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124-480: Hala Sultan Tekke complex is composed of a mosque , mausoleum , cemetery , and living quarters for men and women. The term tekke (lodge) applies to a building designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood, or tariqa , and may have referred to an earlier feature of the location. The present-day complex lies on the shores of the Larnaca Salt Lake , an important site in prehistory . Hala Sultan Tekke

248-477: A Swedish archaeological mission led by Professor Paul Åström, and proved to be a major urban centre of Late Bronze Age Cyprus The most recent excavations at Hala Sultan Tekke, The New Swedish Cyprus Expedition have been carried out by Professor Peter M. Fischer from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden (2010-2012- ...); see www.fischerarchaeology.se . The results of the excavations have been published annually in

372-475: A cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries. Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors. These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah. The prayer hall, also known as the muṣallá ( Arabic : مُصَلَّى ), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line

496-564: A criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further. About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding

620-1000: A defining feature of South Asian mosque architecture during the Delhi Sultanate and reached their peak under the Mughal Empire. Influenced by Persian and Central Asian traditions, the Mughals introduced the iconic onion-shaped domes, seen in landmarks like the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. These domes were not only visually striking but also represented remarkable engineering, using techniques such as iron dowels for strength and timber centering for precision. The Mughal architectural style still influences mosque design today. Modern Innovations One prime example of modern innovation

744-592: A host of vile delators . The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the Paşas , the Ağas , and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı , and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby

868-510: A model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere. It introduced some of the features still common in today's mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab (first added in the Umayyad period ) and the tiered pulpit called the minbar . The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant , as

992-773: A new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia , the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti , Anapa and Akhalkalaki . Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti , in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on 11 June, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in

1116-450: A place of worship), either from Nabataean masg dhā́ or from Arabic Arabic : سَجَدَ , romanized :  sajada (meaning "to prostrate "), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic masg dhā́ or Aramaic s ghēdh . Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE. The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around

1240-585: A similar manner in the mid-17th century, remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent. The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi'an . The Great Mosque of Xi'an , whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Minarets were initially prohibited by the state. Following traditional Chinese architecture ,

1364-552: A similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give

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1488-558: A small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia which has gone on to become characteristic of the Arabic architectural style of dome. Some mosques have multiple, often smaller, domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at

1612-604: A standing church in a ruined village nearby as construction materials. In another source, it is mentioned that the construction of the mosque was initiated by the Cyprus governor Seyyid Mehmed Emin Efendi in classical Ottoman style, and it was completed in November 1817. The ancillary buildings have been repaired in 2004, and the mosque and the minaret are currently being restored. Both of these initiatives have been carried out with support from

1736-496: A valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European style and fez after 1826. On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III 's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with

1860-485: Is a place of worship for Muslims . The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed, such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for the early Muslims , and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings. In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650–750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets , from which

1984-573: Is a listed Ancient Monument. During the second half of the second millennium B.C, the area of the Hala Sultan Tekke was used as a cemetery by the people who lived in an archaeological site known as Dromolaxia Vizatzia , a large Late Bronze Age town a few hundred metres to the West. Originally identified as an archaeological site following looting in the 1890s, numerous tombs of Late Bronze Age date (around 1650-1100 BC) with rich contents were excavated by

2108-651: Is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the qiblah (i.e. the "front" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer. Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche's practical effect is to save unused space. The minbar is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered. While the minbar of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention. Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes . A common feature in mosques

2232-715: Is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet's Mosque in the city of Medina , where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem , where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE. There's a growing realization among scholars that the present-day perception of mosques doesn't fully align with their original concept. Early Islamic texts and practices highlight mosques as vibrant centers integral to Muslim communities, supporting religious, social, economic, and political affairs. During and after

2356-459: Is an octagonal fountain, which was built around 1796-1797 by the then governor of Cyprus Silahtar Kaptanbaşı Mustafa Agha . The information on the construction is recorded on the marble inscription located on the fountain. On another inscription dated 1895, which was recently discovered in the Tekke's garden, it is written that the infrastructure for bringing in the water was built upon the instructions of

2480-422: Is called maqfil (Bosnian: makfil/макфил ). It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part). It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which the imam or mullah and the other male worshippers in the main hall can be partially seen. A miḥrāb , also spelled as mehrab

