his assistants built and sold at least sixty complete telescopes of various sizes. Commissions for the making and selling of mirrors and telescopes provided Herschel with an additional source of income. The King of Spain reportedly paid £3,150 for

2929-400: Is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard . This activates a row of levers that turn a trigger mechanism that plucks one or more strings with a small plectrum made from quill or plastic. The strings are under tension on a soundboard , which is mounted in a wooden case; the soundboard amplifies the vibrations from the strings so that the listeners can hear it. Like a pipe organ ,

3030-460: Is his series of 555 harpsichord sonatas . Perhaps the most celebrated composers who wrote for the harpsichord were Georg Friedrich Händel (1685–1759), who composed numerous suites for harpsichord, and especially J. S. Bach (1685–1750), whose solo works (for instance, The Well-Tempered Clavier and the Goldberg Variations ), continue to be performed very widely, often on the piano. Bach

3131-414: Is made of hardwood and is normally attached to the wrestplank. The section of the string beyond the nut forms its vibrating length , which is plucked and creates sound. At the other end of its vibrating length, the string passes over the bridge , another sharp edge made of hardwood . As with the nut, the horizontal position of the string along the bridge is determined by a vertical metal pin inserted into

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3232-488: Is obtained when the strings plucked simultaneously are an octave apart. This is normally heard by the ear not as two pitches but as one: the sound of the higher string is blended with that of the lower one, and the ear hears the lower pitch, enriched in tonal quality by the additional strength in the upper harmonics of the note sounded by the higher string. When describing a harpsichord it is customary to specify its choirs of strings, often called its disposition . To describe

3333-587: Is often able to control which choirs sound. This is usually done by having a set of jacks for each choir, and a mechanism for "turning off" each set, often by moving the upper register (through which the jacks slide) sideways a short distance, so that their plectra miss the strings. In simpler instruments this is done by manually moving the registers, but as the harpsichord evolved, builders invented levers, knee levers and pedal mechanisms to make it easier to change registration. Harpsichords with more than one keyboard (this usually means two keyboards, stacked one on top of

3434-410: Is wound around a tuning pin (also known as a wrest pin ) at the end nearest the player. When rotated with a wrench or tuning hammer, the tuning pin adjusts the tension so that the string sounds the correct pitch. Tuning pins are held tightly in holes drilled in the pinblock or wrestplank , an oblong hardwood plank. Proceeding from the tuning pin, a string next passes over the nut , a sharp edge that

3535-576: The BBC television programme Stargazing Live built a replica of the 20-foot telescope using Herschel's original plans but modern materials. It is to be considered a close modern approximation rather than an exact replica. A modern glass mirror was used, the frame uses metal scaffolding and the tube is a sewer pipe. The telescope was shown on the programme in January 2013 and stands on the Art, Design, and Technology campus of

3636-633: The Battle of Hastenbeck , Herschel's father Isaak sent his two sons to seek refuge in England in late 1757. Although his older brother Jakob had received his dismissal from the Hanoverian Guards, Wilhelm was accused of desertion (for which he was pardoned by George III in 1782). Wilhelm, nineteen years old at this time, was a quick student of the English language. In England, he went by the English rendition of his name, Frederick William Herschel. In addition to

3737-610: The Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin , are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used as models for the construction of modern instruments. In England, the Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority. German builders such as Hieronymus Albrecht Hass extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding sixteen-foot and two-foot choirs; these instruments have recently served as models for modern builders. Around

3838-471: The Messier catalogue were actually clusters of stars. On 13 March 1781 while making observations he made note of a new object in the constellation of Gemini. This would, after several weeks of verification and consultation with other astronomers, be confirmed to be a new planet, eventually given the name of Uranus . This was the first planet to be discovered since antiquity, and Herschel became famous overnight. As

