Siam
51-477: The Haw Wars ( Thai : สงครามปราบฮ่อ ) were fought against Chinese quasi-military refugee gangs invading parts of Tonkin and the Laos from 1865–1890. Forces invading Lao domains were ill-disciplined and freely demolished Buddhist temples. Not knowing these were remnants of secret societies , the invaders were wrongly called Haw ( Lao : ຫໍ້ ; Thai: ฮ่อ ; Chinese: Hao). Forces sent by King Rama V failed to suppress
102-612: A dominant language in all aspects of society in Thailand, Thai initially saw gradual and later widespread adoption as a second language among the country's minority ethnic groups from the mid-late Ayutthaya period onward. Ethnic minorities today are predominantly bilingual, speaking Thai alongside their native language or dialect. Standard Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Northern Thai , Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with
153-459: A Siamese army composed largely of Isan and northern Thai levies. The resulting expedition, in which the British surveyor James McCarthy participated, "was ill-conceived, inadequately planned, and ultimately unsuccessful". Thanks to McCarthy's presence, the 1884-1885 expedition is unusually well-documented. McCarthy's personal accounts provide descriptions of the effort, suffering and incompetence of
204-597: A Western rendition of 東京 Đông Kinh , meaning 'Eastern Capital'. This was the name of the capital of the Lê dynasty (present-day Hanoi ). Locally, Tonkin is nowadays known as miền Bắc , or Bắc Bộ , meaning ' Northern Region '. The name was used from 1883 to 1945 for the French protectorate of Tonkin (Vietnamese: Bắc Kỳ 北圻), a constituent territory of French Indochina . It is south of Yunnan (Vân Nam) and Guangxi (Quảng Tây) Provinces of China ; east of northern Laos and west of
255-702: A crucial foothold in Southeast Asia and a key to the Chinese market, was invaded by the French in the Tonkin Campaign . It was colonized as the French protectorate of Tonkin , and was gradually separated from the French protectorate of Annam , with Vietnam being effectively separated into three parts. During French colonial rule within French Indochina , Hanoi was the capital of Tonkin protectorate, and in 1901 became
306-533: A four-way distinction among stops and affricates . The maximal four-way occurred in labials ( /p pʰ b ʔb/ ) and denti-alveolars ( /t tʰ d ʔd/ ); the three-way distinction among velars ( /k kʰ ɡ/ ) and palatals ( /tɕ tɕʰ dʑ/ ), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing. The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split . This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of
357-558: A notable landowner in the Lam Sơn region, had a following of more than 1,000 people before rising up against rule of the Chinese Ming dynasty . Following his victory he mounted the throne and established himself in the city of Thăng Long ('Ascending Dragon'), present Hà Nội . Thăng Long was also called Đông Kinh 東 京 , meaning 'Eastern Capital' (東京 is identical in meaning and written form in Chinese characters to that of Tokyo ). During
408-626: A search for loot. McCarthy wrote that "the wats had been wantonly destroyed, and piles of palm-leaf records lay heaped together, which, unless soon looked at, would be lost forever." Subsequently, McCarthy travelled to Luang Prabang to consult with the Siamese military commanders and Chao Unkham. There he learned the Haw had advanced to Muang You, which should have been defended by troops under Phraya Sukhothai. However, this Thai nobleman, ill with malaria, had withdrawn to Luang Prabang. The Haw were able to seize
459-525: A syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/ ) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3. The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and
510-502: Is an exonym referring to the northern region of Vietnam . During the 17th and 18th centuries, this term referred to the domain Đàng Ngoài under Trịnh lords ' control, including both the Northern and Thanh - Nghệ regions, north of the Gianh River . From 1884 to early 1945, this term was used for the French protectorate of Tonkin , composed of only Northern Vietnam . "Tonkin" is
561-500: Is based on the register of the educated classes by Central Thai and ethnic minorities in the area along the ring surrounding the Metropolis . In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages . Although most linguists classify these dialects as related but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai". As
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#1732852861988612-553: Is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai script . Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Tai Lue language Shan language others Northern Thai language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of
663-510: Is from the Pali language for "ashes of the dead", and is also Thai for the planet Mars that Romans named for their God of War . Nearby, the city maintains the Garden of Sorrows ( สวนโศกเศร้า ), with signs signifying this is where widows came to grieve. (1878The Chinese Triad (三合會) Pun Tao Gong assassinates the governor of Krabi ( กระบี่) , Phra Issarathichai (พระอิศราธิชัย). All 35 people involved in
