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151-506: The Harford Farm Brooch is a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon disk brooch . The brooch was originally made in Kent and was found along with a number of other artifacts during an excavation of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Harford Farm in Norfolk. The brooch measures 72 millimetres (2.8 in) across and was found in grave 11. The front of the brooch is gold decorated with glass and garnets while the backplate

302-530: A Merovingian bride, and is one of the first Anglo-Saxon rulers who can be identified with some confidence. Bede and later sources portrayed Æthelberht as a descendant of the original group of "Saxons" mentioned by Gildas, although they apparently believed they were actually Jutish. Unfortunately the king lists and genealogies produced by Bede and later writers are not considered reliable for these early centuries. A 2022 genetic study used modern and ancient DNA samples from England and neighbouring countries to study

453-421: A "shameful habit" of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties. In April 1016, Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor Edmund Ironside to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut's party. After

604-610: A coalition of his enemies – Constantine , King of the Scots; Owain ap Dyfnwal , King of the Cumbrians; and Olaf Guthfrithson , King of Dublin – at the battle of Brunanburh , celebrated by a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England. Æthelstan's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for

755-486: A collective term, the compound term Anglo-Saxon , commonly used by modern historians for the period before 1066, first appears in Bede's time, but it was probably not widely used until modern times. Bede was one of the first writers to prefer " Angles " (or English) as the collective term, and this eventually became dominant. Bede, like other authors, also continued to use the collective term " Saxons ", especially when referring to

906-654: A combination of metals. They could be made using a variety of techniques, including casting, inlaying or engraving. Casting was a frequently used technique, because many brooches could be made from the same mould. Brooches of the Anglo-Saxon era were worn primarily by women. According to clothing historian, Penelope Walton Rogers , "For the Anglo-Saxon woman, brooches, pins, clasps and buckles were as essential to her clothing as modern button and zip-fasteners. However, decorative their appearance and however much they were used to express social and cultural identity, their primary role

1057-588: A common brooch style of the mid to late Anglo-Saxon England. Anglo-Saxons The Anglo-Saxons , in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English , were a cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages . They traced their origins to Germanic settlers who became one of the most important cultural groups in Britain by

1208-494: A common collective term, and indeed became dominant. The increased use of these new collective terms, "English" or "Anglo-Saxon", represents the strengthening of the idea of a single unifying cultural unity among the Anglo-Saxons themselves, who had previously invested in identities which differentiated various regional groups. In contrast, Irish and Welsh speakers long continued to refer to Anglo-Saxons as Saxons. The word Saeson

1359-420: A formidable fighting force. At first, Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, "so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs", and in 896 ordered

1510-460: A geographical distribution similar to the annular brooch: throughout southern England, the midlands, east anglia and north east England. After the seventh century, the pennannular brooches were made in Celtic , Irish and Viking art styles. The openwork disc consists of a metal ring with an openwork design. These delicate brooches were usually made in copper alloy, although the most famous examples,

1661-518: A king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people. The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo-Saxon society attracted the attention of people from mainland Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Because of the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name Viking – from the Old Norse víkingr meaning an expedition – which soon became used for

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1812-409: A large part of Britain, and writing about Romano-British kingdoms which had been limited to the north and west. Other historians have argued that in the 5th century many Romano-British people must have adopted the new culture which we now call Anglo-Saxon, even when they did not have Germanic ancestry or rulers. Unfortunately, there are very few written sources apart from Gildas until the conversion of

1963-474: A letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students. Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states "Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until John Milton ). His work showed that scholars in England, at

2114-602: A mission to Christianise the Kingdom of Northumbria from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south-west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith in the north, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when

2265-615: A monastery in Campania (near Naples). One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon "attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning". As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day, were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention Aldhelm in this connection; but we know from

2416-674: A new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on

2567-581: A number of casual references scattered throughout the Bede 's history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as Bamburgh and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement. In 676 Æthelred conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the Rochester diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds. In these accounts there

2718-494: A range of late fifth to early eighth century. The late Anglo-Saxon annular brooches, popular in the sixth and seventh centuries, trended toward a smaller size over time. The ornamentation of the late style is often undecorated, simple or decorated in Style II This brooch is composed of an incomplete circle of wire or flattened metal with a pin lying across it. It is less common than the annular brooch. Similar in decoration to

2869-506: A renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo-Saxon monastic life. In 669 Theodore , a Greek-speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain to become the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury . He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin-speaking African by origin and former abbot of

3020-549: A reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things). During the 9th century, Wessex rose in power, from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in

3171-458: A scratched zoomorphic decoration. The brooch is now on display at Norwich Castle . Anglo-Saxon brooches The circular brooch form developed from jewelled disc brooches produced in Kent in the early sixth century. In the early Anglo-Saxon era, the circular brooch type included the saucer, the applied saucer, the button, the annular (circular ring form), the penannular (incomplete ring), and

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3322-450: A shiny surface, which is possibly the result of the brooch brushing against clothing. This glossy finish has not been observed on other early Anglo Saxon brooches. The quoit brooch combines the annular and penannular form with a double ring, and is intricately decorated. The descriptive name originates from the rings thrown in the game of Quoits . The earliest of these jewellery items were large, opulent silver brooches made in Kent in

