91-529: The Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation (HSRC) is a Vancouver-based company formerly run by Russ George and funded by the Old Massett band of Haida Gwaii . The company conducted a small scale ocean fertilization experiment in 2012. 120 tons of iron compound were deposited in the migration routes of pink and sockeye salmon in the Pacific ocean West of Haida Gwaii over a period of 30 days. The project resulted in
182-424: A karst terrain . These eolianites are actually the type locality , and formed during interglaciations (i.e., the upper levels of the limestone cap, formed primarily by calcium-secreting algae, was broken down into sand by wave action during interglaciation when the seamount was submerged, and during glaciation, when the top of the seamount was above sea level, that sand was blown into dunes and fused together into
273-419: A 35,000 km (14,000 sq mi) plankton bloom that lasted for several months and was confirmed by NASA satellite imagery. The HSRC scientific team collected a significant amount of oceanographic data using autonomous underwater vehicles ( Slocum Gliders ), Argo Drifters , Multi-Spectral Sonar, Surface Seawater samples, Phytoplankton Tows and other methods. The experiment, which was carried out without
364-519: A barbed-wire fence, swam 1.5 miles (2.4 km) past patrol boats and bright spotlights, through storm-swept waters, using the distant Gibbs Hill Lighthouse for navigation until he arrived ashore on the main island. He settled in the U.S. and later became a spy for Germany in both World Wars. In 1942, Col. Duquesne was arrested by the FBI for leading the Duquesne Spy Ring , which to this day remains
455-444: A bill of goods. We approached him, and we based that on ten years of work with him in other fields. I’ve known Russ for over ten years and I’ll tell you something that is very rare: he has never once lied to me, he’s only told me the truth, he has a great integrity, and he’s never let us down. And every time he’s told me something that I thought was unbelievable I’ve checked it out and he’s always been right. And I challenge anyone else in
546-555: A censorship centre. All mail, radio and telegraphic traffic bound for Europe, the US and the Far East was intercepted and analysed by 1,200 censors, of British Imperial Censorship, part of British Security Coordination (BSC), before being routed to their destination. With BSC working closely with the FBI, the censors were responsible for the discovery and arrest of a number of Axis spies operating in
637-560: A century later. It was mentioned in Legatio Babylonica , published in 1511 by historian Pedro Mártir de Anglería , and was included on Spanish charts of that year. Both Spanish and Portuguese ships used the islands as a replenishment spot to take on fresh meat and water. Shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock , previously called Spanish Rock. Legends arose of spirits and devils, now thought to have stemmed from
728-547: A colony at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Two years later, a flotilla of seven ships left England with several hundred settlers, food, and supplies to relieve the Jamestown colony. However, the flotilla was broken up by a storm and the flagship, the Sea Venture , drove onto Bermuda's reef to prevent her sinking, resulting in the survival of all her passengers and crew. The settlers were unwilling to move on, having now heard about
819-496: A counterclaim the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation claimed that Russ George lied about his credentials and academic qualifications, assaulted the project leader, and acted in an "irrational, unprofessional and offensive manner". In 2016, Russ George was ordered to pay security for legal costs. On July 15, 2014, the oceanographic scientific data gathered during the project was made publicly available under
910-405: A diverse population primarily of any mixture of African, European, and Native American ancestry, make up around 50% of the population, while White Bermudians , primarily of British, Irish and Portuguese descent, make up 30% of the population. There are smaller groups from other races or identifying as mixed race and about 30% of the population is not Bermudian by birth. The last remaining colony in
1001-686: A fee. After the American Revolution , the Royal Navy began improving the harbours on the Bermudas. In 1811, work began on the large Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island , which was to serve as the islands' principal naval base guarding the western Atlantic Ocean shipping lanes. To guard the dockyard, the British Army built the Bermuda Garrison , and heavily fortified the archipelago. During
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#17328442455731092-544: A frost or freeze on record in Bermuda. The hardiness zone is 11b/12a . In other words, the coldest that the annual minimum temperature may be expected to be is around 10 °C (50 °F). This is very high for such a latitude and is a half-zone higher than the Florida Keys . Summertime heat index in Bermuda can be high, although mid-August temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F). The highest recorded temperature
1183-610: A large area in the Pacific Ocean. Russel George was chosen to act as the lead scientist of this operation. In July 2012, George departed from Victoria with a crew of 11 on a chartered fishing vessel named the Ocean Pearl, loaded with 100 tons of iron-rich nutrient. The vessel exited the Strait of Juan de Fuca and headed northwards into the Gulf of Alaska until they reached the currents known as
1274-766: A limestone sandstone), and are laced by red paleosols , also referred to as geosols or terra rossas, indicative of Saharan atmospheric dust and forming during glacial stages . The stratigraphic column starts with the Walsingham Formation , overlain by the Castle Harbour Geosol, the Lower and Upper Town Hill Formations separated by the Harbour Road Geosol, the Ord Road Geosol, the Belmont Formation,
1365-724: A number of aircraft and boats have disappeared under unexplained or mysterious circumstances. Bermuda's pink sand beaches and clear, cerulean blue ocean waters are popular with tourists. Many of Bermuda's hotels are located along the south shore of the island. In addition to its beaches, there are a number of sightseeing attractions. Historic St. George's is a designated World Heritage Site . Scuba divers can explore numerous wrecks and coral reefs in relatively shallow water (typically 30–40 ft or 9–12 m in depth), with virtually unlimited visibility. Many nearby reefs are readily accessible from shore by snorkellers , especially at Church Bay . Bermuda's most popular visitor attraction