2604-724: Is credited with having built the Ka'bah in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, Al-Masjid al-Haram , which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed. A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the Ka'bah was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem , which is also associated with Abraham. Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate

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2728-417: Is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques. Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to

2852-504: Is square-shaped with a balcony and was built in yellow stone blocks. The minaret was repaired in 1959. Umm Haram's tomb is located behind the mosque wall of the qibla (in the direction of Mecca ). A further inscription dated 1760 is found here. Aside her, there are four other tombs, two of them former sheikhs. Another important tomb is a two-leveled marble sarcophagus , carrying the date 12 July 1929. The tomb belongs to Adile Hüseyin Ali, who

2976-576: Is the Great Mosque of Cordoba , itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule. Outside of the Iberian Peninsula , such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule. There are two holidays ( Eids ) in the Islamic calendar : ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā , during which there are special prayers held at mosques in

3100-576: Is the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah in Malaysia, which features a Low-E glass dome. The use of Low-E (low emissivity) glass allows for significant energy efficiency by reducing heat gain while still allowing natural light to illuminate the interior space. This technique helps to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the mosque, minimizing reliance on air conditioning, and promoting sustainability . In addition to advancements in materials,

3224-411: Is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and

3348-772: The Ka'bah in Mecca , known today as Al-Masjid al-Haram ('The Sacred Mosque'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina , the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE , both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia. Other scholars reference Islamic tradition and passages of the Quran, according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham. In Islamic tradition, Abraham

3472-698: The Bosniak military commander Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet . Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over

3596-634: The Demak Great Mosque , were first established in the 15th century. Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu , Buddhist , and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples ; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors— Malaysia , Brunei , and

3720-547: The Edict of Gülhane . Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans ), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas . Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of

3844-504: The Great Mosque of Cordoba , as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors. Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture , like horseshoe arches , were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb. Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during

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3968-467: The Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis. It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a mihrab ) set into the wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the qibla ), which Muslims must face during prayer, as well as a facility for ritual cleansing ( wudu ). The pulpit ( minbar ), from which public sermons ( khutbah ) are delivered on the event of Friday prayer , was, in earlier times, characteristic of

4092-500: The Ottoman administration of Cyprus, a mosque complex was built in stages around the tomb. The tomb was discovered in the 18th century by the dervish called Sheikh Hasan, who also built the first structure here. Dervish Hasan managed to convince the administrative and religious authorities of the site's sacred nature and with the permission he received, he built the shrine around the tomb in 1760 and had it decorated. The wooden fences around

4216-653: The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 , and Ottoman Algeria was conquered by France beginning in 1830. The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. In 1826, he orchestrated the Auspicious Incident , in which the Kapıkulu were forcibly abolished and many of its members executed, paving the way for the establishment of a modern Ottoman army and further military reforms. Mahmud also made sweeping changes to

4340-571: The Sarvestan Palace . Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as iwans . During Seljuq rule , as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form. The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids , firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with

4464-533: The Sultan Abdülhamid II . While being acknowledged as a holy site for Turkish Cypriot Muslims, the mosque has also been described by contemporary sources as revered by all Muslims. In an assessment of the environmental and cultural assets of Cyprus , Professor George E. Bowen, a senior Fulbright scholar at the University of Tennessee , described Hala Sultan Tekke as the third holiest place for Muslims in

4588-598: The Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a Council of Ministers or the Meclis-i Vukela . The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform. He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive

4712-438: The adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground. The Iqâmah (Arabic: إِقَـامَـة ), which is similar to the adhan and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one. Domes, often placed directly above the main prayer hall, may signify the vaults of the heaven and sky. As time progressed, domes grew, from occupying

4836-401: The early Muslim conquests , mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues , churches , and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries. While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments ( waqf ), the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by

4960-403: The imam or mullah leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis. Left to the mihrab , in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a kursu (Turkish: kürsü , Bosnian: ćurs/ћурс ), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches. Women who pray in mosques are separated from men . Their part for prayer

5084-410: The qibla wall, usually at its center, is the miḥrāb , a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. A raised minbar (pulpit) is located to the right side of the mihrab for a khaṭīb (preacher), or some other speaker, to offer a khuṭbah (sermon) during the ritual Friday prayers. The mihrab serves as the location where