3473-450: A small bronze bow. They are similar to the cruciform style brooch style and have been described as an inexpensive substitute to the cruciform brooch. They can be dated from the late fifth to the sixth century. These brooches disappear from Anglian sites earlier than other places in England. Cruciform brooches are fairly common in early Anglo-Saxon England. Cruciform style brooches may have originated in both Europe and Scandinavia during

3624-487: A small percentage being made in silver. Their distinguishing characteristic is a semi-circular head plate with ornamented knobs or terminals radiating outward. The brooch head has been found in triangular and oval shapes. The foot is typically triangular or lozenge-shaped. The supporting arm brooch is a T-shaped brooch. It dates to the early Anglo-Saxon era, 400 to 450 AD. This brooch style evolved from Roman brooches, but it also displays Germanic characteristics. According to

3775-517: A turning point the continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were probably quite diverse, and they arrived over a longer period. In another passage, Bede named pagan peoples still living in Germany ( Germania ) in the eighth century "from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of

3926-650: A white metal coating on the front plate. matching and un-matching pairs. Disc brooches date from 450 to 550 AD during the same time that gilt saucer brooches were popular. A saucer brooch is a circular-shaped brooch with a decorated front plate, surrounded by an upturned rim. The brooch was typically cast in a single piece in copper alloy, gilded and then secured with a pin. There are many varieties of ornamentation, generally geometric in design. Saucers were popular in Saxon areas in south and west England . They have been found in large numbers in Anglo-Saxon burial sites, dating from

4077-557: A working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians. In 860, the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of King Æthelwulf , though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler Æthelred , who in other circumstances might have been styled

4228-491: Is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo-Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century, other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London, Middlesex and Hertfordshire to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and

4379-597: Is a small brooch, similar in shape to the saucer brooch. The brooch is typically decorated with the design of a human face. A popular button design was an image of a "chubby mustachioed face". The brooch was used in the fifth and sixth centuries, primarily Southern England . The button ranges in size from 26—31mm diameter for brooches found in the region from the Thames Valley down to the coast of Southern England to those of Kent , which tend to be smaller, 15–23 mm diameter. The Kent buttons were typically worn singly on

4530-421: Is believed that five of the six the brooches date to the ninth century and one brooch was probably made in the tenth century. The largest brooch's size and several bosses (raised ornaments) are similar in style to brooches of the later ninth and tenth centuries. Another well-known openwork example is the silver and niello Strickland Brooch , which also dates to the ninth century. Brooches that do not fall into

4681-480: Is cast as an entire piece. Because the brooch is constructed in separate pieces, archaeological excavations rarely uncover applied brooches that have not broken apart. The applied brooch is composed of a circular back plate, with a disc of gilt embossed foil on top, a bronze rim fastened to the edge, a pin support and a pin clasp. These brooches date from the mid-fifth to the late sixth century, and are found primarily in southern and eastern England. The button brooch

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4832-514: Is constructed with a flat, wide circular ring, generally 35mm to 65mm in diameter. The ring is usually cast in copper alloy with a pin generally made of iron. The flat annular is constructed with either a closed ring or an open ring with overlapping ends. With the open ring style, each end contains a hole in which a small pin or bolt is passed to join the ring. These simple brooches are often decorated with stamps or diagonal grooves, but many of this style are undecorated. The flat annular often displays

4983-683: Is cross-shaped in some types, with animal ornamentation where the bow and foot connect. The square-heads originated in Scandinavia in the fifth century and spread to England and south into Europe toward the end of the fifth century. In England , there are various types of square-headed brooches, including the great square-head, the small square-head and the Kentish square-head. Square-headed brooches were frequently found in Kent and East Anglian graves. Great square-headed brooches measure 100-150mm long. They are generally large and heavy brooches. They are

5134-588: Is often associated with men after the beginning of the seventh century. The majority of brooches found in early Anglo-Saxon England were Continental styles that had migrated from Europe and Scandinavia . The long brooch is the style associated with early Anglo-Saxon England. Circular brooches first appeared in England in the middle of the fifth century. During the sixth century, craftsmen from Kent began manufacturing brooches using their own distinctive styles and techniques. The Kentish square-headed brooch and

5285-409: Is silver. On the back of the brooch there is a runic inscription reading "ᛚᚢᛞᚪ:ᚷᛁᛒᛟᛏᚫᛋᛁᚷᛁᛚᚫ" ( luda:gibœtæsigilæ ), which Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service translates as “Luda repaired the brooch”; however “may Luda make amends by means of the brooch” has been offered as a translation by Alfred Bammesberger in the journal Neophilologus . In addition to the runes, the back of the brooch also has

5436-579: Is the Heptarchy , which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the "opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole". Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was a period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the Thames and above the Humber . Middle-lowland Britain

5587-599: Is the modern Welsh word for "English people"; the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language , Sasanach . Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident "that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders". Although it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe,

5738-595: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view. On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford , with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire ; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, "and the people of Wiltshire had the victory". In 829, Egbert went on,

5889-587: The Danelaw . This was the " Great Army ", a term used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms and to appoint puppet kings, such as Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873 and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The third phase was an era of settlement; however, the "Great Army" went wherever it could find