714-479: Is the language of television, education, news reporting, and all forms of media. A recent research found that the speakers of the Northern Thai language (also known as Phasa Mueang or Kham Mueang) have become so few, as most people in northern Thailand now invariably speak Standard Thai, so that they are now using mostly Central Thai words and only seasoning their speech with the "Kham Mueang" accent. Standard Thai
765-659: The Franco-Siamese conflict of 1893 , in which the French managed to assert control of the region. Today the Haw Wars are all but forgotten. One memorial to the Thai and Lao soldiers killed in the struggle stands in front of the old Nong Khai City Hall, now a community center and museum. A larger, newer one stands behind the police barracks. Down by the Mekong River in view of Laos on the opposite side stands Wat Angkhan ( อังคาร ), which
816-566: The Gulf of Tonkin . Having the fertile delta area of the Red River , Tonkin is rich in rice production. The area was called Văn Lang from around 2000−200 BC. Evidence of the earliest established society in northern Vietnam, along with the Đông Sơn culture , was discovered in the Cổ Loa Citadel area, located near present-day Hanoi , the capital city of Vietnam. According to Vietnamese myths
867-644: The Hồng Bàng dynasty . The country was called Văn Lang and its people were referred to as the Lạc Việt . By the 3rd century BC, another Viet group, the Âu Việt , emigrated to the Red River delta and mixed with the indigenous population. A new kingdom, Âu Lạc , emerged as the union of the Âu Việt and the Lạc Việt, with Thục Phán proclaiming himself An Dương Vương . Âu Lạc was annexed into Nam Việt kingdom of Triệu Đà . After
918-522: The Nguyen monarch Tự Đức , sent a joint army to expel the invaders. The force was routed, and Chao Ung, prince of Phuan, was killed. The victorious Haw moved south to sack Vientiane , while Chao Unkham sent urgent appeals for assistance to the Thai monarch, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). In the spring of 1875, Siamese forces crossed the River Mekong at Nong Khai . In the first Thai military expedition of
969-605: The Triệu dynasty , this region started to be officially under Chinese rule . In pre- Tang times Tonkin was the port of call for ships on the South China Sea , though the center of commerce later moved north to Guangdong . The victory of Ngô Quyền at the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938 ushered a new era of independence of Vietnam. The Ngô dynasty was followed by the Đinh , Early Lê , Lý , Trần , and Hồ . Lê Lợi (reigned 1428–1433),
1020-657: The 17th and 18th centuries, Westerners commonly used the name Tonkin (from Đông Kinh ) to refer to Đàng Ngoài in the North, ruled by the Trịnh lords . Đàng Ngoài , or Bắc Hà , included not only the delta of the Red River, but also the deltas of the Mã River and Cả River . Meanwhile, Cochinchina or Quinan was used to refer to Đàng Trong in the South, ruled by the Nguyễn lords ; and Annam , from
1071-551: The Haw Wars which are more evocative than those in official Siamese accounts. McCarthy had begun his acquaintance with the Lao-Tonkin borderlands in the 1884, when he led a Thai surveying expedition to Phuan and the southern frontiers of Huaphan, as part of his task of mapping the Thai Kingdom. During this journey he travelled widely through territories subject to regular attack by the flag gangs. He noted that "as we went on, tales of
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#17328528619881122-508: The Haw Wars, they advanced to capture the main Haw base at Chiangkham. The expedition failed to achieve its primary objective, since the Haw refused to give battle and withdrew into the mountains of Phuan and Huaphan . When the Siamese left later that year, armed Haw bands emerged to loot and plunder more or less at will. Eight years later, in 1883, faced with a renewed Haw threat to his capital at Luang Prabang, Chao Unkham again appealed to Bangkok for assistance. King Chulalongkorn dispatched
1173-532: The Haw were brought in, agonizing accounts of their raiding on villages, whose inhabitants they had slaughtered, mutilated or carried into captivity". McCarthy was greatly impressed by the beauty and natural wealth of the regions, but found the inhabitants living a "wretched existence...harried, mutilated and slaughtered by robbers". As in Vientiane ten years before, the Buddhist temples were demolished and desecrated in
1224-500: The Khmer system first before the Thai borrowed. Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on "live syllables" (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on "dead syllables" (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop that automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel). There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to
1275-658: The Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages . The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family , which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border. Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand. The standard
1326-484: The Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction: However, in the process of these mergers, the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to