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5208-458: The " Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. His disbandment of the conservative Janissary corps removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeat and loss of territory as a result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention. Mahmud ascended

5332-571: The 11th century. These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today. Before the five required daily prayers, a Mu’adhdhin (Arabic: مُـؤَذِّن ) calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not

5456-704: The Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon. During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi State . Abdullah bin Saud and the First Saudi State had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering

5580-466: The Balkans, appearing before Adrianople . Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. In the Divan , British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace. In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for

5704-550: The Bi-communal Development Programme, which is funded from USAID and UNDP, and implemented through UNOPS. Above the entry gate to Tekke garden is an Ottoman inscription dated 4 March 1813. Sultan Mahmud II 's monogram appears on both sides of the inscription and reads, "Hala Sultan Tekke was built by God's beloved great Ottoman Cyprus governor". The garden itself was designed by a pasha and came to be known as "Pasha garden". The complex of buildings adjacent to

5828-565: The British Museum in 1897–1898 directed by Henry Beauchamp Walters and then John Winter Crowfoot ; the finds were divided between the British Museum and the Cyprus Museum. The contemporary settlement was identified by Swedish archaeologist Arne Furumark in 1947 and some preliminary excavations conducted by the Department of Antiquities. A part of this town was excavated from the 1970s onward by

5952-623: The Christians in Damascus. Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed's father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques. The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam. The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople , including

6076-414: The Department of Antiquities under the women's quarter of Hala Sultan Tekke have revealed building remains dated to the late Archaic , Classical , and Hellenistic periods (sixth to first century BC). Several finds indicate that the site might have been used as a sanctuary but the limited scale of the investigations precludes definite conclusions about its use. Most accounts establish a connection between

6200-434: The Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I , and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time. Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the vakıfs , by placing their revenues under state administration (see Ministry of Evkaf ). However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to

6324-556: The Great Mosque of Xi'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda , with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China. Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere. A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java , where mosques, including

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6448-506: The Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable. Following the last obligatory daily prayer ( ʿIshāʾ ) special, optional Tarāwīḥ prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized

6572-554: The Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques. One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus , Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for

6696-434: The Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe , but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris , that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries. The first mosque in North America

6820-490: The Philippines. Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire , with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople . The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades. Mosques from

6944-426: The Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian pressure on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia . He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except

7068-442: The Sultan was allowed to be retained by Dere Beys . One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the Bektashi order) of the Janissary corps, event known as The Auspicious Incident , in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish). Following

7192-463: The Tekke was known as "Gülşen-Feyz" ( the rose garden of plenitude or of enlightenment ). To the north (left) of the entrance there used to be a guesthouse for men. On the right side of the entrance, there was another guesthouse of which one block was reserved for men ( Selamlik ) and the other for women ( Haremlik ). It was a custom for visitors to take the oath of dedication to serve the Hala Sultan Tekke if their wishes were realized. The domed mosque

7316-403: The Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus . The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture , a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire . The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia

7440-412: The United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812) , the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia ), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became

7564-459: The age of marriage: The 2006 historical detective novel The Janissary Tree , by Jason Goodwin , is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes. The 1989 film Intimate Power , also known as The Favorite , is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece . It portrays

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7688-422: The bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency, and oversaw a reorganisation of the Ottoman foreign office. In 1839, Mahmud introduced a Council of Ministers . He died of tuberculosis later that year and was succeeded by his son Abdulmejid I , who would continue to implement his modernization efforts. Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan . He

7812-442: The bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). This

7936-406: The call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad , which doubled as a place for prayer. The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until

8060-667: The center. Structural and Functional Roles Domes not only serve as architectural focal points but also enhance mosque acoustics, amplifying prayers. Structurally, they allow vast interior spaces with minimal internal supports. Their placement above the prayer hall symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the mosque's spiritual purpose. Persian and Byzantine Influence Whilst squinches and pendentives were not first used in mosques, they were later incorporated in dome design and were essential in transitioning from square rooms to circular domes. Squinches, which originated in Persian and Roman architecture, fill

