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105-530: Edward Harriman was one of the most powerful men in America and controlled several railroads. By early 1899, he was exhausted. His doctor told him that he needed a long vacation. Harriman went to Alaska to hunt Kodiak bears . Rather than go alone, he took a scientific community to explore and document the coast of Alaska. He contacted Clinton Hart Merriam , the head of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy at

210-570: A graphophonic recording machine , and used it to record a native Tlingit song. By 25 June, they had reached Prince William Sound. They discovered an undocumented fjord in the northwest corner of the Sound. They named it "Harriman Fjiord." While the scientists had some control over where they stopped to explore, Harriman retained the final judgment. He was anxious to hunt a bear, and he decided to head toward Kodiak Island when he heard that there were bears there. On 7 July, they reached Popof Island in

315-610: A 2.6 km (1.0 sq mi) area. To maximize food intake at these ecologically important areas, bears have learned to minimize fighting and fatal interactions by developing a complex communication (both verbal and body posturing) and social structure. Usually, Kodiak bears attempt to avoid encounters with people. The most notable exceptions to this behavior pattern occur when bears are surprised, threatened, or attracted by human food, garbage, or hunter-killed game. However, there has been an increase in Kodiak encounters due to increases in

420-651: A hind foot measurement of 46 cm (18 in). A large male Kodiak bear stands up to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall at the shoulder when it is standing on all four legs. When standing fully upright on its hind legs, a large male could reach a height of 3 m (9.8 ft). The largest verified size for a captive Kodiak bear was for a specimen that lived at the Dakota Zoo in Bismarck, North Dakota . Nicknamed "Clyde", he weighed 966 kg (2,130 lb) when he died in June 1987 at

525-571: A killer bear in the movie Grizzly , stood 3.4 metres (11 ft) tall on its hind legs and was the largest bear in captivity at the time. This brown bear population only occurs on the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago ( Kodiak , Afognak , Shuyak , Raspberry , Uganik , Sitkalidak , and adjacent islands). The Kodiak bear population was estimated to include 3,526 bears in 2005, yielding an estimated archipelago-wide population density of 270 bears per 1000 km (700 per 1000 sq. mi). During

630-537: A logging road began on Afognak Island, and timber harvesting began in 1977. In 1979, work began on an environmental impact statement for the Terror Lake hydroelectric project on Kodiak Island. That project included an earthen dam on Terror Lake with Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge and a 10 km (6 mi) tunnel through a mountain ridge to a penstock and powerhouse in the Kizhuyak River drainage. The hydro project

735-525: A number of artifacts to the descendants of the original Cape Fox Tlingit residents. Kodiak bears This is an accepted version of this page The Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ), also known as the Kodiak brown bear and sometimes the Alaskan brown bear , inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska . It is one of the largest recognized subspecies or population of

840-532: A result of ANCSA and ANILCA were reinstated into the refuge, either through direct purchase or utilizing conservation easements. Lands were also purchased in America, Westtown, and Shuyak Islands and transferred into state ownership. The Kodiak Brown Bear Trust coordinated a coalition of sportsmen and other wildlife conservation groups from around the nation to lobby for the use of settlement funds to acquire Kodiak lands. The groups also directly contributed funding to protect small parcels of important bear habitat around

945-409: A segment on two brown bear attacks. Both incidents involved hunters who were hunting by themselves and were returning to game they had killed previously, and left alone in order to continue hunting. One of the attacks was fatal, with the hunter being killed by the bear, and occurred on Uganik Island (November 3, 1999), which is part of the Kodiak archipelago. In the other incident, after being attacked by

1050-428: A settlement with the state and federal governments. Paradoxically, the impacts of the oil spill and the subsequent cleanup and settlement proved to be beneficial to bears on Kodiak. Bear-safety training exposed thousands of workers to factual information about bears, and money from the settlement fund was used for funding land acquisitions. By the close of the 20th century, over 80% of the refuge lands that had been lost as

1155-673: A ship of the Russian–American Telegraph Expedition, visited Plover Bay in September 1865, having just missed encounter with "the famed and dreaded" CSS Shenandoah . Frederick Whymper , member of this expedition, reported that by this time "it was no uncommon thing to find several whaling vessels lying inside in summer". Whymper (and later John Muir ) described the mountains around Plover Bay as "composed of an infinite number of fragments split up by action of frost... innumerable and many-coloured lichens and mosses are

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1260-512: A single species ( Ursus arctos ). Genetic samples from bears on Kodiak have shown that they are most closely related to brown bears on the Alaska Peninsula and Kamchatka , Russia, and all brown bears roughly north of the US. Kodiak bears have been genetically isolated since at least the last ice age (10,000 to 12,000 years ago) and very little genetic diversity exists within the population. Although

1365-552: A trading station, called Vladimir, on Plover Bay from at latest 1903 until about 1910. In 1908 the steamer Corwin unloaded cargo at Vladimir Station; this was the former revenue cutter that carried Muir in 1881. By 1913 Emma Harbor was the home of baron Kleist, the Russian administrator for Kamchatka uezd , of a district judge, and of an Estonian trader, Bally Thompson, who maintained a store there. Baron Kleist's house, built of squared logs with curlicue trim cut from planks, stood on

