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79-530: Hayasa-Azzi or Azzi-Hayasa ( Hittite : Ḫaiaša- , Armenian : Հայասա ) was a Late Bronze Age confederation in the Armenian Highlands and/or Pontic region of Asia Minor . The Hayasa-Azzi confederation was in conflict with the Hittite Empire in the 14th century BC, leading up to the collapse of Hatti around 1190 BC. It has long been thought that Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in

158-533: A sister language to Proto-Indo-European , rather than as a daughter language . Their Indo-Hittite hypothesis is that the parent language (Indo-Hittite) lacked the features that are absent in Hittite as well, and that Proto-Indo-European later innovated them. Other linguists, however, prefer the Schwund ("loss") Hypothesis in which Hittite (or Anatolian) came from Proto-Indo-European, with its full range of features, but

237-508: A verbal noun , a supine , and a participle . Rose (2006) lists 132 hi verbs and interprets the hi / mi oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice"). The mi -conjugation is similar to the general verbal conjugation paradigm in Sanskrit and can also be compared to the class of mi -verbs in Ancient Greek. The following example uses

316-570: A Hittite or Luwian name meaning "land of the Hay." This is essentially the same meaning as modern Hayastan . Hayasa-Azzi could have been a Hittite translation of the Armenian Hayots’ azn or "Armenian nation". Hay may derive from the Proto-Indo-European word * h₂éyos (or possibly * áyos ), meaning 'metal'. According to this theory, Hayasa meant "land of metal," referring to

395-470: A child, how can you match him? (Comprehensive Annals, AM 18–21) While Mursili was a young and inexperienced king, he was almost certainly not a child when he took the Hittite throne and must have reached an age to be capable of ruling in his own right. Had he been a child, other arrangements would have been made to secure the stability of the Empire; Mursili after all had two surviving elder brothers who served as

474-515: A foreign land, the -asa suffix can still mean "land of." Additionally, Khayasa can be reconciled with Hay as the Hittite h and kh phonemes are interchangeable, a feature present in certain Armenian dialects as well. Hittite language By the Late Bronze Age , Hittite had started losing ground to its close relative Luwian . It appears that Luwian was the most widely spoken language in

553-473: A messenger and wrote to me; 'Will you not go to consult for me the augur and the foreteller? Could not a decision be made for me by the birds and the flesh of the expiatory victims? And I sent to Nuvanza this letter: 'See, I consulted for you birds and flesh, and they commanded, Go! because these people of Hayasa, the God U, has already delivered to you; strike them! And as I was returning from Astatan to Carchemish ,

632-471: A rudimentary noun-class system that was based on an older animate–inanimate opposition. Hittite inflects for nine cases : nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative - locative , ablative , ergative , allative , and instrumental ; two numbers : singular, and plural; and two animacy classes: animate (common), and inanimate (neuter). Adjectives and pronouns agree with nouns for animacy , number , and case . The distinction in animacy

711-409: A second he named "Ḫattuša Hittite" (or Hittite proper). The first is attested in clay tablets from Kaniš/Neša ( Kültepe ), and is dated earlier than the findings from Ḫattuša. Hittite was written in an adapted form of Peripheral Akkadian cuneiform orthography from Northern Syria. The predominantly syllabic nature of the script makes it difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of some of

790-518: A showdown with its king Karanni (or Lanni) near the city of Kumaha. The passage (in the 'Deeds of Suppiluliuma') recording the outcome of this battle is missing. But almost certainly, the Hittite campaign resulted in the conquest of Hayasa-Azzi, for subsequently Suppiluliuma established it as a Hittite vassal state, drawing up a treaty with Hakkana, its current ruler. The Hayasans were now obliged to repatriate all captured Hittite subjects and cede "the border [territory] which Suppiluliuma claimed belonged to

869-621: A time, perhaps hit by the same plague which claimed Suppiluliuma and his son Arnuwanda II . But, in Mursili's seventh year (three years before Mursili's eclipse – so, 1315 BC), the "lord of Azzi" Anniya took advantage of Pihhuniya's unification of the Kaskas and raided the Land of Dankuwa, a Hittite border region, where he transported its population back to his kingdom. Cavaignac wrote of that period that Anniya "had sacked several districts and refused to release