3939-745: The University of Derby where it will be used for educational purposes. Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order Until 1837 the order was frequently awarded to officers in the British Navy and Army , although it was still classed as a foreign order, with British members of the order not entitled to style themselves as "Sir" unless they were also created Knights Bachelor , as many were. The British link ended in 1837 when Hanover 's royal union with Great Britain ended, with Ernest Augustus becoming King of Hanover and Queen Victoria ascending

4040-445: The fortepiano (and then the increasing use of the piano in the 19th century) the harpsichord gradually disappeared from the musical scene (except in opera, where it continued to be used to accompany recitative ). In the 20th century, it made a resurgence, being used in historically informed performances of older music, in new compositions, and, in rare cases, in certain styles of popular music (e.g., Baroque pop ). The harpsichord

4141-563: The 19th century. In the Low Countries, an ottavino was commonly paired with an 8' virginals, encased in a small cubby under the soundboard of the larger instrument. The ottavino could be removed and placed on top of the virginal, making, in effect, a double manual instrument. These are sometimes called 'mother-and-child' or 'double' virginals. Occasionally, harpsichords were built which included another set or sets of strings underneath and played by foot-operated pedal keyboard which trigger

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4242-539: The 19th century: an exception was its continued use in opera for accompanying recitative , but the piano sometimes displaced it even there. Twentieth-century efforts to revive the harpsichord began with instruments that used piano technology, with heavy strings and metal frames. Starting in the middle of the 20th century, ideas about harpsichord making underwent a major change, when builders such as Frank Hubbard , William Dowd , and Martin Skowroneck sought to re-establish

4343-447: The 21st century), which plucks the string. When the player releases the key, the far end returns to its rest position, and the jack falls back; the plectrum, mounted on a tongue mechanism that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, a felt damper atop the jack stops the string's vibrations. These basic principles are explained in detail below. Each string

4444-616: The Astronomer Royal to announce the discovery of her second comet, and wrote to Joseph Banks upon the discovery of her third and fourth comets. The Catalogue of stars taken from Mr Flamsteed's observations contained an index of more than 560 stars that had not been previously included. Caroline Herschel was honoured by the Royal Astronomical Society for this work in 1828. Caroline also continued to serve as William Herschel's assistant, often taking notes while he observed at

4545-595: The Bath Philosophical Society. Herschel became an active member, and through Watson would greatly enlarge his circle of contacts. A few years later, in 1785, Herschel was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. Herschel's early observational work soon focused on the search for pairs of stars that were very close together visually. Astronomers of

4646-643: The British throne. When Hanover was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866, the order continued as a house order to be awarded by the Royal House of Hanover. Today, its current Sovereign is the Hanoverian head of the house, Ernst August, Prince of Hanover . The insignia was based on the white horse on Hanover's arms. The Order includes two divisions, Civil and Military, the latter indicated by crossed swords on both

4747-524: The Philosophy of Musical Sounds (1749), he took up Smith's A Compleat System of Opticks (1738), which described techniques of telescope construction. He also read James Ferguson 's Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's principles and made easy to those who have not studied mathematics (1756) and William Emerson 's The elements of trigonometry (1749), The elements of optics (1768) and The principles of mechanics (1754). Herschel took lessons from

4848-733: The arrival of Mary, Caroline lost her managerial and social responsibilities in the household, and with them much of her status. Caroline destroyed her journals between the years 1788 to 1798, so her feelings during this period are not entirely known. According to her memoir, Caroline then moved to separate lodgings, but continued to work as her brother's assistant. When her brother and his family were away from their home, she would often return to take care of it for them. In later life, Caroline and Lady Herschel exchanged affectionate letters. Caroline continued her astronomical work after William's death in 1822. She worked to verify and confirm his findings as well as putting together catalogues of nebulae. Towards

4949-511: The badge and star. It originally had three classes, but with several reorganisations since 1841, as house order today it has four classes and an additional Cross of Merit. In descending order of seniority the classes are: Holders of the respective degrees of the order in Britain were entitled to be post-nominally addressed with the initials, which stand for Knight Grand Cross of Hanover, Knight Commander of Hanover and Knight of Hanover. The initial GCG