1470-545: A variety of experts from agencies and receiving extensive public input, developed more than 270 recommendations for managing and conserving Kodiak bears. Despite the diversity of viewpoints expressed by members of the group, all of the recommendations were by consensus. The underlying themes of the recommendations were continued conservation of the bear population at its current level, increased education programs to teach people how to live with bears on Kodiak, and protection of bear habitat with allowances for continued human use of

1575-529: Is Taquka’aq (Bear), with the pronunciation varying between Northern and Southern dialects. Providence Bay, Siberia Providence Bay ( Russian : Бу́хта Провиде́ния , Bukhta Provideniya ) is a fjord in the southern coast of the Chukchi Peninsula of northeastern Siberia. It was a popular rendezvous, wintering spot, and provisioning spot for whalers and traders in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Emma Harbor (now Komsomolskaya Bay)

1680-517: Is Mys Gaydamak. Cache bay is the cove in the eastern shore of the fjord, north of Emma Harbor. Snug Harbor is located near the head of the bay, behind Whale Island. Telegraph Harbor is named for the Western Union Telegraph Expedition of 1866-1867 which wintered there (remains of Western Union cabin were reportedly still standing in 1960). It may be the same as Snug Harbor. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey chart shows

1785-575: Is a large sheltered bay in the eastern shore of Providence Bay. Provideniya and Ureliki settlements and Provideniya Bay Airport stand on the Komsomolskaya Bay. Plover Bay in English sources sometimes refers specifically to the anchorage behind Napkum Spit within Providence Bay (also called Port Providence ) but was commonly used as a synonym for Providence Bay; Russian 19th century sources used

1890-423: Is about 8 km wide at its mouth and 34 km long (measured along the midline). It is about 4 km wide through much of its length below Emma Harbor, and about 2.5 km wide just above the juncture. The lower part of the bay runs roughly northeast, while the upper part (above the branch shown as Ked Bay) dog-legs north and is about 2 km wide. Depth soundings (USCGS 1928) show 19 fathoms (35 m) at

1995-497: Is during May and June. They are serially monogamous (having one partner at a time), staying together from two days to two weeks. As soon as the egg is fertilized and divides a few times, it enters a state of suspended animation until autumn when it finally implants on the uterine wall and begins to grow again. Cubs are born in the den during January or February. Weighing less than 450 g (1 lb) at birth with little hair and closed eyes, they suckle for several months, emerging from

2100-413: Is from 181 to 318 kg (399 to 701 lb), and for males (boars), it is 272 to 635 kg (600 to 1,400 lb). Mature males average 477–534 kg (1,052–1,177 lb) over the course of the year, and can weigh up to 680 kg (1,500 lb) at peak times. Females are typically about 20% smaller and 30% lighter than males, and adult sizes are attained when they are six years old. Bears weigh

2205-464: Is much like other brown bears in intelligence, although its tendency to feed in large dense groups leads to more complex social behaviors. Kodiak bears are generally solitary in nature; however, when food is concentrated in small areas, such as along salmon spawning streams, grass/sedge flats, berry patches, a dead whale, or even an open garbage dump, they often occur in large groups. Along a few streams on Kodiak, up to 60 bears can be seen simultaneously in

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2310-454: Is not fair to encourage bears to be close to people during the summer, only to allow them to be shot in the fall. The Kodiak bear plan recognized bear hunting as a legitimate, traditional, and biologically justifiable activity. It recommended that agencies find ways to make bear hunting and bear viewing compatible on the archipelago. The bear is important to the Alutiiq people. Its Alutiiq name

2415-725: Is not listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service . Kodiak bear research and habitat protection is done cooperatively by the ADF&;G and Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Bear hunting is managed by the ADF&G, and hunting regulations are established by the Alaska Board of Game. Currently, a finely tuned management system distributes hunters in 32 different areas during two seasons (spring: April 1 – May 15, and fall: October 25 – November 30). Each year, about 4,500 people apply for

2520-403: Is the anchorage behind Plover Spit, which provides a natural breakwater. It currently serves as the quarantine and hazardous cargo anchorage for Provideniya. Plover Spit is called Napkum Spit in an 1869 account; it projects into the bay from the eastern shore about 8 km from the mouth of the fjord. It has its origin in the moraine left by the glacier that carved the fjord. The tip of the spit

2625-522: The Elder continued northward. By 11 July, the ship had put into Plover Bay in Siberia. Harriman, by this time, was impatient and ready to get back to work. The Elder steamed southward, picking up the party on Popof Island. On 26 July, the Elder made one last stop, at an abandoned Tlingit village at Cape Fox. On July 30, the ship pulled into Seattle. Harriman paid for the creation of several sizable volumes of

2730-465: The Shumagin Islands . Four of the scientists, Ritter, Saunders, Palache, and Kincaid (accompanied by guide Luther Kelly), decided to camp on Popof Island while the rest of the scientists continued on to Siberia. This allowed them to make much more detailed notes about the area, rather than quick notes on frequent stops along the way. Edward Harriman’s wife wanted to put her feet on Siberian soil, so