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948-467: Is a law in the land of the Hatti. Do not approach sisters, your sisters-in law or your cousins; that is not permitted. In Hatti Land, whosoever commits such an act does not live; he dies. In your country, you do not hesitate to marry your own sister, sister-in law or cousin, because you are not civilized. Such an act cannot be permitted in Hatti. The kingdom of Hayasa-Azzi remained a loyal Hittite vassal state for

1027-495: Is also evidence for a length distinction. He points out that the word " e-ku-ud-du – [ɛ́kʷːtu]" does not show any voice assimilation. However, if the distinction were one of voice, agreement between the stops should be expected since the velar and the alveolar plosives are known to be adjacent since that word's "u" represents not a vowel but labialization . Hittite preserves some very archaic features lost in other Indo-European languages. For example, Hittite has retained two of

1106-683: Is known about him, but he may have been a latter-day king of Azzi. Many of the former districts and towns of Hayasa-Azzi become their own independent city-states following the breakup of the Hayasa-Azzi confederation at the end of the 13th century BC. Other regions of Azzi probably correspond to areas of the Nairian state of Urartu , mentioned in Assyrian records from around this same time. The territory of Hayasa-Azzi may have corresponded, at least partially, to Diauehi of Urartian-era texts. The similarity of

1185-588: Is possible that the name Azzi survived into the Classical era as Aza, a city located in the Kelkit River Valley. Alternately, a form of the name Azzi may have continued into the 17th century AD as Azntsik, a district of Ani-Kammahk (Kemah) in Upper Armenia. Azzi is not to be confused with the similarly named Alzi (Alshe) , which was located further south. The exact nature of Hayasa's and Azzi's relationship

1264-639: Is present in the name of the Armenian goddess, Astłik ). Alternately, it could etymologically derive from Proto Indo-European * bʰel- (meaning 'bright'), via the * bʰel-to form. Terittituniš might be connected to the Triton of Greek mythology. The region covered by Hayasa-Azzi would later constitute Lesser Armenia, as well as the western and south-western regions of Ancient Armenia . The main temples of many pre-Christian Armenian gods such as Aramadz , Anahit , Mher , Nane , and Barsamin were located where Hayasa had likely been. The treasury and royal burials of

1343-410: Is rudimentary and generally occurs in the nominative case , and the same noun is sometimes attested in both animacy classes. There is a trend towards distinguishing fewer cases in the plural than in the singular. The ergative case is used when an inanimate noun is the subject of a transitive verb . Early Hittite texts have a vocative case for a few nouns with -u , but it ceased to be productive by

1422-468: Is uncertain. They are generally thought to have been a confederation of two different kingdoms in what is now northeastern Turkey: Hayasa, in the north, and Azzi, in the south. While separate entities, the two lands were politically and probably linguistically connected. However, there are alternate theories regarding the nature of their relationship. Some have suggested that Azzi was a region or district of Hayasa or that Hayasa and Azzi were different names for

1501-534: Is unknown. According to historian Aram Kosyan, it is possible that the origins of Hayasa-Azzi lie in the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture , which expanded from Transcaucasia toward northeastern modern Turkey in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The Trialeti-Vanadzor-connected site of Sos Höyük IV, located in the Erzurum region, may have been associated with Hayasa-Azzi. The Hittite king Tudhaliya III chose to make

1580-726: The Ararat Plain . The name Hayasa might possibly be connected to the Iya(ni) / Iga(ni) of Urartian texts. Both Hayasa and Iya(ni) / Iga(ni) have been connected to the Aia of Greek mythology. Alternately, another theory proposes a connection to the Huša(ni) , mentioned by the Urartian kings Argishti I and Sarduri II in the 8th century BC. Iya(ni) / Iga(ni) and Husa(ni) were both probably located in modern Ardahan Province of Turkey . It

1659-509: The Armenians derive from a migration of Hayasa into Shupria in the 12th century BC. This is open to objection due to the possibility of a mere coincidental similarity between the two names. The mentioning of the name Armenia can only be securely dated to the 6th century BC with the Orontid kings and very little is known specifically about the people of Hayasa-Azzi per se. Igor Diakonoff argues