5050-402: The bridge, against which the string rests. The bridge itself rests on a soundboard , a thin panel of wood usually made of spruce , fir or—in some Italian harpsichords— cypress . The soundboard efficiently transmits the vibrations of the strings into vibrations in the air; without a soundboard, the strings would produce only a very feeble sound. A string is attached at its far end by a loop to

5151-501: The building traditions of the Baroque period. Harpsichords of this type of historically informed building practice dominate the current scene. Harpsichords vary in size and shape, but all have the same basic mechanism. The player depresses a key that rocks over a pivot in the middle of its length. The other end of the key lifts a jack (a long strip of wood) that holds a small plectrum (a wedge-shaped piece of quill , often made of plastic in

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5252-540: The death of their father, William suggested that Caroline join him in Bath, England. In 1772, Caroline was first introduced to astronomy by her brother. Caroline spent many hours polishing the mirrors of high performance telescopes so that the amount of light captured was maximized. She also copied astronomical catalogues and other publications for William. After William accepted the office of King's Astronomer to George III, Caroline became his constant assistant. In October 1783,

5353-599: The end of her life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances. She did this so that her nephew, John, could re-examine them systematically. Eventually, this list was enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue . In 1828, she was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for her work. The most common type of telescope at that time

5454-545: The era expected that changes over time in the apparent separation and relative location of these stars would provide evidence for both the proper motion of stars and, by means of parallax shifts in their separation, for the distance of stars from the Earth. The latter was a method first suggested by Galileo Galilei . From the back garden of his house in New King Street, Bath, and using a 6.2-inch aperture (160 mm), 7-foot-focal-length (2.1 m) (f/13) Newtonian telescope "with

5555-513: The family lived. Herschel's father was an oboist in the Hanover Military Band. In 1755 the Hanoverian Guards regiment, in whose band Wilhelm and his brother Jakob were engaged as oboists, was ordered to England. At the time the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover were united under King George II . As the threat of war with France loomed, the Hanoverian Guards were recalled from England to defend Hanover. After they were defeated at

5656-407: The first harpsichords with two keyboards, used for transposition . The Flemish instruments served as the model for 18th-century harpsichord construction in other nations. In France, the double keyboards were adapted to control different choirs of strings, making a more musically flexible instrument (so-called 'expressive doubles'). Instruments from the peak of the French tradition, by makers such as

5757-474: The first violin and soloist for his Newcastle orchestra, where he played for one season. In "Sunderland in the County of Durh: apprill [ sic ] 20th 1761" he wrote his Symphony No. 8 in C Minor. He visited the home of Sir Ralph Milbanke at Halnaby Hall near Darlington in 1760, where he wrote two symphonies, as well as giving performances himself. After Newcastle, he moved to Leeds and Halifax where he

5858-423: The harpsichord ). Some early harpsichords used a short octave for the lowest register. The rationale behind this system was that the low notes F ♯ and G ♯ are seldom needed in early music . Deep bass notes typically form the root of the chord, and F ♯ and G ♯ chords were seldom used at this time. In contrast, low C and D, both roots of very common chords, are sorely missed if

5959-475: The harpsichord having only one string per note; the strings run parallel to the keyboard, which is on the long side of the case. A spinet is a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle (usually about 30 degrees) to the keyboard. The strings are too close together for the jacks to fit between them. Instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, and the jacks are in the larger gaps between the pairs. The two jacks in each gap face in opposite directions, and each plucks

6060-456: The harpsichord its external appearance and protects the instrument. A large harpsichord is, in a sense, a piece of furniture, as it stands alone on legs and may be styled in the manner of other furniture of its place and period. Early Italian instruments, on the other hand, were so light in construction that they were treated rather like a violin: kept for storage in a protective outer case, and played after taking it out of its case and placing it on