6040-569: The Frankish kingdom of Austrasia . Bede therefore called these the " Old Saxons " ( antiqui saxones ), and he noted that there was no longer any country of Angles in Germany, as it had become empty due to emigration. Similarly, a non-Anglo-Saxon contemporary of Bede, Paul the Deacon , referred variously to either the English ( Angli ), or Anglo-Saxons (Latin plural genitives Saxonum Anglorum , or Anglorum Saxonum ), which helped him distinguish them from

6191-652: The Franks on the Lower Rhine . At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting foederati soldiers from the same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles. According to the Chronica Gallica of 452 Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This

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6342-626: The Fuller Brooch , the Strickland Brooch , the Kingston Brooch and the silver brooches of the Pentney Hoard . Long brooches, also known as bow brooches, originated from Roman Iron Age bow-shaped brooches. They include several varieties of square-headed brooches, as well as small-long, cruciform, equal-headed and radiate-headed brooches. Longs consist of a head and a foot and a section in

6493-567: The Isle of Thanet and proceeded to King Æthelberht 's main town of Canterbury . He had been sent by Pope Gregory the Great to lead the Gregorian mission to Britain to Christianise the Kingdom of Kent from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism . Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha , daughter of Charibert I the king of Paris , who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Æthelberht in Kent

6644-614: The Jutish -style and the Continental -style. The Jutish-style brooches closely resemble brooches originating in Jutland , in the amount of animal decoration and often the inclusion of a disc on the bow of the brooch. The Continental-style consists of simpler animal decoration and is usually combined with inset garnets. Both types contain silver or silver-gilt, although the Continental-style brooch

6795-469: The Middle English language. Although the modern English language owes less than 26% of its words to Old English, this includes the vast majority of everyday words. In the early 8th century, the earliest detailed account of Anglo-Saxon origins was given by Bede (d. 735), suggesting that they were long divided into smaller regional kingdoms, each with differing accounts of their continental origins. As

6946-465: The Midlands , East Anglia and North East England . It consists of a closed ring of wire or flattened metal with a pin set across it. The brooch style is plain, decorated simply with parallel marks or a circle of stamps. There are three main styles of annular brooch: flat annular, quoit style and miscellaneous. The flat annular is the most common annular brooch form in early Anglo-Saxon England. It

7097-475: The Pentney Hoard brooches were cast in silver. They are commonly found in the Midlands and date from the early sixth century. The delicate brooches were commonly worn in pairs on the shoulders. The most important collection of openwork brooches was found by a gravedigger in a Pentney , Norfolk churchyard in 1978. The six brooch treasure, later named the Pentney Hoard , is now in the British Museum . It

7248-555: The Portable Antiquities Scheme database, "The ‘supporting arm’ is in fact wings, each with a perforated lug on the reverse to hold the pin bar, around which the spring is wrapped. There can be a third or even a fourth perforated lug in the centre. The foot is normally short and slightly flared, with transverse grooves and bevelled edges." Equal-arm brooches typically have identically shaped and sized head and feet. They are inspired by similarly designed Roman brooches. In

7399-510: The Sutton brooch , the Sarre brooch , the Fuller Brooch , the Strickland Brooch , and the Kingston Brooch . The middle of the fifth century marked the beginning of Anglo-Saxon England . The Anglo-Saxon era consists of three different time periods: The early Anglo-Saxon era, which spans the mid-fifth to the beginning of the seventh century; the middle Anglo-Saxon era, which covers the seventh through

7550-533: The Synod of Whitby was convened and established Roman practice as opposed to Irish practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus "brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture." The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from Lindisfarne to York . Wilfrid , chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while Colmán and

7701-562: The "War of the Saxon Federates". Unlike Bede and later writers who followed him, for whom this war turned into a very long war between two nations which was eventually won by the descendants of the Saxons, Gildas reported that by the time he was born this war ended successfully for the Britons after the siege at 'Mons Badonicus' . (The price of peace, Higham argues, must have been a better treaty for

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7852-497: The "proud tyrant" as Vortigern . However, the date could have been significantly earlier, and Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned. The Historia Brittonum , written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but the writer apparently believed it happened in 428. Another 9th century source, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is largely based on Bede but says this Saxon arrival happened in 449. The archaeological evidence suggests an earlier timescale. In particular,

8003-537: The 4th century not with a specific country or nation, but with raiders in North Sea coastal areas of Britain and Gaul . An especially early reference to the Angli is the 6th-century Byzantine historian Procopius who however expressed doubts about the stories he had heard about events in the west, which he apparently heard through Frankish diplomats. He never mentions the Saxons, but he states that an island called Brittia, which

8154-508: The 5th century. The Anglo-Saxon period in Britain is considered to have started by about 450 and ended in 1066, with the Norman Conquest . Although the details of their early settlement and political development are not clear, by the 8th century a single Anglo-Saxon cultural identity which was generally called Englisc had developed out of the interaction of these settlers with the pre-existing Romano-British culture . By 1066, most of

8305-484: The Anglo-Saxon period." In modern times, the term "Anglo-Saxons" is used by scholars to refer collectively to the Old English speaking groups in Britain. As a compound term it has the advantage of covering the various English-speaking groups on the one hand, and to avoid possible misunderstandings from using the terms "Saxons" or " Angles " (English), both of which terms could be used either as collectives referring to all