2835-549: The United States Department of Agriculture , and one of the founders of the National Geographic Society . Harriman told Merriam that he would cover the expenses of scientists, artists, and other experts who would join the voyage. He asked Merriam to choose the scientific party. Historians question why Harriman wanted to go to Alaska. Some think he was considering developing Alaskan resources. Some think he

2940-523: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service to a lesser extent, closely monitor the size and health of the population and the number of bears hunted in the state. Taxonomist C.H. Merriam was the first to recognize the Kodiak bear as a unique subspecies of the brown bear, and he named it " Ursus middendorffi " in honor of the celebrated Baltic naturalist, Dr. A. Th. von Middendorff . Subsequent taxonomic work merged all North American brown bears into

3045-408: The brown bear , and one of the two largest bears alive today, the other being the polar bear . They are also considered by some to be a population of grizzly bears . Physiologically and physically, the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies, such as the mainland grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) and the extinct California grizzly bear ( U. a. californicus ), with

3150-518: The 1950s. The USCGS chart shows a village Akatlak just west of the mouth of the bay. Providence Bay and Emma Harbor do not appear on maps before 1850; it is thought they were visited by whalers in the period 1845-48 just prior to the Plover ' s visit. Providence Bay was probably visited by Russian explorer Kurbat Ivanov in 1660 but his explorations of the Gulf of Anadyr were not widely reported. Golden Gate ,

3255-519: The 1990s and 2000s, the proportion increased to almost 9%. In the past 20 years, bear viewing has become increasingly popular on Kodiak and other parts of Alaska. The most accessible bear-viewing location on Kodiak, Frazer River , had over 1,100 people come in 2007. Visitor numbers have been increasing at about 10% annually and development of additional bear viewing areas on Kodiak is planned. Also, other bear viewing opportunities exist through air-taxi, charter boat, remote lodge, and trekking operations on

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3360-483: The 496 permits offered for Kodiak bear hunts (two-thirds to Alaska residents, one-third to non-residents). Nonresidents are required to hire a registered guide who is authorized to hunt in a particular area, and this can cost from $ 10,000 to $ 22,000. All hunters must come into the Alaska Department of Fish and Game office in Kodiak before going into the field for a brief orientation and must check out before they leave

3465-590: The ADF&G officers who often have the full support of the local community. Illegal hunting and fishing is frowned upon by the community which maintains a healthy respect for the island's environmental laws, as well. Stiff penalties accompany illegal hunting and fishing. The island's remote location makes trafficking in illegal pelts difficult for would-be poachers. Since statehood, the reported number of Kodiak bears killed by hunters has ranged from 77 (1968–1969) to 206 (1965–1966). From 2000 to 2006, an average of 173 Kodiak bears were killed by hunters each year (118 during

3570-660: The European-style settlement that was created by Scottish missionary William Duncan for the Alaskan indigenous people. The scientists visited with Duncan in his home. In the next two weeks the Elder stopped at several spots on Alaskan soil, including Skagway and Sitka . They saw the results, both positive and negative, of the Klondike Gold Rush . They continued to catalog plants, animals, and marine creatures, as well as geological and glacial formations. Harriman had brought

3675-476: The Kodiak bear population as human activity in its range increases. The IUCN classifies the brown bear ( Ursus arctos) , of which the Kodiak is a subspecies, as being of " least concern " in terms of endangerment or extinction , though the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies and thus does not provide a conservation status for the Kodiak population. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game however, along with

3780-1042: The Siberian coast, hoping to have the large schools of whales near Plover Bay to himself, but the ship hit a large ice floe. The Oriole was subsequently abandoned in the bay; in Spears account, she was tipped on her side for repairs when a hatch gave way, flooding and sinking the ship in minutes. By 1880, a visitor on the schooner Yukon found the village on the spit much reduced; whales were no longer abundant and many residents had moved west in search of better hunting. The village dogs had all died due to lack of food. In 1875 Russian clipper Gaydamak under command of Sergey Tyrtov anchored in Providence Bay. Tyrtov, ordered to enforce state monopoly on coastal trading, distributed to local Chukchis printed leaflets addressed to foreign merchants. He then headed north to Saint Lawrence Bay where he intercepted Timandra , an American merchant boat involved in trading walrus ivory for alcohol. In 1876

3885-528: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ( geomagnetic observations) in 1921. The Harriman Alaska Expedition visited there in July 1899 and produced many good photographs illustrating topography and native life. John Muir noted that by 1899 there were around fifty Chukchis living in a dozen huts covered with walrus hide, already "spoiled by the contact with civilization of the whaler seamen". John Burroughs noted that "they were not shy of our cameras and freely admitted us to

3990-467: The age of 22. According to zoo director Terry Lincoln, Clyde probably weighed close to 1,089 kg (2,400 lb) a year earlier. He still had a fat layer of 9 in (23 cm) when he died. . Kodiak bears are the largest brown bear and are even comparable in size to polar bears . This makes Kodiak bears and polar bears both the two largest members of the bear family and the largest extant terrestrial carnivorans. The standard method of evaluating