6161-443: The important structural members: pinblock, soundboard, hitchpins, keyboard, and the jack action. It usually includes a solid bottom, and also internal bracing to maintain its form without warping under the tension of the strings. Cases vary greatly in weight and sturdiness: Italian harpsichords are often of light construction; heavier construction is found in the later Flemish instruments and those derived from them. The case also gives

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6262-399: The instrument is set up by the player (see below) so that the press of a single key plucks more than one string. Tonal quality can be varied in two ways. First, different choirs of strings can be designed to have distinct tonal qualities, usually by having one set of strings plucked closer to the nut, which emphasizes the higher harmonics , and produces a "nasal" sound quality. The mechanism of

6363-407: The instrument, as demonstrated on several albums by E. Power Biggs . The archicembalo , built in the 16th century, had an unusual keyboard layout, designed to accommodate variant tuning systems demanded by compositional practice and theoretical experimentation. More common were instruments with split sharps , also designed to accommodate the tuning systems of the time. The folding harpsichord

6464-404: The instrument, called "stops" (following the use of the term in pipe organs ) permits the player to select one choir or the other. Second, having one key pluck two strings at once changes not just volume but also tonal quality; for instance, when two strings tuned to the same pitch are plucked simultaneously, the note is not just louder but also richer and more complex. A particularly vivid effect

6565-460: The jacks labeled A and engages instead an alternative row of jacks called "lute stop" (not shown in the Figure). A lute stop is used to imitate the gentle sound of a plucked lute . The use of multiple manuals in a harpsichord was not originally provided for the flexibility in choosing which strings would sound, but rather for transposition of the instrument to play in different keys (see History of

6666-420: The kind usually executed on canvas. Keyboards could have the same "white keys" and "black keys" that pianos have today, but builders frequently employed the opposite pattern, with white sharps and black naturals. The study of harpsichord decoration became an important scholarly field in the 20th century, notably with the work of Sheridan Germann (2002), whose knowledge extended to the point of being able to pin down

6767-640: The last Twenty-five Years, in the relative Situation of Double-stars; with an Investigation of the Cause to which they are owing . In all, Herschel discovered over 800 confirmed double or multiple star systems, almost all of them physical rather than optical pairs. His theoretical and observational work provided the foundation for modern binary star astronomy; new catalogues adding to his work were not published until after 1820 by Friedrich Wilhelm Struve , James South and John Herschel . In March 1781, during his search for double stars, Herschel noticed an object appearing as

6868-461: The limits of what was possible with the technology of his day. The 40-foot would not be improved upon until the Victorians developed techniques for the precision engineering of large, high-quality mirrors. William Herschel was disappointed with it. Most of Herschel's observations were done with a smaller 18.5-inch (47 cm), 20-foot-focal-length (6.1 m) reflector. Nonetheless, the 40-foot caught

6969-476: The military band of Hanover, before emigrating to Britain in 1757 at the age of nineteen. Herschel constructed his first large telescope in 1774, after which he spent nine years carrying out sky surveys to investigate double stars. Herschel published catalogues of nebulae in 1802 (2,500 objects) and in 1820 (5,000 objects). The resolving power of the Herschel telescopes revealed that many objects called nebulae in

7070-424: The moment when ready for pouring, and both my brothers and the caster with his men were obliged to run out at opposite doors, for the stone flooring (which ought to have been taken up) flew about in all directions, as high as the ceiling. My poor brother fell, exhausted with heat and exertion, on a heap of brickbats. Before the second casting was attempted, everything which could ensure success had been attended to, and

7171-507: The most famous composers who wrote for the harpsichord were the members of English virginal school of the late Renaissance, notably William Byrd ( c. 1540–1623). In France, a great number of highly characteristic solo works were created and compiled into four books of ordres by François Couperin (1668–1733). Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) began his career in Italy but wrote most of his solo harpsichord works in Spain; his most famous work