8456-503: The Anglo-Saxons to Christianity which began in the late 6th century. One eastern contemporary of Gildas, Procopius , reported a story which was apparently relayed to him by Frankish diplomats, that an island called Brittia which faced the Rhine was divided, between three peoples, the Britons, Anglii, and Frisians. Much later, Æthelberht of Kent (died 616) invited missionaries from the Pope and married

8607-655: The Britons": the Frisians , the Rugini , the Danes , the " Huns " ( Avars in this period), the "old Saxons", and the " Boructuari " who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the Bructeri , near the Lippe river. Gildas reported that a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population, who joined forces under a person named Ambrosius Aurelianus . Historian Nick Higham calls it

8758-502: The Continent. More important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Keynes suggests Alfred's work laid the foundations for what really made England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066. Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, King Alfred wrote: ...So completely had wisdom fallen off in England that there were very few on this side of

8909-502: The Danes and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived. When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England. Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son Æthelstan , whom Keynes calls the "towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century". His victory over

9060-558: The Early Anglo-Saxon time period, equal arms have triangular head and feet. The three styles of equal armed brooches are: wide, long and Anglian. The wide equal-arm is a large brooch with a triangular head and foot, narrowing toward the bow. These brooches are often made in the Saxon Relief style. The long equal-arm brooch is a much longer than wide brooch compared to the other two equal-arm styles. The terminals generally taper away from

9211-543: The East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century. The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king Charlemagne , recognised the Mercian King Offa 's power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery. Michael Drout calls this period the "Golden Age", when learning flourished with

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9362-411: The Elder – who with his sister, Æthelflæd , Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. David Dumville suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from

9513-666: The English (Angle) migrants came from a country neighbouring those Saxons. Anglo-Saxon material culture can be seen in architecture , dress styles , illuminated texts, metalwork and other art . Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves kings who developed burhs (fortifications and fortified settlements), and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as archaeologist Helena Hamerow has observed, "local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout

9664-522: The European Saxons who he also discussed. In England itself this compound term also came to be used in some specific situations, both in Latin and Old English. Alfred the Great , himself a West Saxon, was for example Anglosaxonum Rex in the late 880s, probably indicating that he was literally a king over both English (for example Mercian) and Saxon kingdoms. However, the term "English" continued to be used as

9815-538: The Great's Pastoral Care") What is presumed to be one of these "æstel" (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold, rock crystal and enamel Alfred Jewel , discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented. Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also translate certain books ...and bring it about ...if we have

9966-430: The Humber who could understand their rituals in English, or indeed could translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them that I indeed cannot think of a single one south of the Thames when I became king. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care") Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but

10117-410: The Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona. Wilfred also influenced kings to the south who were under the dominance of Oswiu, such as the son of Penda, Wulfhere of Mercia (died 675), who converted to Christianity and eventually recovered control over Mercia, and eventually expanded his dominance over most of England, beginning a long period of Mercian supremacy . By 660,

10268-407: The Old English speakers, or to specific tribal groups. Although the term "Anglo Saxon" was not used as a common term until modern times, it is not a modern invention because it was also used in some specific contexts already between the 8th and 10th centuries. Before the 8th century, the most common collective term for the Old-English speakers was "Saxons", which was a word originally associated since

10419-445: The Picts and Scots. Gildas did not report the year, and later writers (and modern historians) developed different estimates of when this occurred. Possibly referring to this same event, the Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule". Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that this happened in 450-455, and he named

10570-507: The Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain. ) Gildas himself did not mention the defeated Saxons as an ongoing problem, but instead he noted that the Britons had become divided into many small "tyrannies". His interest was in criticizing the Romano-British ruling class, whereas archaeological evidence shows that Anglo-Saxon culture had long become dominant over much of Britain. Historians who accept Bede's understanding interpret Gildas as ignoring

10721-399: The Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However,

10872-413: The annular, the penannular is usually garnished with parallel marks or a ring of stamps. There are two main categories of the pennanular brooch found in Early Anglo-Saxon graves: one form with coiled terminals and another form with multifaceted terminals. Both forms were worn at the shoulders. The brooch was popular from the sixth to seventh centuries, although worn as late as the eighth century. It has

11023-549: The archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454 Gildas , one of the only writers in this period, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader Aëtius in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named "proud tyrant" at some point invited Saxons as foederati soldiers to Britain to help defend it from

11174-497: The bow, which is different from the wide and Anglian equal-arm. The Anglian style is not common. The name indicates where the brooch is generally found, East Anglia . The Anglian equal-arm brooch generally has no decoration. Circular brooches, also known as disc brooches, are circular-shaped brooches, usually decorated with various geometrical designs. They are generally made in copper alloy can also be found in silver and gold. These brooches were popular in early Anglo-Saxon England in

11325-572: The brooch is in one piece, with one end extended into a spring and pin and the other bent into a catchplate; or the plate has a separate riveted-on spring, pin and catch plate." These style can be grouped based on the style of the brooch front. One style is similar to a modem safety-pin; another style has a flat and narrow front plate and a third style has a lozenge-form plate. Ansante (bow) brooches are equal-armed brooches that originated in Europe. A popular brooch style in Northwestern Europe in