4095-712: The archipelago as large areas were conveyed to the Native corporations. Federal management of the National Forest lands on Afognak was transferred to Native Corporation ownership with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 (ANILCA), and the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge lost control of 130,000 hectares (310,000 acres) of prime bear habitat (more than 17% of refuge lands). In 1975, construction of

4200-459: The archipelago they live. Almost a quarter of the adult bears forgo denning, staying somewhat active throughout the winter. Kodiak bears reach sexual maturity at age five, but most sows are over nine years old when they successfully wean their first litter. The average time between litters is four years. Sows continue to produce cubs throughout their lives, but their productivity diminishes after they are 20 years old. Mating season for Kodiak bears

4305-441: The archipelago when the land was locked into the ice age looked to the sea for their sustenance. At that time, Kodiak Natives (Alutiiqs) occasionally hunted bears, using their meat for food, hides for clothing and bedding, and teeth for adornment. Traditional stories often revolved around the similarity between bears and humans, and the mystical nature of bears because of their proximity to the spirit world. Russian hunters came to

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4410-457: The archipelago, resulting in a surge of baseline and applied bear research on Kodiak through the 1980s and 1990s. Bears were not directly harmed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, although some were displaced from traditional feeding and traveling areas by cleanup crews. No one was injured by a bear, and no Kodiak bears were killed. To mitigate the adverse impacts of the spill, Exxon reached

4515-417: The archipelago. Although bear-viewing is often considered a "nonconsumptive" use, it can have serious impacts on bear populations if it is not conducted properly. Most viewing occurs at places where bears congregate because of feeding opportunities that are critical to their survival. If some bears avoid these areas because people are there, those bears may not get the fat and protein they need to make it through

4620-423: The archipelago. Although the group's role is merely advisory, government management agencies expressed a commitment to implement all of the regulations that were feasible and within their legal jurisdictions. The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List does not list subspecies. The brown bear species, of which the Kodiak subspecies is a member, is listed as Lower Risk or Least Concern. The Kodiak

4725-497: The area in the late 18th century to capitalize on the abundant fur resources. Bear hides were considered a "minor fur" and sold for about the same price as river otter pelts. The number of bears harvested increased substantially when sea otter populations declined and after the United States acquired Alaska in 1867, bear harvests on Kodiak increased, peaking at as many as 250 bears per year. Commercial fishing activities increased in

4830-458: The bear, the hunter stabbed it with a knife, then recovered their rifle and killed the attacking bear. This occurred on Raspberry Island, home to two full-service wilderness lodges. Prior to that, the last fatality was in 1921. About once every other year, a bear injures a person on Kodiak. In October 2021, a father and son hunting duo survived an attack from a Kodiak bear during an elk registration hunt on Afognak Island. Early human occupants of

4935-418: The best American scientists, artists, and photographers of the time. Arctic experts Botanists Biologists and zoologists Geologists and geographers Artists and photographers Writers Harriman also brought a medical team, a chaplain, hunters and packers, guides, and taxidermists. He brought his own family and his servants. Together, with the crew of the Elder , the total number of people on

5040-480: The brain, flesh, and eggs of salmon for their high nutritional value. In the late summer and early fall, bears consume several types of berries when they reach their ripest point, and have the highest levels of sugar. As climate change causes elderberries to ripen earlier, berry season is now overlapping with salmon season and some bears are abandoning salmon runs to focus on the berries. Bears also feed on wind-rowed seaweed and invertebrates on some beaches throughout

5145-431: The coast. Aiwan (Avan), a Yupik village, lay east of the bay between the sea and Lake Istikhed (a freshwater lake named after the English toponym "East Head"; called Lake Moore in some English-language sources ). It was reportedly abandoned in 1942 due to concern it could be hit by Soviet Navy shells; another source has it evacuated in 1941 to make way for coast-defense artillery ; yet another source has it occupied into

5250-405: The countryside and the dignity and viability of the indigenous cultures. In many ways, they were firmly rooted in 19th century science. In the 19th century, the common way to write scientific articles was to create endlessly long descriptions of the physical characteristics of plants or animals. Most of the publications from the expedition followed this protocol. This approach to biology withered in

5355-421: The course of the trip and afterward, the two became friends. Years later, Muir recruited Harriman to help with governmental lobbying on National Park legislation. Muir gave the eulogy at Harriman’s funeral in 1909. In many ways, the expedition was an intersection of 19th century science and 20th century science. It often represented the best of the new century’s science, but it also showed how scientists thought in

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5460-500: The cubs die before they leave, with cannibalism by adult males being one of the major causes of death. Kodiak bears that have recently left their mothers, at ages 3–5 years, have high mortality rates with only 56% of males and 89% of females surviving. Most young female bears stay within or near their mother's home range, while most males move farther away. Most adult sows die of natural causes (56%), while most adult male bears are killed by hunters (91%). The oldest known male bear in