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1738-585: The Arsacid (Arshakuni) dynasty would be located in this region as well during the 1st millennium BC. Ani-Kammahk, probably the Kummaha of Hittite sources, was the main cultic center of the goddess Anahit and the location of the Armenian royal tombs during the Classical era . According to the prominent linguist Hrachia Acharian , the name of the city Kummaha could derive from kmakhk’ , the Armenian word for 'skeleton'. Some scholars believe that Armenians were native to

1817-523: The Biblical Hittites ( Biblical Hebrew : * חתים Ḥittim ), although that name appears to have been applied incorrectly: The term Hattian refers to the indigenous people who preceded the Hittites, speaking a non-Indo-European Hattic language . In multilingual texts found in Hittite locations, passages written in Hittite are preceded by the adverb nesili (or nasili , nisili ), "in

1896-628: The Hayasa-Azzi confederation in the Eastern Anatolia . This was because he was perceived to be an inexperienced ruler who only became king due to the early death of Arnuwanda. Mursili records the scorn of his foes in his Annals: You are a child; you know nothing and instill no fear in me. Your land is now in ruins, and your infantry and chariotry are few. Against your infantry, I have many infantry; against your chariotry I have many chariotry. Your father had many infantry and chariotry. But you who are

1975-580: The Hittite sound inventory . The syllabary distinguishes the following consonants (notably, the Akkadian s series is dropped), The Akkadian unvoiced/voiced series (k/g, p/b, t/d) do not express the voiced/unvoiced contrast in writing, but double spellings in intervocalic positions represent voiceless consonants in Indo-European ( Sturtevant's law ). The limitations of the syllabic script in helping to determine

2054-500: The Upper Armenia province of the later Kingdom of Armenia and the neighboring region of Lesser Armenia . Hayasa-Azzi seems to have been bordered by Isuwa (later known as Sophene , now known as Elazig ) and Pahhuwa (perhaps near modern Divriği or Bingol Province ) to the south or the west. The eastern extent of Hayasa-Azzi is unknown, although some have placed it in the area of modern Tercan , or as far east as Lake Van or

2133-404: The proto-language . See #Classification above for more details. Hittite is the oldest attested Indo-European language, yet it lacks several grammatical features that are exhibited by other early-attested Indo-European languages such as Vedic , Classical Latin , Ancient Greek , Old Persian and Old Avestan . Notably, Hittite did not have a masculine–feminine gender system. Instead, it had

2212-450: The Hayasa region, or perhaps moved into the Hayasa region from nearby northern or eastern regions (such as modern southern Georgia or northern Armenia). A minority of historians theorize that after the possible Phrygian invasion of the Hittites, the hypothetically named Armeno-Phrygians would have settled in Hayasa-Azzi, and merged with the local people, who were possibly already spread within

2291-539: The Hayasan king name Mariya is connected to Sanskrit marya , meaning 'young man, warrior', and thus indicates a possible Indo-Iranian presence (perhaps related to the Mitanni) in Hayasa-Azzi. Vartan Matiossian argues instead that this name is a form of Classical Armenian mari , also meaning 'young man'. Both the Sanskrit and Armenian words ultimately derive from the same Proto-Indo-European root, * méryos . A few of

2370-499: The Hayasans had a peoples' assembly or council of elders. Similarly, Mursili II later conducted negotiations with "the elders" of Azzi. The nearby land of Pahhuwa may have had a similar governing council. A possible alternate interpretation of these treaties is that these councils consisted of the chieftains of the various tribes who made up the Hayasa-Azzi confederation. Although frequently at odds with Hatti, Hittite texts mention that

2449-483: The Hayasans served as charioteers in the Hittite army. The capital of Hayasa-Azzi is unknown, but its main fortress was Ura, possibly located somewhere near modern Bayburt or along the Kelkit River . Another fortress, Aripsa, may have been located on the shore of Lake Van. All information about Hayasa-Azzi comes from the Hittites, there are no primary sources from Hayasa-Azzi. As such, the early history of Hayasa-Azzi

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2528-469: The Hittite (or Assyrian ) records as a unified nation. Hayasa as a fighting power was practically eliminated by the expedition of Mursili II. Azzi, however, continued to be mentioned for some time after references to Hayasa ceased. It is possible that Hayasa was destroyed by Mursili and/or that it became part of Azzi. Mutti, a man from the city Halimana, was mentioned as having greeted Mursili in Azzi. Nothing else