1377-667: The Vietnamese and Black Flag forces, were broken up and defeated. In 1875–1876, following the capture and execution of Huang Chung-ying by the Black Flag-Vietnamese forces, the surviving Yellow Flag remnants fled westwards into the upper part of the Black River Valley where they harassed the townships of the semi-independent Tai -speaking federation of Sip Son Chu Tai (or Sip Song Chau Tai – Twelve Tai lands), today part of northwestern Vietnam) and northeastern Laos. Further to
1428-481: The White Elephant flag of Siam, and established themselves behind a temporary palisade 100 metres from the Haw fort. The attacking forces were armed with Armstrong 6-pounder (2.5 in/64 mm) guns, but these apparently lacked ammunition. McCarthy noted that most of the firing seemed to come from the Haw watchtowers and, despite Thai and Lao courage and almost reckless indifference to injury, "considerable execution"
1479-712: The capital of all French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, & Vietnam). French colonial administration ruled until 9 March 1945, including 1941-1945 during the World War II Japanese occupation of Vietnam . French administration was allowed by the Japanese as a puppet government. Japan briefly took full control of Vietnam in March 1945, as the Empire of Vietnam . Tonkin became a site of the Vietnamese famine of 1945 during this period. After
1530-632: The end of World War II, French rule returned over French Indochina. The Northern part of Vietnam became a stronghold for the communist Viet Minh . Hanoi was later reoccupied by the French and conflict between the Viet Minh and France broke out into the First Indochina War . In 1949 it came under the authority of the State of Vietnam , a new associated state of the French Union . After the French defeat at
1581-579: The first Vietnamese peoples descended from the Dragon Lord Lạc Long Quân and the Immortal Goddess Âu Cơ . Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ had 100 sons before they decided to part ways. 50 of the children went with their mother to the mountains, and the other 50 went with their father to the sea. The eldest son became the first in a line of earliest Vietnamese kings, collectively known as the Hùng kings of
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1632-515: The local patois as pronounced in Guangdong Ayutthaya , the old capital of Thailand from 1351 - 1767 A.D., was from the beginning a bilingual society, speaking Thai and Khmer . Bilingualism must have been strengthened and maintained for some time by the great number of Khmer-speaking captives the Thais took from Angkor Thom after their victories in 1369, 1388 and 1431. Gradually toward the end of
1683-547: The most significant changes occurred during the evolution from Old Thai to modern Thai. The Thai writing system has an eight-century history and many of these changes, especially in consonants and tones, are evidenced in the modern orthography . According to a Chinese source, during the Ming dynasty , Yingya Shenglan (1405–1433), Ma Huan reported on the language of the Xiānluó (暹羅) or Ayutthaya Kingdom, saying that it somewhat resembled
1734-583: The murder are executed.) (Haw wars1865–1890 Haw 23 Killed ) Chakri dynasty Kings Viceroys Deputy Viceroy Crown Prince Hereditary Prince Royalty Siamese Foreigners Key events Thai language Thai , or Central Thai (historically Siamese ; Thai: ภาษาไทย ), is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by the Central Thai , Mon , Lao Wiang , Phuan people in Central Thailand and
1785-569: The name of the former Chinese province , was used to refer to Vietnam as a whole. After French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh to unify Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty , the French Navy began its heavy presence in Lower Cochinchina , including Saigon , and later colonized the whole of this southern third of Vietnam in 1867. During the Sino-French War (1884–1885), Tonkin, then considered
1836-652: The origins and purpose of the Haw invaders. He concluded that the Governor of Yunnan had sent them into the region to harass the French. This may have been true of the Black Flags in Tonkin, but there is no direct indication of official Chinese involvement in Laos. The Haw continued their depredations until the mid-1890s, when a combination of Siamese and ultimately French pressure forced them to retreat to China. The Haw wars were succeeded by
1887-531: The outpost and burn the Siamese stockade. With the onset of the rainy season in June and July, malaria was to prove a more potent foe than the much-feared Haw. In McCarthy's words "the rain poured down steadily, and sickness prevailed". Accordingly, the Siamese troops stationed in the Laos region remained at Luang Prabang or withdrew across the Mekong to Nong Khai. McCarthy travelled to Bangkok to advise King Chulalongkorn of
1938-415: The period, a language shift took place. Khmer fell out of use. Both Thai and Khmer descendants whose great-grand parents or earlier ancestors were bilingual came to use only Thai. In the process of language shift, an abundance of Khmer elements were transferred into Thai and permeated all aspects of the language. Consequently, the Thai of the late Ayutthaya Period which later became Ratanakosin or Bangkok Thai,