8184-832: The central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques. To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women . This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on the region, period, and Islamic denomination . In addition to being places of worship in Islam , mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers , marriages ( nikah ), vigils during Ramadan , business agreements, collection and distribution of alms , and homeless shelters. To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools . In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate. Special importance

8308-445: The chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her. Some of the Janissaries which brought Mahmud to power considered other candidates to put to the throne. Other candidates included Esma Sultan ,

8432-437: The combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino ; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria , an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria ) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in

8556-403: The community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night During the last ten days of Ramadan , larger mosques within the Muslim community will host Iʿtikāf , a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result,

8680-511: The community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold Suḥūr meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, Fajr . As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of

8804-415: The community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums , to serve the community. Mahmud II Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish : محمود ثانى , romanized :  Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî , Turkish : II. Mahmud ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as

8928-475: The concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Prophet's Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque. The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Rebuilt and expanded over time, it soon became a larger hypostyle structure. It probably served as

9052-592: The corners of a square space to support a dome, while pendentives, a Byzantine innovation, allowed smooth transitions from a square base to a circular dome. These techniques are exemplified by the Dome of Soltaniyeh. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Byzantine domes, such as Hagia Sophia’s, greatly influenced Ottoman mosque design. Domes in South Asian Mosque Architecture Domes became

9176-446: The deposed Sultan Selim III , in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha , later became Mahmud II's vizier . There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives

9300-399: The designs of later Timurid , and also Mughal , mosque designs. The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed. This style

9424-456: The difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole. Mahmud II had at least nineteen consorts: Mahmud had at least eighteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood: Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached

9548-472: The earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard ( sahn ) and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates , the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required

9672-683: The empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements. One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing

9796-480: The entire Quran (a Hafiz ) will recite a segment of the book. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr , the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise , mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or

9920-494: The entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall (the direction of Mecca , and thus the direction towards which Muslims should face for prayer), the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca , where the Kaaba is located. Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In

10044-474: The famous Hagia Sophia , into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453 . In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam. Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492. The most prominent of them

10168-410: The following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto

10292-558: The formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena . He sent his Grand Vizier to execute

10416-471: The general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire. The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under

10540-636: The head of the Mevlevi order in Konya , or a prince from the Giray dynasty of the former Crimean Khanate . The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power . However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful. After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with

10664-518: The highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office , and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris. Despite

10788-525: The holiday of Eid ul-Fitr , mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday. The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world. In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare. A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age. Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are

10912-415: The holy shrines of Mecca and Medina ; his followers also desecrated the tombs of Ali ibn Abi Talib , Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali . Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques. His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece declaring independence following a rebellion that started in 1821. In

11036-431: The imperial level and by high-ranking administrators for the maintenance and development of the complex, during the Ottoman Empire , Ottoman-flagged ships would hang their flags at half mast when off the shores of Larnaca, and salute Hala Sultan with cannon shots. Mosque A mosque ( / m ɒ s k / MOSK ), also called a masjid ( / ˈ m æ s dʒ ɪ d , ˈ m ʌ s -/ MASS -jid, MUSS - ),

11160-506: The increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as Hajj to the city. Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina , which is now known as Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ('The Prophet's Mosque'). Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer

11284-447: The insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı , the Muslim governors, and the Ayans , or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government

11408-687: The journal Opuscula. Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome . In 2018, Fischer uncovered several tombs at the site that are being explored carefully. The tombs date to 1500 and 1350 BC and contained artifacts of the Bronze Age that demonstrate the extensive trade of goods existing at the time. Radar surveys (2010–2012) have demonstrated that the city was one of the largest in the Late Bronze Age (roughly 1600–1100 BC), maybe as large as 50 ha. Another archaeological investigation conducted by

11532-646: The line Mahmudiye , which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal ( Tersâne-i Âmire ) on the Golden Horn in Constantinople ( kadem , which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot , hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.) During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of

11656-528: The loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years , the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or 76.15 m × 21.22 m (249.8 ft × 69.6 ft) ship of

11780-489: The majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the Adhān (Arabic: أَذَان , Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The adhan is required before every prayer. Nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or Sunnah ( Arabic : سُـنَّـة ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets,

11904-412: The majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an Eidgah . Islam's holiest month, Ramaḍān , is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host Ifṭār dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is Maghrib . Food is provided, at least in part, by members of