11476-494: The chest. Jewelled (also known as Kentish ) disc brooches are complex, opulent brooches. At the beginning of the sixth century, jewellery craftsmen in Kent began to develop their own brooch styles based on a combination of existing Anglo-Saxon styles and techniques in addition to traditional European jewellery designs. These uncommon brooches, all inlaid with garnet, can be grouped into three main types: jewelled keystone, jewelled plated, and jewelled composite. They all date from

11627-453: The chronicler reports, to conquer "the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber". It was at this point that the chronicler chooses to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven overlords, adding that "he was the eighth king who was Bretwalda ". Simon Keynes suggests Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created

11778-446: The circular (Kentish) jewelled brooches were styles originating in Kent . The circular form was the preferred brooch type by the end of the sixth century. During the seventh century, all brooches in England were in decline. They reappeared in the eighth century and continued to be fashionable through the end of the Anglo-Saxon era. Brooch styles were predominantly circular by the middle to late Anglo-Saxon era. During this time period,

11929-705: The circular or long category were uncommon in Early Anglo-Saxon England. Of these brooches, the bird or S-shaped were the most popular. Bird shaped brooches are generally found in the Kent area. Artesans from Kent created their own distinct style of bird brooch. The chunky European bird that faced right became a slender English bird brooch that faced left when made in southern England. The Anglo-Saxon bird brooches date from 500 to 500AD in England. The S-shaped brooches migrated from Continental Europe and can be found throughout Anglo-Saxon England and date from 450—550AD. Brooch styles were predominantly circular by

12080-399: The conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred's reign. It is this evidence which is the basis for Keynes's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but

12231-576: The culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain. In 400, the Roman province of Britannia had long been part of the Roman Empire . Although the empire had been dismembered several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of Magnus Maximus , and Constantine "III" there was an overall continuity and interconnectedness. Already before 400 Roman sources used

12382-580: The death of Constantine "III" in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants." The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the Saxons , but also the Picts and Scoti . A hagiography of Saint Germanus of Auxerre claims that he helped command a defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430

12533-662: The defeat of the English in the Battle of Assandun in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England. In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut on October 18, 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of Battle of Stamford Bridge in September, 1066; and

12684-449: The earliest periods of settlement. Roman and British writers of the 3rd to 6th century had described those earliest Saxons as North Sea raiders, and mercenaries. Later sources such as Bede believed these early raiders came from the region they called " Old Saxony ", in what is now northern Germany , which in their own time had become well-known as a region resisting the spread of Christianity and Frankish rule . According to this account,

12835-510: The error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered. The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both Ælfric 's and Wulfstan 's works, but most notably in Wulfstan's fierce rhetoric in the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos , dated to 1014. Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings as

12986-499: The fifth and sixth centuries. The plain disc brooch was cast in copper alloy. The front plate was either plain or decorated with a simple pattern, usually a carved or stamped design. The Kentish disc brooches were a more highly ornamented version of the plain disc brooch with inlaid garnet or multi-coloured glass. It is possible that Anglo-Saxon disc brooches developed from earlier Romano-British disc brooches. The brooches are small, primarily 30-40mm in diameter. They are often found with

13137-420: The fifth century to the early seventh century. Gilded saucer brooches are found in female graves in every part of southern and central England . There are three categories of saucer brooch: saucer, applied and button. The applied brooch, also known as the applied saucer or applied disc brooch, resembles the saucer brooch in appearance. This brooch is assembled in separate parts, unlike the saucer brooch which

13288-404: The fifth through the seventh centuries, the ansante brooch migrated to England in the seventh century, and was in common use by the tenth century. The brooch is characterized as having two equal-sized terminals with a curved (bow) section in the middle. They are small brooches, typically measuring between 30-50mm in diameter. Most brooches are made in copper alloy. The ansante brooch is probably

13439-399: The first time following the Anglo-Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign. His son-in-law Sæberht of Essex also converted to Christianity. After Æthelberht's death in about 616/618, the most powerful king was Rædwald of East Anglia , who also gave Christianity a foothold in his kingdom, and helped to install Edwin of Northumbria , who replaced Æthelfrith to become

13590-699: The geometric and animal designs associated with the larger square-headed brooches. The small-long brooch is similar to the cruciform and the great square-headed brooch. These copper alloy brooches have the greatest number of design variations of Anglo-Saxon brooches created in the early Anglo-Saxon era. The small-long head includes square, trefoil and cross shapes and the foot can be found in triangular, lobed, crescent, bifurcated or lozenge shapes. Small-longs are predominantly found in East Kingdom of East Anglia , although they are widely found throughout England. They are decorated in simple designs, usually consisting of

13741-557: The head of the brooch. Cruciforms are usually cast in copper alloy, with the knobs often made separately. Cruciforms can range in ornamentation from simple to a more elaborate decoration. Radiate-headed brooches were popular in sixth century Kent, probably the result of the high number of Frankish people migrating to the region". This brooch style originated on the Continent in Francia . Radiate-heads are typically made from copper alloy with

13892-419: The ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo-Saxon state, and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret

14043-456: The imminent "expectation of the apocalypse," and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings, which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were taken as signs of God punishing his people; Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a "brother Edward" to try to put an end to

14194-411: The insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939. Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, 'imperial coronation' at Bath , and from this point England