1989-563: The rival "Yellow Flags" crossed the China - Vietnam frontier in 1865 and set up bases in the upper reaches of the Red River Valley . Liu Yongfu and Black forces fighting the French acquired a certain legitimacy and fame of the Vietnamese ruler Tự Đức . In contrast the Yellow Flags, under the leadership of Huang Chung-ying, failed to acquire any legitimacy and, pursued by a combination of
2040-484: The royal vocabulary according to their immediate environment. Thai and Pali, the latter from Theravada Buddhism, were added to the vocabulary. An investigation of the Ayutthaya Rajasap reveals that three languages, Thai, Khmer and Khmero-Indic were at work closely both in formulaic expressions and in normal discourse. In fact, Khmero-Indic may be classified in the same category as Khmer because Indic had been adapted to
2091-687: The situation and await the return of the dry winter months . McCarthy was ordered to return to Laos at the end of the rainy season. He set out from Bangkok in November 1884, travelling by way of Uttaradit and Nan . He arrived at Luang Prabang on 14 January 1885, in time to witness the outbreak of hostilities that were to last three months before ending in failure. The Haw were armed with modern repeating rifles and Birmingham-manufactured ammunition, and many were skilled in guerrilla warfare . They used demoralising tactics such as mutilating captives, employed punji stakes , and made surprise night attacks. Magic
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2142-535: The terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as
2193-489: The three tones of Old Thai were split have since merged into five in standard Thai, with the lower variant of former tone 2 merging with the higher variant of former tone 3, becoming the modern "falling" tone. หม ม หน น, ณ หญ ญ หง ง ป ผ พ, ภ บ ฏ, ต ฐ, ถ ท, ธ ฎ, ด จ ฉ ช Tonkin Tonkin , also spelled Tongkin , Tonquin or Tongking ,
2244-423: The two marks termed mai ek and mai tho ) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after
2295-508: The urban/rural divide, is partly mutually intelligible with Lao , Isan , and some fellow Thai topolects . These languages are written with slightly different scripts, but are linguistically similar and effectively form a dialect continuum . Thai language is spoken by over 69 million people (2020). Moreover, most Thais in the northern (Lanna) and the northeastern (Isan) parts of the country today are bilingual speakers of Central Thai and their respective regional dialects because Central Thai
2346-505: The various groups, the last of which eventually disbanded in 1890. During the latter half of the 19th century, bands of Chinese warriors known as "flag gangs" ravaged large areas of northern Laos. Outlaws and freebooters , the Black flag gangs were fleeing the suppression of the Red Turban secret society . Tonkin (now northern Vietnam ) was invaded first, when units of the " Black Flags " and
2397-555: The vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It is the sole official language of Thailand . Thai is the most spoken of over 60 languages of Thailand by both number of native and overall speakers. Over half of its vocabulary is derived from or borrowed from Pali , Sanskrit , Mon and Old Khmer . It is a tonal and analytic language . Thai has a complex orthography and system of relational markers . Spoken Thai, depending on standard sociolinguistic factors such as age, gender, class, spatial proximity, and
2448-668: The west, starting from about 1872, bands of defeated rebels began drifting across the frontier into Laos, then a tributary state of the Kingdom of Siam . These new bands, distinguished by "Red Flag" and "Striped Flag" banners, moved south to occupy nearly all of northern Laos. The Red Flags sacked Điện Biên Phủ in 1873, and the Striped Flags seized control of Muang Phuan and the Plain of Jars that same year. Responding to this serious challenge, in 1874 Chao Oun Kham , king of Luang Prabang , and
2499-449: Was a thorough mixture of Thai and Khmer. There were more Khmer words in use than Tai cognates. Khmer grammatical rules were used actively to coin new disyllabic and polysyllabic words and phrases. Khmer expressions, sayings, and proverbs were expressed in Thai through transference. Thais borrowed both the Royal vocabulary and rules to enlarge the vocabulary from Khmer. The Thais later developed
2550-428: Was caused to them. The Haw, on the other hand, remained relatively unscathed. At 14:00 the Thais suffered a further setback when their commander-in-chief, Phraya Raj, was injured by a shot "weighing about two pounds, which glanced off the post of a Chinese joss house where he was standing and struck him in the leg." The attack on the Haw stockade eventually had to be given up. Subsequently, McCarthy made enquiries into
2601-604: Was still believed in and was resorted to by both sides. Hora ([โหร] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translit= ( help ) ) accompanying the Siamese troops, determined that 10 o'clock on the morning of 22 February 1885 was the most auspicious time to begin the assault. At the predetermined time, a gun was fired and the attacking forces began their advance against the Haw stronghold, a well-defended stockade 400 metres long by 200 wide, surrounded by bamboo and watched over by seven towers each about 12 metres high. The Thai and Laotian troops advanced in companies of 50 men, each under
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