5565-403: The current population is healthy, productive, and has shown no overt adverse signs of inbreeding , it may be more susceptible to new diseases or parasites than other, more diverse brown bear populations. Hair colors range from pale blonde to orange (typically females or bears from southern parts of the archipelago) to dark brown. Cubs will often retain a white "natal ring" around their neck for

5670-490: The den in May or June, weighing 6.8–9.1 kilograms (15–20 pounds). Typical litter sizes on Kodiak are two or three cubs, with a long-term average of 2.4 cubs per litter. However, Kodiak bears have six functional nipples and can litter up to six cubs have been reported. Sows are sometimes seen with five or six cubs in tow, probably due to adopting cubs from other litters. Most cubs stay with their mothers for three years. Almost half of

5775-508: The dilemma of conserving bears while protecting cattle, salmon, and people, President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge by executive order in 1941. The 7,700 km (1,900,000 acres) refuge roughly encompasses the southwestern two-thirds of Kodiak Island, Uganik Island, the Red Peaks area on northwestern Afognak Island, and all of Ban Island. Alaska achieved statehood in 1959 and assumed responsibility for managing

5880-488: The discoveries of the expedition. When Harriman died in 1909, his wife provided additional funds to continue the publications. Merriam served as the editor, and spent twelve years working on the publications. John Burroughs , a best-selling nature author, was the official scribe of the expedition. He wrote much of Volume I , an overview of the trip. Volumes VI and VII , which were to be written by Merriam and feature mammals, never appeared. Perhaps Merriam simply couldn’t find

5985-445: The early 20th century. Another example of 19th century thinking was their perspective on indigenous cultures. Their ethnocentric view regarded the indigenous people as savages. While the scientists remarked in horror that the indigenous cultures were disappearing, they simultaneously felt that adopting modern European-style technology, dress, and customs would be a helpful step for them. The intersection of 19th and 20th century science

6090-450: The eastern shore of the bay between two outbuildings. It was put up about 1909 at a cost of about $ 15,000, with materials brought up from Vladivostok. In 1926, Yupik people from Provideniya Bay were recruited to settle Wrangel Island. In 1930, Provideniya Bay served as a temporary base for Soviet aircraft to evacuate passengers from the Soviet steamer Stavropol, frozen in off Mys Schmitda on

6195-407: The entire series in 1910, and the volumes are now available as free downloads. The expedition claimed to have discovered some 600 species that were new to science, including 38 new fossil species. They charted the geographic distribution of many species. They discovered an unmapped fjord and named several glaciers. Gilbert’s work on glaciers represented new thinking in the field. Another legacy of

6300-442: The entire upper portion of the fjord as Vsadnik Bay. The Asiatic Pilot of 1909 refers to Vladimir Bay and Cache Bay, separated by Popov point, and notes that the bays are shallower above this point. Plover Spit is site of an abandoned Eskimo village with characteristic semi-underground houses, a more recent village of yarangas , and one of the 1869 eclipse observatories (see below). The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey charts show

6405-829: The entrance and a maximum depth of 82 fathoms (150 m). A more recent chart (USCS 2000) shows depths of 10 to 11 fathoms (18 to 20 m) at the entrance. Emma Harbor has been described as "the best harbor on the Asiatic coast north of Petropavlosk ...." and is currently the only important harbor on Providence Bay. It is a fjord in its own right, about 14 km from the mouth of Providence Bay and about 1.5 x 6 km in extent with depths shown from 6 to 15 fathoms (11 to 27 m). Besides Emma Harbor there are three or four other sheltered anchorages within Providence Bay that are named by early writers: Port Providence, Cache Bay (also Ked Bay or Cash Cove), Telegraph Harbor, and Snug Harbor. Port Providence (now Buhkta Slavyanka or Reid Plover)

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6510-403: The expedition (in protest of other members) removed some of the artifacts from the village. While this has been described by some as "looting," it must be considered in the context of the times. Members of the expedition believed that the indigenous cultures of Alaska would soon be extinguished by the encroaching of modern civilization. Their desire was to save to museums what they believed would be

6615-405: The fall season and 55 in the spring season). Over 75% of those were males. An additional nine bears were reported killed annually in defense of life or property during the same time. The number of large, trophy-sized bears (total skull size at least 70 cm [28 inches]) killed by hunters in recent years has been increasing. In the 1970s, only 2.5% of the bears killed on Kodiak were trophy-sized; in

6720-483: The fall. Captain Lass maintained he had become icebound unintentionally having entered the bay to take on water and remained because of the good whaling. The whaling in this instance was done from boats operating from the harbor, where the ship remained moored. The crew members alleged that Lass had planned on overwintering, subjecting them to hardship and extending their service in violation of their contract. The court ruled for

6825-465: The first few years of life. The Kodiak bear's color is similar to that of its close relatives, the mainland American Grizzly bear and Eurasian brown bears . While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas, most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg (254 and 794 lb); the Kodiak bear illustrates island gigantism , commonly reaching sizes of 300 to 600 kg (660 to 1,320 lb). The size range for females (sows)