12028-425: The morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor Eidgah , a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are

12152-468: The old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the Dere Beys , the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of

12276-514: The opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity. The first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran). The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and

12400-469: The oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs . A firma dated 22 February 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for

12524-490: The rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay. The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as Zakat . Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and, if necessary, collect it. Before

12648-496: The rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the waqf that owns the mosque). In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is built in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns). One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia . Usually opposite

12772-634: The rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism. The word 'mosque' entered the English language from the French word mosquée , probably derived from Italian moschea (a variant of Italian moscheta ), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ ( mzkit‘ ), Medieval Greek : μασγίδιον ( masgídion ), or Spanish mezquita , from [مسجد] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) (meaning "site of prostration (in prayer)" and hence

12896-522: The roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as padishah . The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed haznedar usta ,

13020-526: The room. Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to create a more religious atmosphere for worshippers. Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharīʿah sense (although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well). Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid , and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to

13144-662: The seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes , pointed arches , and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles . The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore , built in

13268-694: The site and the death of Umm Haram during the first Arab conquest of Cyprus under the Caliph Muawiyah between 647 and 649, which were later pursued throughout the Umayyad and the Abbasid periods. According to these accounts, Umm Haram, being of very old age, had fallen from her mule and had died during a siege of Larnaca. She was later buried where she died. According to Shia belief, her grave lies within Jannatul Baqi cemetery in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. During

13392-432: The sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows , from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish archery. Mahmud II died of tuberculosis , in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdulmejid I succeeded him and announce an intention of general reorganization (Tanzimat) with

13516-429: The throne following an 1808 coup which deposed his half-brother Mustafa IV . Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded Bessarabia to Russia at the end of the 1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War . Greece waged a successful war of independence that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize the independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after

13640-412: The tomb would have been built by the 19th-century Ottoman governor in Cyprus, Seyyid Elhac Mehmed Agha , which were replaced by fences in bronze and two doors by his successor Acem Ali Agha . In another account, Giovanni Mariti , who visited Cyprus between 1760 and 1767, wrote that the shrine was built by the Cyprus governor he names as Ali Agha. According to Mariti, until 1760 they used the stones of

13764-420: The towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves. They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world. The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs. Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence

13888-585: The two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders." The haraç , or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through

14012-747: The use of geodesic domes offers a modern solution to structural and environmental needs. These domes, with their network of triangular units, distribute weight evenly, allowing for expansive spaces without the need for internal supports. This is particularly useful in creating large, unobstructed prayer halls. Geodesic domes also boast greater energy efficiency due to their minimal surface area relative to volume, which reduces heating and cooling demands. As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function

14136-549: The use of numerous columns and supports . One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns. Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades ( riwaq ) so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The simplicity of the Arab plan limited

14260-511: The wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising. During the Battle of Erzurum (1821) , part of the Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823) , Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza , resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum . Several years later, in 1827,

14384-632: The world. This view has been echoed by other sources including the United Nations Development Programme in Cyprus and the Cypriot administration's Department of Antiquities. Others describe the site as fourth most important in the Islamic world, after Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem. As a result of the site being located in the Greek non-Muslim sector of the divided island, pilgrimage visits to the site are infrequent. In addition to interventions at

14508-418: The worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire. The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from

14632-619: Was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent's oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America , was built in 1934. As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia , have come in the United States. Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000. According to early Muslim historians , towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with

14756-471: Was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes. Islam forbids figurative art , on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God's creation. Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions. Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the miḥrāb . Tiles are used widely in mosques. They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create

14880-416: Was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions. Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the " Tımar "s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish

15004-555: Was the Turkish wife of the Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca of the Hashemite House , himself a grandson of the Ottoman grand vizier Koca Mustafa Reşid Pasha and a descendant of Muhammad . At the eastern corner of the mosque and the Tekke, there is a cemetery, which was closed to burials at around 1899. A number of past Turkish administrators are buried here. Opposite the mosque, there

15128-516: Was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb. It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret , which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica . Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including

15252-517: Was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants. Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt

15376-555: Was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his Seventh consort Nakşidil Kadin . He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him, both dead in infancy. According to tradition, he was confined in the Kafes after the death of his father. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin,

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