2607-544: The Hittite capital, Hattusa, in the 13th century BC. After the collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom during the more general Late Bronze Age collapse , Luwian emerged in the Early Iron Age as the main language of the so-called Syro-Hittite states , in southwestern Anatolia and northern Syria . Hittite is the modern scholarly name for the language, based on the identification of the Hatti ( Ḫatti ) kingdom with

2686-504: The Hittite noun declension's most basic form: The verbal morphology is less complicated than for other early-attested Indo-European languages like Ancient Greek and Vedic . Hittite verbs inflect according to two general conjugations ( mi -conjugation and hi -conjugation), two voices ( active and medio-passive ), two moods ( indicative mood and imperative ), two aspects (perfective and imperfective), and two tenses ( present and preterite ). Verbs have two infinitive forms,

2765-456: The Hittite throne after the premature death of Arnuwanda II who, like their father, fell victim to the plague which ravaged the Hittites in the 1330s BC. He was greeted with contempt by Hatti's enemies and faced numerous rebellions early in his reign, the most serious of which were those initiated by the Kaskas in the mountains of Anatolia, but also by the Arzawa kingdom in southwest Asia Minor and

2844-458: The Kaska and Hayasa-Azzi. Tudhaliya sent his general Suppiluliuma, who would later serve as king himself under the title Suppiluliuma I , to Hatti's northeastern frontiers, to defeat Hayasa-Azzi. The Hayasans initially retreated from a direct battle with the Hittite commander. The Hittitologist Trevor R. Bryce notes, however, that Tudhaliya and Suppiluliuma eventually: invaded Hayasa-Azzi and forced

2923-414: The Land of Hatti." Despite the restrictions imposed upon Hakkani, he was not a completely meek and submissive brother-in law of the Hittites in political and military affairs. As a condition for the release of the thousands of Hittite prisoners held in his domain, he demanded first the return of the Hayasan prisoners confined in Hatti. During their reigns, the cuneiform tablets of Boğazköy begin to mention

3002-576: The Syrian rebellion while he sent another general, the able Nuwanza (or Nuvanza) to expel the Hayasa-Azzi enemy from the Upper Land. After consulting some oracles, the king ordered Nuwanza to seize the Upper Land territory from the Hayasan forces. This Nuwanza did by inflicting a resounding defeat against the Hayasa-Azzi invaders at the Battle of Ganuvara ; henceforth, Upper Land would remain "firmly in Hittite hands for

3081-532: The Upper Land region on the Northeast frontier of Hatti, destroying the Land of Istitina and placing the city of Kannuwara under siege. Worse still, Mursili II was forced to face another crisis in the same year with the death of his brother Sarri-Kusuh, the Hittite viceroy of Syria. This prompted a revolt by the Nuhašše lands against Hittite control. Mursili II took decisive action by dispatching his general Kurunta to quell

3160-461: The West to resist the aggression of Uhhaziti, king of Arzawa, who was attempting to lure away Hittite allies into his camp. During his ninth year his cupbearer Nuvanza decisively defeated Hayasan forces at the Battle of Ganuvara , after which the Hayasa-Azzi would be reduced to Hittite vassals. The Annals also reveal that an "omen of the sun," or solar eclipse , occurred in his tenth year as king, just as he

3239-469: The [speech] of Neša (Kaneš)", an important city during the early stages of the Hittite Old Kingdom . In one case, the label is Kanisumnili , "in the [speech] of the people of Kaneš". Although the Hittite New Kingdom had people from many diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, the Hittite language was used in most secular written texts. In spite of various arguments over the appropriateness of

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3318-552: The alternation in the word for water between the nominative singular, wadar , and the genitive singular, wedenas . He also presented a set of regular sound correspondences. After a brief initial delay because of disruption during the First World War , Hrozný's decipherment, tentative grammatical analysis and demonstration of the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite were rapidly accepted and more broadly substantiated by contemporary scholars such as Edgar H. Sturtevant , who authored