7272-459: The new planet the "Georgian star" (Georgium sidus) after King George III , which also brought him favour; the name did not stick. In France, where reference to the British king was to be avoided if possible, the planet was known as "Herschel" until the name "Uranus" was universally adopted. The same year, Herschel was awarded the Copley Medal and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society . In 1782, he

7373-616: The oboe, he played the violin and harpsichord and later the organ . He composed numerous musical works, including 24 symphonies and many concertos, as well as some church music. Six of his symphonies were recorded in April 2002 by the London Mozart Players , conducted by Matthias Bamert (Chandos 10048). He was head of the Durham Militia band from 1760 to 1761. Herschel moved to Sunderland in 1761; Charles Avison engaged him as

7474-423: The other in a step-wise fashion, as with pipe organs) provide flexibility in selecting which strings play, since each manual can be set to control the plucking of a different set of strings. This means that a player can have, for instance, an 8' manual and a 4' manual ready for use, making it possible to switch between them to obtain higher (or lower) pitches or different tone. In addition, such harpsichords often have

7575-580: The parallax caused by the Earth's orbit. He waited until 1802 (in Catalogue of 500 new Nebulae, nebulous Stars, planetary Nebulae, and Clusters of Stars; with Remarks on the Construction of the Heavens ) to announce the hypothesis that the two stars were "binary sidereal systems" orbiting under mutual gravitational attraction , a hypothesis he confirmed in 1803 in his Account of the Changes that have happened, during

7676-673: The particular anonymous artists who worked with particular builders. The great bulk of the standard repertoire for the harpsichord was written during its first historical flowering, the Renaissance and Baroque eras. The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord was published around the early 16th century. Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole Baroque era in European countries including Italy, Germany, England and France. Solo harpsichord compositions included dance suites , fantasias , and fugues . Among

7777-464: The piano starting roughly in the late 1770s. Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was almost completely supplanted by the piano. In the 20th century, composers returned to the instrument, as they sought out variation in the sounds available to them. Under the influence of Arnold Dolmetsch , the harpsichordists Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1951) and in France, Wanda Landowska (1879–1959), were at

7878-403: The pitch of the choirs of strings, pipe organ terminology is used. Strings at eight-foot pitch (8') sound at the normal expected pitch, strings at four-foot pitch (4') sound an octave higher. Harpsichords occasionally include a sixteen-foot (16') choir (one octave lower than eight-foot) or a two-foot (2') choir (two octaves higher; quite rare). When there are multiple choirs of strings, the player

7979-564: The planets and the stars" in May 1773 and on 1 March 1774 began an astronomical journal by noting his observations of Saturn's rings and the Great Orion Nebula (M42). The English Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne visited the Herschels while they were at Walcot (which they left on 29 September 1777). By 1779, Herschel had also made the acquaintance of Sir William Watson , who invited him to join

8080-522: The player can select any of the sets of jacks labeled in "figure 4" as A, or B and C, or all three. The English "dogleg" jack system (also used in Baroque Flanders) does not require a coupler. The jacks labeled A in Figure 5 have a "dogleg" shape that permits either keyboard to play A. If the player wishes to play the upper 8' from the upper manual only and not from the lower manual, a stop handle disengages

8181-504: The plucking of the lowest-pitched keys of the harpsichord. Although there are no known extant pedal harpsichords from the 18th century or before, from Adlung (1758): the lower set of usually 8' strings "...is built like an ordinary harpsichord, but with an extent of two octaves only. The jacks are similar, but they will benefit from being arranged back to back, since the two [bass] octaves take as much space as four in an ordinary harpsichord Prior to 1980 when Keith Hill introduced his design for

8282-455: The poor reflectivity of mirrors made of speculum metal , Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror of a standard newtonian reflector from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly. This "front view" design has come to be called the Herschelian telescope . The creation of larger, symmetrical mirrors was extremely difficult. Any flaw would result in