14345-483: The kingdom of England was indeed made whole. In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses "to be of one mind as regards monastic usage . . . lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute". Athelstan's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named Dunstan and Æthelwold who were made priests, supposedly at

14496-405: The late Anglo-Saxon period. Safety-pin brooches, more abundant in the early Anglo-Saxon period became more uncommon by the seventh century and by the eighth century, evolve into the strip brooch. Miscellaneous brooches during this time period include the bird, the ottonian, the rectangle and the cross motif. The best-known examples of Anglo-Saxon brooches are the Sutton brooch , the Sarre brooch ,

14647-424: The late sixth to the early 7th centuries. The jewelled composite brooch is quite rare. It is constructed of three plates: a front plate made of gold, silver or copper alloy with a setting of roundels and other shapes in filigree and typically garnet and glass cloisonné . The multiple plates are bound together by rivets. This brooch is large, 40-85mm in diameter, and heavy due to the thick layer of filler between

14798-499: The latter was preaching. Later, Northumberland 's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert , was an abbot of the monastery, and then Bishop of Lindisfarne . An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing, and in his memory a gospel (known as the St Cuthbert Gospel ) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather bookbinding is the oldest intact European binding. In 664,

14949-511: The law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be "king of the English" was by no means widely recognised. The situation was complex: the Hiberno-Norse rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the Danish kingdom of York ; terms had to be made with

15100-462: The least studied brooch of Anglo-Saxon England. This traditionally styled brooch was once considered by scholars to be a rare European jewellery item, imported to England during the Anglo-Saxon era. With the rise of metal detecting over the last thirty years, the creation of the Portable Antiquities Scheme in 1997, and the addition of a considerable number of brooch artefacts to the Portable Antiquities Scheme database, these brooches now are considered

15251-519: The locals and immigrants were being buried together using the same new customs, and that they were having mixed children. The authors estimate the effective contributions to modern English ancestry are between 25% and 47% "north continental", 11% and 57% from British Iron Age ancestors, and 14% and 43% was attributed to a more stretched-out migration into southern England, from nearby populations such as modern Belgium and France. There were significant regional variations in north continental ancestry ― lower in

15402-504: The major political problem for Edmund and Eadred , who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north. In 959 Edgar is said to have "succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old" (ASC, version 'B', 'C'), and is called "the Peacemaker". By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar's 'peace', it may have seemed that

15553-404: The mid-fifth century. The quoits were probably worn alone. There were variations made in copper alloy in the fifth and sixth centuries which were mostly likely worn in pairs on the shoulders. The Quoit Brooch Style of the Anglo-Saxon era was named for this elaborate brooch. The brooch "consists of a decorated, flat ring enclosing a penannular ring, secured by a pin that passes through a slit in

15704-590: The mid-sixth to the seventh century. The keystone brooch is cast in one piece, most often in silver or copper alloy. It has a circular setting surrounded by three or four keystone garnets or pieces of glass and alternating sections of raised decoration, often in Style I . The brooch is usually edged with niello and a gilded rim. The jewelled keystone varies in detail and size from small and simple, 23–40 mm diameter, to larger and more elaborate, 32–52 mm diameter. Keystone brooches were generally worn individually near

15855-414: The middle and front plate. This style of brooch dates from the second half of the sixth century in Europe and the first half of the seventh century in Kent. The location of these brooches found in Anglo-Saxon graves indicates that the brooch was worn singly and quite a bit lower on the chest than other disc brooches. According to Gale Owen-Crocker , "The Kingston Brooch is our most elaborate example of

16006-427: The middle called the bow. The bow section curves from the head to the foot, and the angle of the arch can vary depending upon the style. Roman brooches had a much larger bow than Anglo-Saxon brooches. By the fifth century, the brooch bow was just a small bump in the middle. Square-headed brooches typically have rectangular heads, not square as described by their name. The foot is generally lozenge-shaped. This brooch

16157-402: The middle to late Anglo-Saxon era. The majority of brooches found in early Anglo-Saxon England were Continental styles that had migrated from Europe. These styles evolved over time in England. In the sixth century, metalworkers from Kent, and eventually other regions, started creating brooches using their own distinctive styles and techniques. The best-known examples of Anglo-Saxon brooches are

16308-434: The middle to late Anglo-Saxon era. The circular forms can be divided into enamelled and non-enamelled styles. Ansate brooches, traditional brooches from Europe migrated to England and became fashionable in the late Anglo-Saxon period. Safety-pin brooches, more common in the early Anglo-Saxon period, became less fashionable by the seventh century. The safety-pin evolved into the strip brooch. Safety-pins are fairly uncommon in

16459-559: The most common brooch style found in high-status female graves in the fifth and sixth centuries. Great square-headed brooches are generally made of copper alloy, and surface treatments of gilding, silvering and tinning are common. These jewellery items are typically decorated in Salin's Style I . Analysis of brooch artefacts has revealed that each square-headed brooch is unique and probably custom made for individuals by traveling craftsmen. There are two main styles of Kentish square-headed brooch:

16610-517: The most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning. While Aldhelm was doing his work in Malmesbury , far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining

16761-740: The ninth centuries; and the late Anglo-Saxon era, which includes the tenth and eleventh centuries. The brooches worn in Anglo-Saxon England were decorative clothing fasteners, with the general purpose of joining pieces of clothing together. They typically consisted of a pin, clasp, and spring, which were concealed by the front-facing plate. Depending on the style, the brooch face (or plate) could be undecorated, simply decorated or more elaborately decorated. It would vary in size and shape. These ancient brooches can be divided into two main groups, long and circular forms. Brooches were constructed from various metals, including copper alloy, iron, silver, gold or

16912-525: The overall group in Britain as the "English" people (Latin Angli , gens Anglorum or Old English Angelcynn ). In Bede's work the term "Saxon" is also used to refer sometimes to the Old English language, and also to refer to the early pagan Anglo-Saxons before the arrival of Christian missionaries among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent in 597. The term "Saxon", on the other hand, was at this time increasingly used by mainland writers to designate specific northern neighbours of

17063-424: The peace, that all the youth of free men who now are in England, those who have the means that they may apply themselves to it, be set to learning, while they may not be set to any other use, until the time when they can well read English writings. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care") This began a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of

17214-403: The penannular ring and is held by knobs. The outer annular ring is characteristically decorated in concentric circles of lightly chip-carved geometric motifs, quadrupeds, sea creatures and human masks". The most important example of this style is the Sarre brooch , discovered in an Anglo-Saxon cemetery near Kent. It is intricately decorated with three-dimensional birds on the annular ring and on

17365-459: The people of what is now England spoke Old English, and were considered English. Viking and Norman invasions changed the politics and culture of England significantly, but the overarching Anglo-Saxon identity evolved and remained dominant even after the Norman Conquest. Late Anglo-Saxon political structures and language are the direct predecessors of the high medieval Kingdom of England and

17516-572: The people to their knees in 1009–12, when a large part of the country was devastated by the army of Thorkell the Tall . It remained for Swein Forkbeard , king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013–14, and (after Æthelred's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015–16. The tale of these years incorporated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle must be read in its own right, and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on

17667-647: The people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians, they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people. Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879—80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be

17818-494: The pin. It currently can be found in the British Museum . The miscellaneous forms of annular brooch are: the broad-framed brooch, the chunkier annular brooch with ribbed decoration, and the late Anglo-Saxon period annular brooches. The broad-framed was a smaller brooch with a wider frame than the typical annular brooch. The chunkier annular is uncommon. It has a thicker oval frame and cast decoration with diagonally marked edges. Scholars have been unable to date these brooches beyond

17969-408: The political map of Lowland Britain had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, and from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked back to the original feodus . The traditional name for this period

18120-513: The preface: ...When I had learned it I translated it into English, just as I had understood it, and as I could most meaningfully render it. And I will send one to each bishopric in my kingdom, and in each will be an æstel worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name that no man may take the æstel from the book nor the book from the church. It is unknown how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks to God, are nearly everywhere. (Preface: "Gregory

18271-449: The preferred styles were the annular and jewelled (Kentish) disc brooch styles. The circular forms can be divided generally into enamelled and non-enamelled styles. A few non-circular style were fashionable during the eighth through eleventh centuries. The ansate, the safety-pin, the strip and a few other styles can be included in this group. Ansate brooches were traditional brooches from Europe migrated to England and became fashionable in

18422-416: The question of physical Anglo-Saxon migration and concluded that there was large-scale immigration of both men and women into Eastern England, from a "north continental" population matching early medieval people from the area stretching from northern Netherlands through northern Germany to Denmark. This began already in the Roman era, and then increased rapidly in the 5th century. The burial evidence showed that

18573-455: The quoit (double ring, one of each of the previous types) brooches. The circular was the most common brooch form during the middle to late Anglo-Saxon era, with the enamelled and non-enamelled circular brooches being the predominant brooch styles. There are a few styles that fall into the miscellaneous category. These include the bird and S-shaped brooch of the early Anglo-Saxon era and the safety-pin, strip, ottonian, rectangular, and bird motif of

18724-474: The raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe. In 793, Lindisfarne was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. In 794, Jarrow, the monastery where Bede wrote, was attacked; in 795 Iona in Scotland was attacked; and in 804 the nunnery at Lyminge in Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from Portland in Wessex

18875-520: The richest pickings, crossing the English Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. By this stage, the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for

19026-490: The second half of the 4th century. They are found predominantly in eastern England , from Kent and as far north as York . They were worn from the early fifth to the middle of the sixth century. Cruciform brooches have been found in Anglo-Saxon graves in three separate body locations: two brooches at the shoulders pointing up, two brooches on the chest pointing down and one brooches on the chest pointing across. A cruciform brooch can be identified by three knobs or terminals on

19177-414: The second king over the two kingdoms north of the Humber, Bernicia and Deira . After Rædwald died, Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the king of Gwynedd , in alliance with king Penda of Mercia , killed Edwin in battle at Hatfield Chase . Æthelfrith's son Oswald subsequently became the third king of Northumbria. Although not included in Bede's list of rulers with imperium, Penda defeated and killed Oswald in 642 and

19328-419: The seventh century. Made in silver or copper alloy, these simple clothing fasteners resemble modern day safety-pins. A single piece of wire is coiled at the top of the brooch and forms the spring to the pin. Beginning in the eighth century, this form of brooch evolved into the strip brooch. A strip brooch is constructed from a single piece of copper alloy. "Strip brooches can be made in one of two ways. Either