6930-624: The first successful wintering of a ship in Bering Sea region. Lieutenant William Hulme Hooper of the Plover attributes the name Port Emma (or Emma's Harbor) to Captain Moore but provides no explanation of the choice of name. The entrance to Providence Bay is delineated by Mys Lysaya Golova (East Head, Baldhead Point) on the east and by Mys Lesovskogo on the west. Mys Lysaya Golova is about 7 miles (11 km) west-northwest of Cape Chukotsky . Providence Bay

7035-407: The first to go to dens; males are the last. Males begin emerging from their dens in early April, while sows with new cubs may stay in dens until late June. Bears living on the north end of Kodiak Island tend to have longer denning periods than bears in the southern areas. Most Kodiak bears dig their dens in hill or mountain sides and they use a wide variety of denning habitats depending on which part of

7140-417: The greasy and smoky interiors of their dwellings" and "some of the natives showed a strain of European blood." In 1921, there were reported efforts by Japan to assert control of the area, and the strategic importance of the bay was noted by an American writer . Two Soviet-era settlements, Provideniya and Ureliki, were built on Komsomolskaya Bay in the 20th century, and the bay was used as a naval harbor. It

7245-403: The island. Every bear that is legally killed on the archipelago must be inspected by an ADF&G wildlife biologist before it can be taken from the islands. Pelts receive a stamp from an ADF&G officer if the hunter and guide provide proper documentation to prove licensing. Pelts cannot be transported or legally preserved or sold without the official stamp. Hunting laws are strictly enforced by

7350-474: The islands. In 2001, a citizens advisory committee was established to work closely with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), with the cooperation of Kodiak NWR, to develop a management plan addressing several problems that affect bears, including hunting, habitat, and viewing. The resulting Kodiak Archipelago Bear Conservation and Management Plan was crafted over several months by representatives from 12 diverse user groups, which, after hearing from

7455-498: The last remnants of the Tlingit artwork and culture. The expedition saw the artifacts as inanimate objects from a deserted village. To the Tlingit living nearby, the artifacts were a sacred part of their identity. The Cape Fox artifacts were preserved in museums. In 2001, a group of scientists retraced the steps of the 1899 Harriman Expedition. The 2001 scientists and crew, including the great-great-granddaughter of Edward Harriman, returned

7560-485: The late 1880s and canneries proliferated throughout the archipelago. Bears were viewed as competitors for the salmon resource and were routinely shot when seen on streams or coasts. At the same time, sportsmen and scientists had recognized the Kodiak bear as the largest in the world, and they voiced concerns about overharvesting the population. Professional interest in guided Kodiak bear hunts and concern for unregulated resource use in frontier lands such as Alaska prompted

7665-464: The least when they emerge from their dens in the spring, and can increase their weight by 20–30% during late summer and fall. As with other animals, captive Kodiak bears can sometimes weigh considerably more than their wild counterparts. An average adult male measures 244 cm (8 ft 0 in) in length, and stands 133 cm (4 ft 4 in) tall at the shoulder. The largest recorded wild male weighed 751 kg (1,656 lb), and had

7770-415: The local population as well as increased hunting of Kodiak bears. Bear safety precautions aim at avoiding such situations, understanding bear needs and behavior, and learning how to recognize the warning signs bears give when stressed. One fatal bear attack on a person on the Kodiak archipelago occurred in 1999. The National Geographic Society filmed a television program about brown bears, which included

7875-671: The main difference being size, as Kodiak bears are on average 1.5 to 2 times larger than their cousins. Despite this large variation in size, the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear do not differ greatly from those of other brown bears. Kodiak bears have interacted with humans for centuries, especially hunters and other people in the rural coastal regions of the archipelago. The bears are hunted for sport and are encountered by hunters pursuing other species. Less frequently, Kodiak bears are killed by people whose property (such as livestock) or person are threatened. In recent history there has been an increasing focus on conservation and protection of

7980-751: The mission was continued by captain Novosilsky on board of Vsadnik . Vsadnik anchored in Plover Bay July 5, 1876, performed hydrographic survey of the area and then headed north; she passed Bering Strait , turned west, reaching Cape Schmidt (then Cape Severny, or North Cape in English usage) and safely returned to base. Vsadnik did not meet any merchant boats, but found evidence of recent trading with America (including unfinished vodka barrels) in Chukchi huts. In 1881 Russian Strelok anchored in Providence Bay. Strelok , apart from surveys and border control,

8085-483: The mountains east of the fjord An article from 1879 quotes a letter from William Healey Dall , referring in passing to "the white men's trading station at Plover Bay". It is not clear whether Dall meant an established trading post, or simply a rendezvous. As late as 1880, the only settlement mentioned by an anonymous visitor on the USC&;GS schooner Yukon was a native village. The Northeastern Siberian Company had

8190-491: The northeastern part of Kodiak Island. About half of the archipelago is included in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge . Bears live throughout the archipelago, adapting to local resources and retaining relatively small home ranges and comparable densities in most habitats. With such a variety and abundance of food sources, bears are surprisingly intelligent in their eating habits. The first foods bears eat in