3397-1768: The beginning of a sentence or clause is composed of either a sentence-connecting particle or otherwise a fronted or topicalized form, and a "chain" of fixed-order clitics is then appended. The transliteration and translation of the proclamation of Anitta : ne-pi-is-za-as-ta IŠKUR-un-ni a-as-su-us e-es-ta na-as-ta IŠKUR-un-ni-ma ma-a-an a-as-su-us e-es-ta Ne-e-sa-as LUGAL-us Ku-us-sa-ra-as LUGAL-i ... LUGAL Ku-us-sa-ra URU-az kat-ta pa-an-ga-ri-it ú-e-et nu Ne-e-sa-an is-pa-an-di na-ak-ki-it da-a-as Ne-e-sa-as LUGAL-un IṢ-BAT Ù DUMU Ne-e-sa-as i-da-a-lu na-at-ta ku-e-da-ni-ik-ki tak-ki-is-ta an-nu-us at-tu-us i-e-et nu Pi-it-ha-a-na-as at-ta-as-ma-as a-ap-pa-an sa-ni-ya ú-et-ti hu-ul-la-an-za-an hu-ul-la-nu-un UTU-az ut-ne-e ku-it ku-it-pat a-ra-is nu-us hu-u-ma-an-du-us-pat hu-ul-la-nu-un ka-ru-ú U-uh-na-as LUGAL Za-a-al-pu-wa Si-ú-sum-mi-in Ne-e-sa-az Za-a-al-pu-wa pe-e-da-as ap-pe-ez-zi-ya-na A-ni-it-ta-as LUGAL.GAL Si-ú-sum-mi-in Za-a-al-pu-wa-az a-ap-pa Ne-e-sa pe-e-tah-hu-un Hu-uz-zi-ya-na LUGAL Za-a-al-pu-wa hu-su-wa-an-ta-an Ne-e-sa ú-wa-te-nu-un Ha-at-tu-sa tak-ki-is-ta sa-an ta-a-la-ah-hu-un ma-a-na-as ap-pe-ez-zi-ya-na ki-is-ta-an-zi-at-ta-at sa-an Hal-ma-su-i-iz si-i-us-mi-is pa-ra-a pa-is sa-an is-pa-an-di na-ak-ki-it da-a-ah-hu-un pe-e-di-is-si-ma ZÀ.AH-LI-an a-ne-e-nu-un ku-is am-me-el a-ap-pa-an LUGAL-us ki-i-sa-ri nu Ha-at-tu-sa-an a-ap-pa a-sa-a-si na-an ne-pi-sa-as IŠKUR-as ha-az-zi-e-et-tu Mursili II Mursili II (also spelled Mursilis II )

3476-455: The chief cup-bearer Nuvanza and all the noblemen came to meet me at Tiggaramma. I should have marched to Hayasa still, but the chiefs said to me, 'The season is now far advanced, Sire, Lord! Do not go to Hayasa.' And I did not go to Hayasa. Mursili, himself, could now take satisfaction in the reduction of the hostile and aggressive kingdom of Hayasa-Azzi once more to a Hittite vassal state. After Anniya's defeat, Hayasa-Azzi never appears again in

3555-509: The city of Samuha, "an important cult centre located on the upper course of the Marassantiya river" as a temporary home for the Hittite royal court sometime after his abandonment of Hattusa in the face of attacks against his kingdom by the Kaska , Hayasa-Azzi and other enemies of his state. Samuha was, however, temporarily seized by forces from the country of Azzi. At this time, the kingdom of Hatti

3634-458: The discovery of laryngeals in Hittite was a remarkable confirmation of Saussure's hypothesis. Both the preservation of the laryngeals and the lack of evidence that Hittite shared certain grammatical features in the other early Indo-European languages have led some philologists to believe that the Anatolian languages split from the rest of Proto-Indo-European much earlier than the other divisions of

3713-442: The early metallurgy techniques developed in the region. While the language or languages spoken in Hayasa-Azzi are unknown, there does seem to have been a prevalent non- Anatolian Indo-European linguistic element. This language seems to have had some similarities to Ancient Greek and could have been an early Armenian dialect. The name of the king, Karanni, may be connected to Greek- Macedonian Karanos . Some scholars argue that

3792-569: The ethnogenesis of Armenians . Hittite inscriptions deciphered in the 1920s by the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer testify to the existence of the mountainous country, Hayasa-Azzi, lying to the east of Hatti in the Upper Euphrates region. Its western border seems to have alternated between Samuha (probably just west of modern Sivas ) and Kummaha (likely modern Kemah, Erzincan ). These areas later geographically overlapped, at least partially, with