19479-430: The southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order. This process started with Edward

19630-476: The state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people. One book that was particularly valuable to him was Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis (Pastoral Care). This is a priest's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in

19781-440: The surviving works of Anglo-Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Keynes suggests "it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods". During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into

19932-528: The tenth century and did much to make the vernacular more important than Latin in Anglo-Saxon culture. I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works. (Preface: "The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius") A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . However charters, law-codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and

20083-473: The term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems especially on the coasts of the North Sea . In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the Saxon shore . The homeland of these Saxon raiders was not clearly described in surviving sources but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of

20234-399: The third was conducted by William of Normandy in October, 1066 at Hastings. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) moved away from the late West Saxon standard that

20385-467: The throat. This brooch is rare and limited to Kent . It is typically 38-57mm in diameter, constructed in two distinct pieces: a backplate cast in silver with a raised rim, and a gold front plate that is attached to the back plate, with a circular opening where the inner setting is placed. The central setting is surrounded by filigree and cloisonné decoration, which usually includes roundels discs and multiple triangles. This brooch style dates from

20536-449: The time of Magnus Maximus in the late 4th century. Bede, whose report of this period is partly based on Gildas, believed that the call was answered by kings from three powerful tribes from Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons came from Old Saxony on the North Sea coast of Germany, and settled in Wessex , Sussex and Essex . Jutland , the peninsula containing part of Denmark,

20687-412: The type, with more concentric circles than any other, cloisonnés of great complexity, contrasting colours--two shades of garnet blue glass and gold--filigree ornament representing serpentine animals and, on the back, a decorated pin catch with an animal and bird heads." The annular brooch style dates from the fifth to the seventh centuries in Anglo-Saxon England. It was common throughout southern England,

20838-530: The very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe." During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life. Anglo-Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the "double monastery": a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, who became some of

20989-575: The west, and highest in Sussex, the East Midlands and East Anglia. From the time of the Christian conversions the first well-attested English kings and kingdoms appear in the written record. This situation with a small number of kingdoms competing for dominance is traditionally called the Heptarchy , which indicates a period of seven kingdoms. There were however more than seven kingdoms, and their interactions were quite complex. In 595 Augustine landed on

21140-399: The work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede's date. Historian Guy Halsall has even speculated that Gildas was badly misread by Bede and all subsequent historians, and that the invitation of the foederati was part of a military reorganization in

21291-532: Was also gilded with copper alloy. These brooches were cast in small and medium lengths, 45-100mm long. These brooches are smaller versions of the great square-headed brooches. They are typically made from copper alloy, with a small percentage made from silver. They are usually gilded and can have relief decoration. They can be dated from 500 to 575 AD. They are found throughout southern England, but are primarily associated with eastern Kent . These brooches were usually decorated in symbols and cryptic marks instead of

21442-571: Was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty duces regii (royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh-century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide-ranging overlordship from their Midland base. Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded against not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set-piece battles, but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are

21593-426: Was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders. Viking raids continued until in 850, then the Chronicle says: "The heathen for the first time remained over the winter". The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as

21744-586: Was known as the place of the Mierce , the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brittonic speaking peoples and "Anglo-Saxon" pioneers and their early leaders had Brittonic names, such as Penda . Although Penda does not appear in Bede's list of great overlords, it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he

21895-476: Was later seen by Bede as the third king to have imperium over the English south of the Humber , having replaced Ceawlin of Wessex (died about 593), and before this generation there are only semi-mythical accounts of earlier kings. Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language , instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For

22046-506: Was only a few years after Constantine "III" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. The rebellion was soon quashed, the Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled Constantine's imperial officials during this period, but they never again received new Roman officials or military forces. Writing in the mid-sixth century, Procopius states that after

22197-499: Was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and Oswald , the Bishop of Worcester. The reign of King Æthelred the Unready witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought

22348-578: Was supposedly distinct from Britain itself, was settled by three nations: the Angili, Frissones, and Brittones, each ruled by its own king. Each nation was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who planted them in unpopulated regions of their territory. By the 8th century the Saxons in Germany were seen as a country, and writers such as Bede and some of his contemporaries including Alcuin , and Saint Boniface , began to refer to

22499-461: Was the dominant king of the English until he was himself killed in battle against Oswald's brother Oswiu in 655. Oswiu remained the dominant king of England until he died in 670. In 635, Aidan , an Irish monk from Iona , chose the Isle of Lindisfarne to establish a monastery which was close to King Oswald 's main fortress of Bamburgh . He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent

22650-521: Was the homeland of the Jutes who settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight . The Angles (or English) were from 'Anglia', a country which Bede understood to have now been emptied, and which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes. Anglia is usually interpreted as the old Schleswig-Holstein Province (straddling the modern Danish - German border), and containing the modern Angeln . Although this represents

22801-436: Was to hold edges of garments together and to control loose flaps of clothing." Although women were the primary users of brooches in the early Anglo-Saxon era, archaeological evidence reveals that brooches were not found as often as a dress accessory in the late Anglo-Saxon period. Circular brooch styles, especially small, disc brooches were an ideal shape and size to function as cloak fasteners. This style of brooch, undecorated,

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