8295-572: The northern coast of Chukotka. These aircraft were delivered by the icebreaker Litke ; the passengers, transported by aircraft and sledge, wintered at Provideniya Bay and were picked up by the Stavropol the next July. Emma Harbor and Providence Bay were favored sites for scientific observers. These included investigators from the US Naval Observatory attempting to observe the 1869 solar eclipse , several ornithological collectors, geologists, and

8400-413: The northern islands, to steep, glaciated mountains rising to Koniag Peak's 1,360 m (4,470 ft) along the central spine of Kodiak Island, to rolling hills and flat tundra on the south end of the archipelago. About 14,000 people live on the archipelago, primarily in and around the city of Kodiak and six outlying villages. Roads and other human alterations are generally limited to Afognak Island and

8505-577: The only vegetation to be seen, except on a patch of open green country near Emma Harbour, where domesticated reindeer graze." The area around Providence Bay provided good whaling in the early days, particularly in the fall; this may account for some of its popularity as a wintering spot. In 1860, the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled in favor of eight seamen of the whaling brig Wailua of Honolulu which wintered in Plover Bay 1858-9 after staying too late into

8610-494: The past decade, the population has been slowly increasing. Bears on Kodiak are naturally active during the day , but when faced with competition for food or space, they adopt a more nocturnal (active at night) lifestyle. This behavior is especially evident in the bears that live near and within Kodiak City. Kodiak bears do not defend territories, but they do have traditional areas that they use each year (home ranges). Because of

8715-462: The previous century. They foreshadowed practices of 20th century science by being an interdisciplinary team. The wealth of disciplines represented on the voyage enabled them to work together to solve many pieces of the puzzle. They also discussed the potential loss of the wilderness and the indigenous peoples. They saw the remnants of the Yukon gold rush, and how self-serving treasure hunters were plundering

8820-527: The rich variety of foods available on Kodiak, the bears on the archipelago have some of the smallest home ranges of any brown bear populations in North America and a great deal of overlap occurs among the ranges of individual bears. Home ranges of adult sows on Kodiak Island average 130 km (50 sq mi), while boar home ranges average 250 km (97 sq mi). Kodiak bears begin entering their dens in late October. Pregnant sows are usually

8925-534: The same ranges and potential solutions included poisons, fences to isolate cattle ranges, and aerial shooting of bears. Again, sport hunters voiced their support for Kodiak bears. Despite public pressure, the state continued actively pursuing and dispatching problem bears until 1970. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) resolved many long-standing land issues with Aboriginal Alaskans statewide. The impacts were felt strongly on

9030-454: The same year, the U.S. revenue cutter Corwin , also searching for the lost whalers and for the missing US exploration vessel USS Jeannette took on coal at Plover Bay. This was Russian government coal, piled on the bank; there is no indication the coaling station had any resident staff. John Muir, aboard the Corwin as naturalist, took advantage of these stops to make geological observations in

9135-473: The seamen, holding that although intention was not proved, Captain Lass's actions amounted to recklessness. Whymper describes witnessing the pursuit and processing of whales within the bay in 1866. In 1871, the whaling bark Oriole , damaged by ice, limped or was towed into Plover Bay to attempt repairs. According to John Spears colorful account, Captain Hayes had taken his ship through the ice to reach open water off

9240-612: The ship was 126. By the end of May, the ship's guests and passengers had all arrived in Seattle. Newspapers around the world ran front-page stories about the trip. The Elder left Seattle on 31 May 1899. Cheering crowds saw them off. Their first stop was the Victoria Museum on Vancouver Island . They then traveled farther north to Lowe Inlet, where they stopped to explore and document the wildlife. On 4 June, they stopped in Metlakatla ,

9345-420: The size of bears is by measuring their skulls . Most North American hunting organizations and management agencies use calipers to measure the length of the skull (back of sagittal crest on the back of the skull to the front tooth), and the width (maximum width between the zygomatic arches — "cheek bones"). The total skull size is the sum of these two measurements. The largest bear ever killed in North America

9450-486: The spring are emerging vegetation (such as grasses and forbs) and animals that may have died during the winter. This allows the bear to quickly replace the weight that was lost during hibernation. As summer progresses, a wide variety of vegetation supplies nutritional needs until salmon return. Salmon runs extend from May through September on most of the archipelago and bears consume the five species of Pacific salmon that spawn in local streams and lakes. Bears often prioritize

9555-408: The state's wildlife. The Alaska Board of Game reduced bear-hunting seasons on Afognak and Raspberry Islands and on the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge, but liberalized bear seasons on nonrefuge lands on Kodiak. During the 1960s, state biologists worked with ranchers along the Kodiak road system to examine and reduce the predation problem. Biologists reported that cattle and bears were not compatible on

9660-473: The steamship SS George W. Elder refitted for the expedition. The remodeled ship featured lecture rooms, a library with over 500 volumes on Alaska, a stable for animals, taxidermy studios, and luxury rooms for the team. Some on the expedition referred to her as the George W. Roller , for its tendency to roll at sea, causing seasickness among the passengers. The members of the interdisciplinary team included many of