3871-441: The familiar Akkadian cuneiform script but in an unknown language were discovered by Hugo Winckler in what is now the village of Boğazköy , Turkey, which was the former site of Hattusa , the capital of the Hittite state. Based on a study of this extensive material , Bedřich Hrozný succeeded in analyzing the language. He presented his argument that the language is Indo-European in a paper published in 1915 (Hrozný 1915), which

3950-516: The features became simplified in Hittite. According to Craig Melchert , the current tendency (as of 2012) is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European evolved and that the "prehistoric speakers" of Anatolian became isolated "from the rest of the PIE speech community, so as not to share in some common innovations". Hittite and the other Anatolian languages split off from Proto-Indo-European at an early stage. Hittite thus preserved archaisms that would be lost in

4029-963: The first scientifically acceptable Hittite grammar with a chrestomathy and a glossary. The most up-to-date grammar of the Hittite language is currently Hoffner and Melchert (2008). Hittite is one of the Anatolian languages and is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions that were erected by the Hittite kings. The script formerly known as "Hieroglyphic Hittite" is now termed Hieroglyphic Luwian. The Anatolian branch also includes Cuneiform Luwian , Hieroglyphic Luwian , Palaic , Lycian , Milyan , Lydian , Carian , Pisidian , Sidetic and Isaurian . Unlike most other Indo-European languages, Hittite does not distinguish between masculine and feminine grammatical gender, and it lacks subjunctive and optative moods as well as aspect. Various hypotheses have been formulated to explain these differences. Some linguists , most notably Edgar H. Sturtevant and Warren Cowgill , have argued that Hittite should be classified as

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4108-436: The geminate series of plosives is the one descending from Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops , and the simple plosives come from both voiced and voiced aspirate stops, which is often referred as Sturtevant's law . Because of the typological implications of Sturtevant's law, the distinction between the two series is commonly regarded as one of voice. However, there is no agreement over the subject among scholars since some view

4187-444: The gods of Hayasa-Azzi recorded in treaties with the Hittites could be connected to Armenian or Greek traditions. Unag-Astuas is likely connected, at least etymologically, to Classical Armenian Astuats (Modern Armenian: Astvats ), which means 'God' and continues to be used in Armenian today. Baltaik could be a goddess connected to West Semitic Ba‘alat ( Astarte ), with a probable Armenian diminutive suffix -ik (such as

4266-422: The king of Egypt and a Hittite ruler, found at El-Amarna , Egypt . Knudtzon argued that Hittite was Indo-European, largely because of its morphology . Although he had no bilingual texts, he was able to provide a partial interpretation of the two letters because of the formulaic nature of the diplomatic correspondence of the period. Knudtzon was definitively shown to have been correct when many tablets written in

4345-578: The later date. However, most scholars accept the 1312 BC event because this eclipse's effects would have been particularly dramatic with a near total eclipse over the Peloponnese region and Anatolia (where Mursili II was campaigning) around noon. In contrast, the 1308 BC astronomical event began in Arabia and then travelled eastwards in a northeasterly direction; it only reached its maximum impact over Mongolia and Central Asia. It occurred over Anatolia around 8:20 in

4424-551: The morning making it less noticeable. Mursili II's highest confirmed date was his twenty-second year. He is believed to have lived beyond this date for a few more years and died after a reign of around 25 to 27 years. He was succeeded by his son Muwatalli II . Mursili II is known from several cuneiform texts. Mursili is known to have had several children with his first wife Gassulawiya including three sons named Muwatalli , Hattusili III and Halpasulupi. A daughter named Massanauzzi (referred to as Matanaza in correspondence with

4503-402: The name Hayasa to the endonym of the Armenians , hay , and the Armenian name for Armenia, Hayk’ or Hayastan , has prompted the suggestion that the Hayasa-Azzi confederation was involved in the Armenian ethnogenesis, or perhaps had been an Armenian-speaking state. -assa / -asa are, respectively, Hittite and Hieroglyphic Luwian genitive suffixes. Therefore, Hayasa could have been

4582-494: The names of three successive kings who ruled over a state of Hayasa and/or Azzi. They were Karanni (or Lanni), Mariya, and Hakkani (or Hukkana). Hakkani married a Hittite princess. When Suppiluliuma had become king himself, Hakkani proceeded to marry Suppiluliuma's sister. In a treaty signed with Hakkani, Suppiluliuma I mentions a series of obligations of civil right: My sister, whom I gave you in marriage has sisters; through your marriage, they now become your relatives. Well, there