8383-509: The position of stars. She also rediscovered Comet Encke in 1795. Caroline Herschel's eight comets were published between 28 August 1782 to 5 February 1787. Five of her comets were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . William was even summoned to Windsor Castle to demonstrate Caroline's comet to the royal family. William recorded this phenomenon himself, terming it "My Sister's Comet." She wrote letters to

8484-459: The public imagination. It inspired scientists and writers including Erasmus Darwin and William Blake , and impressed foreign tourists and French dignitaries. King George was pleased. Herschel discovered that unfilled telescope apertures can be used to obtain high angular resolution, something which became the essential basis for interferometric imaging in astronomy (in particular aperture masking interferometry and hypertelescopes ). In 2012,

8585-611: The rotation period of Mars , the discovery that the Martian polar caps vary seasonally, the discovery of Titania and Oberon (moons of Uranus) and Enceladus and Mimas (moons of Saturn ). Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1816. He was the first President of the Royal Astronomical Society when it was founded in 1820. He died in August 1822, and his work was continued by his only son, John Herschel . Herschel

8686-410: The smaller virginals , muselar , and spinet . The harpsichord was widely used in Renaissance and Baroque music , both as an accompaniment instrument and as a soloing instrument. During the Baroque era, the harpsichord was a standard part of the continuo group . The basso continuo part acted as the foundation for many musical pieces in this era. During the late 18th century, with the development of

8787-467: The telescope. For her work as William's assistant, she was granted an annual salary of £50 by George III. Her appointment made her the first female in England to be honoured with a government position. It also made her the first woman to be given a salary as an astronomer. In June 1785, owing to damp conditions, William and Caroline moved to Clay Hall in Old Windsor . On 3 April 1786, the Herschels moved to

8888-461: The tuning of organs and other similar instruments, the following chromatic system has been drawn up." Tuning an instrument nowadays usually starts with setting an A; historically it would commence from a C or an F. The harpsichord uses the bass clef (F clef). Some modern instruments are built with keyboards that can shift sideways, allowing the player to align the mechanism with strings at either A = 415 Hz or A = 440 Hz. If

8989-410: The year 1700 the first fortepiano was built by Bartolomeo Cristofori . The early fortepiano uses percussion, the strings being struck with leathered paper hammers instead of being plucked. Unlike the harpsichord, the fortepiano is capable of changes in dynamic volume, giving it its name. By the late 18th century the harpsichord was supplanted by the piano and almost disappeared from view for most of

9090-461: Was also a pioneer of the harpsichord concerto, both in works designated as such, and in the harpsichord part of his Fifth Brandenburg Concerto . Two of the most prominent composers of the Classical era , Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), wrote harpsichord music. For both, the instrument featured in the earlier period of their careers, and was largely supplanted by

9191-763: Was also used, and was cited in the original statutes of the order. Gold and silver medals were attached to the order, for award to those not eligible for the order itself, including non commissioned officers and royal servants. The Order has six officers: the Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor, the Registrar, the King of Arms , the Genealogist, and the Secretary. The first six officers were: Harpsichord A harpsichord

9292-444: Was an instrument that could be folded up to make it more compact, thus facilitating travelling with it. On the whole, earlier harpsichords have smaller ranges than later ones, although there are many exceptions. The largest harpsichords have a range of just over five octaves , and the smallest have under four. Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range in the bass with a " short octave ". The traditional pitch range for

9393-991: Was appointed "The King's Astronomer" (not to be confused with the Astronomer Royal ). On 1 August 1782 Herschel and his sister Caroline moved to Datchet (then in Buckinghamshire but now in Berkshire ). There, he continued his work as an astronomer and telescope maker. He achieved an international reputation for their manufacture, profitably selling over 60 completed reflectors to British and Continental astronomers. From 1782 to 1802, and most intensively from 1783 to 1790, Herschel conducted systematic surveys in search of "deep-sky" or non-stellar objects with two 20-foot-focal-length (610 cm), 12-and-18.7-inch-aperture (30 and 47 cm) telescopes (in combination with his favoured 6-inch-aperture instrument). Excluding duplicated and "lost" entries, Herschel ultimately discovered over 2,400 objects defined by him as nebulae . (At that time, nebula