9765-676: The term for an anchorage within Providence Bay. Plover Bay takes its name from HMS Plover , a British ship which overwintered in Emma Harbor in 1848–1849. HMS Plover with captain Thomas E. L. Moore left Plymouth in January 1848 for the Bering Sea to find the lost Franklin Expedition . On October 17, 1848, Moore anchored his ship in a safe harbor; he is given credit for the name Providence Bay and for

9870-504: The territorial government's newly established Alaska Game Commission to abolish commercial bear hunting (selling the hides) on the archipelago in 1925. The impacts of the new regulations seemed to restore bear populations on the Kodiak Islands. By the 1930s, ranchers in northeast Kodiak reported an increase in bear problems and demanded action. Bears were wrongly seen as a threat to the expanding commercial salmon-fishing industry. To address

9975-421: The time with his other duties. Subsequent volumes were written by other expedition scientists or authors hired by Merriam to finish the work. While they often mentioned the beauty and grandeur of the Alaskan coast, the publications were mostly highly technical and written for scientists. The first volume was published in 1901, and they continued to be published during the next few years. The Smithsonian republished

10080-600: The trip was the career of Edward Curtis . On the trip, he developed a close friendship with George Grinnell , who was an expert on Native American culture. After the expedition, Grinnell invited Curtis with him on a trip to the Blackfeet Reservation in Montana . Curtis, moved by what was commonly believed to be a dying way of life, spent much of his career documenting Native American culture. At first, John Muir found Harriman distasteful and his hunting barbaric. But, over

10185-403: The upcoming winter. Consequently, unmanaged bear viewing could affect several bears, especially productive sows with cubs. Often, bear-viewing and bear-hunting are considered incompatible. Even if the bear population is healthy and bear hunting is sustainable, ethical questions arise especially if hunting occurs near viewing areas and either during or soon after the viewing season. Many feel that it

10290-515: The village at the base of the spit as Rirak, and starting in 1928 show a village Uredlak on the south shore of Emma Harbor The Soviet-era village of Plover was probably located on the mainland near the spit; it was damaged by a landslide and the inhabitants (including some relocated from Ureliki) were relocated to Provideniya. Nasskatulok, a Yupik village at the head of Plover Bay was reported by Aurel Krause (observed 1881) but not mentioned by Waldemar Bogoras ( ca. 1898) There were also villages on

10395-495: The wild was 27 years old, and the oldest female was 35. The islands of the Kodiak Archipelago have a subpolar oceanic climate with cool temperatures, overcast skies, fog, windy conditions, and moderate to heavy precipitation throughout most of the year. Although the archipelago only covers about 13,000 km (5,000 sq mi), a rich variety of topography and vegetation ranges from dense forests of Sitka spruce on

10500-431: The year. When eating deer , mountain goats , elk , or cattle, internal organs are eaten first for their high-fat content, however even though there is an abundance of the animals found on the archipelago, few Kodiak bears actively prey on them as other methods of finding food are more energy efficient. Another food source available year-round is the garbage made by the human population of Kodiak Island. The Kodiak bear

10605-514: Was considering building a railroad to the Alaskan territory. Some people at the time openly wondered if he was going to buy Alaska, or build a railroad bridge from Alaska to Siberia — a railroad around the world. Nothing seemed impossible for Edward H. Harriman. Merriam held a flurry of meetings and sent many telegrams . He organized a broad range of experts: arctic experts, botanists, biologists and zoologists, geologists and geographers, artists, photographers, ornithologists and writers. Harriman had

10710-625: Was evident among different opinions of those on the expedition. Upon seeing the indigenous peoples involved in salmon fishing operations and canning factories, those on the Elder felt different things. Some saw the cannery operations as forced labor, akin to slavery. Other expedition members saw the cannery operations as efficient and effective. On July 26, 1899, the expedition landed in Cape Fox , at an abandoned Tlingit village. The village had been deserted for about five years, but many pieces of Tlingit artwork and totem poles remained there. Some members of

10815-475: Was from Kodiak Island, with a total skull size of 78.1 cm (30.7 in), and eight of the top 10 brown bears listed in the Boone and Crockett record book are from Kodiak. The average skull size of Kodiak bears that were killed by hunters in the first five years of the 21st century was 63.8 cm (25.1 in) for boars, and 55.4 cm (21.8 in) for sows. Also, an individual named Teddy, which portrayed

10920-673: Was tasked with rescuing crews of two missing American whaling ships, however, soon the crew of American schooner Handy told Russians that one of the missing ships sank with no survivors; the other crew was already safe in San Francisco . Instead, Strelok found and resupplied the German scientific expedition of Aurel Krause . At Saint Lawrence Bay Strelok met USS Rodgers ; both ships headed north to Bering Strait but soon separated. Strelok reached Cape Dezhnev (then Cape Vostochny) and turned back while Rodgers reached Wrangel Island . In

11025-516: Was the first significant invasion of inland bear habitat on Kodiak Island. To address the opposition encountered from the public and agencies, a mitigation settlement was negotiated in 1981 which included brown bear research and the establishment of the Kodiak Brown Bear Trust. The hydroelectric project was completed in 1985. Human alteration of bear habitat on Kodiak and Afognak Islands spurred renewed interest and funding for bear research on

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