4661-476: The nature of Hittite phonology have been more or less overcome by means of comparative etymology and an examination of Hittite spelling conventions. Accordingly, scholars have surmised that Hittite possessed the following phonemes: Hittite had two series of consonants, one which was written always geminate in the original script, and another that was always simple. In cuneiform , all consonant sounds except for glides could be geminate. It has long been noticed that

4740-755: The norm for other writings. The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified into Old Hittite (OH), Middle Hittite (MH) and New Hittite or Neo-Hittite (NH, not to be confused with the polysemic use of " Neo-Hittite " label as a designation for the later period, which is actually post-Hittite), corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite history ( c.  1750 –1500 BC, 1500–1430 BC and 1430–1180 BC, respectively). The stages are differentiated on both linguistic and paleographic grounds. Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst (2019) recognizes two dialectal variants of Hittite: one he calls "Kanišite Hittite", and

4819-582: The other Indo-European languages. Hittite has many loanwords, particularly religious vocabulary from the non-Indo-European Hurrian and Hattic languages. The latter was the language of the Hattians , the local inhabitants of the land of Hatti before they were absorbed or displaced by the Hittites . Sacred and magical texts from Hattusa were often written in Hattic, Hurrian and Luwian even after Hittite had become

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4898-499: The people of Hayasa likewise. They plundered Institina, blockaded Ganuvara with troops and chariots. And because I had left Nuvanzas, the chief cup-bearer, and all the heads of the camp and troops and chariots in the High Country, I wrote to Nuvanzas as follows; 'See the people of Hayasa have devastated Institina, and blockaded the city of Ganuvara.' And Nuvanza led troops and chariots for aid and marched to Ganuvara And then he sent to me

4977-486: The prisoners taken." Anniya's rebellion soon prompted a Hittite response. The Hittite King Mursili II , having defeated Pihhuniya, marched to the borders of Hayasa-Azzi where he demanded Anniya return his captured subjects. When Anniya refused, Mursili immediately attacked the Hayasa's border fortress of Ura. In the following spring, he crossed the Euphrates and re-organized his army at Ingalova which, about ten centuries later,

5056-501: The pronunciation of Hayasa was probably closer to Khayasa , with an aspirated h . According to him, this nullifies the connection to Armenian Hay (հայ). Additionally, he argues that -asa cannot be an Anatolian language suffix as names with this suffix are absent in the Armenian Highlands. Diakonoff's criticisms have been refuted by Matiossian and others, who argue that, as Hayasa is a Hittite (or Hittite-ized) exonym applied to

5135-437: The rest of Mursili's reign under the immediate authority of a local governor appointed by the king." While Mursili II would invade and reconquer Hayasa-Azzi in his tenth year, its formal submission did not occur until the following year of the Hittite king's reign. The Annals of Mursili describe the campaigns of Mursili against Hayasa-Azzi below: The people of Nahasse arose and besieged" (name indecipherable). "Other enemies and

5214-470: The royal prince Nana-Lu came to meet me on the road and said, 'The Hayasan enemy having besieged Ganuvara, Nuvanza marched against him and met him under the walls of Ganuvara. Ten thousand men and seven hundred chariots were drawn up in battle against him, and Nuvanza defeated them. There are many dead and many prisoners. (Here the tablets are defaced, and 15 lines lost.) And when I arrived in Tiggaramma ,

5293-503: The same location. Vartan Matiossian argues that Hayasa was an ethnonym while Azzi was the polity or land in which the Hayasans lived. According to Massimo Forlanini , Hayasa and Azzi may have denoted the same polity, with the name having switched from Hayasa to Azzi following the establishment of a new ruling dynasty or capital. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I 's treaty with Hakkani of Hayasa addresses "the people of Hayasa." According to Igor Diakonoff , this likely suggests that

5372-428: The series as if they were differenced by length , which a literal interpretation of the cuneiform orthography would suggest. Supporters of a length distinction usually point to the fact that Akkadian , the language from which the Hittites borrowed the cuneiform script, had voicing, but Hittite scribes used voiced and voiceless signs interchangeably. Alwin Kloekhorst also argues that the absence of assimilatory voicing