9494-571: Was appointed director of the Bath orchestra, with his sister often appearing as soprano soloist. Herschel's reading in natural philosophy during the 1770s not only indicates his personal interests, but also suggests an intention to be upwardly mobile, both socially and professionally. He was well-positioned to engage with eighteenth-century "philosophical Gentleman" or philomaths , of wide-ranging logical and practical tastes. Herschel's intellectual curiosity and interest in music eventually led him to astronomy. After reading Robert Smith 's Harmonics, or

9595-564: Was born in the Electorate of Hanover in Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire , one of ten children of Isaak Herschel and his wife, Anna Ilse Moritzen, of German Lutheran ancestry. His ancestors came from Pirna , in Saxony . Theories that they were Protestants from Bohemia have been questioned by Hamel as the surname Herschel already occurred a century earlier in the very same area in which

9696-545: Was later edited by John Dreyer , supplemented with discoveries by many other 19th-century astronomers, and published in 1888 as the New General Catalogue (abbreviated NGC) of 7,840 deep-sky objects. The NGC numbering is still the most commonly used identifying label for these celestial landmarks. Herschel's discoveries later compiled in the New General Catalogue include NGC 12 , NGC 13 , NGC 14 , NGC 16 , NGC 23 , NGC 24 , NGC 1357 , and NGC 7457 . Following

9797-564: Was most likely invented in the late Middle Ages. By the 16th century, harpsichord makers in Italy were making lightweight instruments with low tension brass stringing. A different approach was taken in the Southern Netherlands starting in the late 16th century, notably by the Ruckers family. Their harpsichords used a heavier construction and produced a more powerful and distinctive tone with higher tension steel treble stringing. These included

9898-458: Was published in 1821 (145 systems). The Rev. John Michell of Thornhill published work in 1767 on the distribution of double stars, and in 1783 on "dark stars", that may have influenced Herschel. After Michell's death in 1793, Herschel bought a ten-foot-long, 30-inch reflecting telescope from Michell's estate . In 1797, Herschel measured many of the systems again, and discovered changes in their relative positions that could not be attributed to

9999-525: Was the refracting telescope , which involved the refraction of light through a tube using a convex glass lens . This design was subject to chromatic aberration , a distortion of an image due to the failure of light of different component wavelengths to converge. Optician John Dollond (1706–1761) tried to correct for this distortion by combining two separate lenses, but it was still difficult to achieve good resolution for far distant light sources. Reflector telescopes , invented by Isaac Newton in 1668, used

10100-551: Was the first organist at St John the Baptist church (now Halifax Minster ). In 1766, Herschel became organist of the Octagon Chapel, Bath , a fashionable chapel in a well-known spa, in which city he was also Director of Public Concerts. He was appointed as the organist in 1766 and gave his introductory concert on 1 January 1767. As the organ was still incomplete, he showed off his versatility by performing his own compositions including

10201-1113: Was the generic term for any visually diffuse astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way , until galaxies were confirmed as extragalactic systems by Edwin Hubble in 1924.) Herschel published his discoveries as three catalogues: Catalogue of One Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (1786), Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (1789) and the previously cited Catalogue of 500 New Nebulae ... (1802). He arranged his discoveries under eight "classes": (I) bright nebulae, (II) faint nebulae, (III) very faint nebulae, (IV) planetary nebulae, (V) very large nebulae, (VI) very compressed and rich clusters of stars, (VII) compressed clusters of small and large [faint and bright] stars, and (VIII) coarsely scattered clusters of stars. Herschel's discoveries were supplemented by those of Caroline Herschel (11 objects) and his son John Herschel (1754 objects) and published by him as General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters in 1864. This catalogue

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