5451-407: The term, Hittite remains the most current term because of convention and the strength of association with the Biblical Hittites . The endonymic term nešili , and its Anglicized variants ( Nesite , Nessite , Neshite ), have never caught on. The first substantive claim as to the affiliation of Hittite was made by Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon in 1902, in a book devoted to two letters between

5530-450: The three laryngeals ( * h₂ and * h₃ word-initially). Those sounds, whose existence had been hypothesized in 1879 by Ferdinand de Saussure , on the basis of vowel quality in other Indo-European languages, were not preserved as separate sounds in any attested Indo-European language until the discovery of Hittite. In Hittite, the phoneme is written as ḫ . In that respect, Hittite is unlike any other attested Indo-European language and so

5609-487: The time of the earliest discovered sources and was subsumed by the nominative in most documents. The allative was subsumed in the later stages of the language by the dative - locative . An archaic genitive plural -an is found irregularly in earlier texts, as is an instrumental plural in -it . A few nouns also form a distinct locative , which had no case ending at all. The examples of pišna- ("man") for animate and pēda- ("place") for inanimate are used here to show

5688-443: The verb ēš-/aš- "to be". Hittite is a head-final language: it has subject-object-verb word order , a split ergative alignment , and is a synthetic language ; adpositions follow their complement , adjectives and genitives precede the nouns that they modify, adverbs precede verbs, and subordinate clauses precede main clauses . Hittite syntax shows one noteworthy feature that is typical of Anatolian languages: commonly,

5767-432: The viceroys of Carchemish (i.e.: Sarri-Kush) and Aleppo respectively. Mursili II would prove to be more than a match for his successful father, in his military deeds and diplomacy. The Annals for the first ten years of his reign have survived and record that he carried out punitive campaigns against the Kaska tribes in the first two years of his reign in order to secure his kingdom's northern borders. The king then turned to

5846-525: The western regions of Urartu . However, there is almost no evidence of a close Armenian-Phrygian connection. The term Hayastan bears resemblance to the ancient Mesopotamian god Haya ( ha-ià ) and another western deity called Ebla Hayya , related to the god Ea ( Enki or Enkil in Sumerian, Ea in Akkadian and Babylonian). Thus, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1962 posited that

5925-402: Was a king of the Hittite Empire (New kingdom) c.  1330 –1295 BC ( middle chronology ) or 1321–1295 BC ( short chronology ). Mursili was the third born son of King Suppiluliuma I , one of the most powerful men to rule over the Hittite Empire , and Queen Henti . He was the younger brother of Arnuwanda II , he also had a sister and one more brother. In 1321 BC Mursili II assumed

6004-528: Was about to launch his campaign against the Hayasa-Azzi. Mursili's Year 10 solar eclipse is of great importance for the dating of the Hittite Empire within the chronology of the Ancient Near East . There are only two possible dates for the eclipse: 24 June 1312 BC or 13 April 1308 BC. The earlier date is accepted by Hittitologists such as Trevor R. Bryce (1998), while Paul Åström (1993) has suggested

6083-446: Was so besieged by fierce attacks from its enemies that many neighbouring powers expected it to soon collapse. The Egyptian pharaoh, Amenhotep III , even wrote to Tarhundaradu, king of Arzawa: "I have heard that everything is finished and that the country of Hattusa is paralysed" (EA 31, 26–27). However, Tudhaliya managed to rally his forces; indeed, the speed and determination of the Hittite king may have surprised Hatti's enemies including

6162-457: Was soon followed by a grammar of the language (Hrozný 1917). Hrozný's argument for the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite was thoroughly modern although poorly substantiated. He focused on the striking similarities in idiosyncratic aspects of the morphology that are unlikely to occur independently by chance or to be borrowed. They included the r / n alternation in some noun stems (the heteroclitics ) and vocalic ablaut , which are both seen in

6241-522: Was to become the treasure-house and burial-place of the Armenian kings of the Arshakuni Dynasty . Despite Mursili's Year 7 and probable Year 8 campaigns against Hayasa-Azzi, Anniya was still unsubdued and continued to defy the Hittite king's demands to return his people at the beginning of Mursili's Ninth year. Then, in the latter's Year 9, Anniya launched a major counter-offensive by once again invading

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