1456-456: A severe food shortage on the island until the departure of Nautilus in October. After France's entry into the war in 1778, Henry Clinton refortified the island under the command of Major William Sutherland . As a result, 91 French and American ships were captured in the winter of 1778–1779, bringing the population once again to the brink of starvation. Bermudian trade was severely hampered by
1547-526: A significant increase in concentrations of Domoic acid on the northern coast of Haida Gwaii in the latter half of 2012, and citizens of Old Masset reported with unease that the island was hit by the strongest red tides ever seen there. However, Professor Victor Smetacek, a top authority from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany, who has done many experiments in
1638-531: A total area of 53.3 km (20.6 sq mi). The largest island is Main Island (also called Bermuda ). Eight larger and populated islands are connected by bridges. The territory's tallest peak is Town Hill on Main Island at 79 m (259 ft) tall. The territory's coastline is 103 km (64 mi). Bermuda gives its name to the Bermuda Triangle , a region of sea in which, according to legend,
1729-669: Is a clear example, constituting the cave district around Castle Harbour. The Upper Town Hill Formation forms the core of the Main Island, and prominent hills such as Town Hill, Knapton Hill, and St. David's Lighthouse, while the highest hills, Gibbs Hill Lighthouse, are due to the Southampton Formation. Bermuda has two major aquifers , the Langton Aquifer located within the Southampton, Rocky Bay and Belmont Formations, and
1820-667: Is also an oceanic climate , common to many oceanic islands and to the western coasts of continents in the Northern Hemisphere (resulting in a more moderate climate on the western coast of Europe than on the eastern coast of North America), characterised by high relative humidity that moderates temperature, ensuring generally mild winters and summers. Bermuda is warmed by the nearby Gulf Stream . The islands may experience modestly cooler temperatures in January, February, and March [average 18 °C (64 °F)]. There has never been snow,
1911-605: Is formally appointed by the governor , who is nominated by the British government as the representative of the King . The United Kingdom is responsible for foreign affairs and defence. An independence referendum was held in 1995 with a large majority voting against independence. As of 2019, Bermuda had a population of around 64,000 people, making it the second-most populous of the British Overseas Territories. Black Bermudians ,
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#17328442455732002-577: Is on Long Island. The New York Times reported an attempted mutiny by Boer prisoners of war en route to Bermuda and that martial law was enacted on Darrell's Island. The most famous escapee was the Boer prisoner of war Captain Fritz Joubert Duquesne , who was serving a life sentence for "conspiracy against the British government and on (the charge of) espionage". On the night of 25 June 1902, Duquesne slipped out of his tent, worked his way over
2093-897: Is the Royal Naval Dockyard , which includes the National Museum of Bermuda. Other attractions include the Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo , Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute, the Botanical Gardens and Masterworks Museum of Bermuda Art , lighthouses, and the Crystal Caves with stalactites and underground saltwater pools. Non-residents are prohibited from driving cars on the island. Public transport and taxis are available or visitors can rent scooters for use as private transport. Bermuda consists of over 150 limestone islands, but especially five main islands, along
2184-440: Is the guiding principle of the company. As President, I am very cognisant of all of the requirements of the scientific and legal nature that applies to this project. I’d like to say that at this time that the international media and national media seems to have focused on Russ George who we brought in as our Chief Scientist. I want to make this emphatically clear: Russ George did not, I’m saying did not come to us to dupe us or sell us
2275-565: The Canary Islands instead in order to avoid confrontation with the Sea Shepherds . Much to the surprise of Sea Shepherds, on November 14, 2007, the vessel appeared in the harbor of St. Georges , where it refueled as planned. At this point, the vessel had no iron dust aboard, with Planktos attempting to obtain the required iron for the experiment dust from ground-up metal scrap instead, contradicting earlier claims of using virgin iron dust in
2366-519: The Caribbean Community . Bermuda is named after the Spanish sailor Juan de Bermúdez , who discovered the islands in 1505, while sailing for Spain from a provisioning voyage to Hispaniola in the ship La Garça . Bermuda was discovered in the early 1500s by Spanish explorer Juan de Bermúdez . Bermuda had no Indigenous population when it was discovered, nor during initial British settlement
2457-790: The Haida Eddies , approximately 200 miles westward of the coast of Haida Gwaii . The crew spent the next weeks zigzagging the ship over the ocean while mixing the 4 000 50-lb bags of nutrients with seawater and pumping them overboard using a hose before returning to Victoria to take 20 more tons of nutrient aboard to repeat the process in August. As of 2022, this remains by far the largest Iron fertilization operation in history. George claimed this resulted in increased growth of phytoplankton over 10,000 square miles. Some critics asserted George's actions were illegal while others have argued that they were not. Scientists were especially concerned regarding
2548-982: The National Museum of Bermuda , which incorporates Bermuda's Maritime Museum, occupies the Keep of the Royal Naval Dockyard. Due to its proximity to the southeastern US coast, Bermuda was frequently used during the American Civil War as a stopping point base for the Confederate States ' blockade runners on their runs to and from the Southern states, and England, to evade Union naval vessels on blockade patrol. The blockade runners were then able to transport essential war goods from England and deliver valuable cotton back to England. The old Globe Hotel in St. George's, which
2639-792: The New England colonies and sold into slavery in the seventeenth century, notably in the aftermaths of the Pequot War and King Philip's War ; some are believed to have been brought from as far away as Mexico . Bermuda's ambivalence towards the American rebellion changed in September ;1774, when the Continental Congress resolved to ban trade with Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies after 10 September 1775. Such an embargo would mean
2730-685: The New World . In 1615, the colony, which had been renamed the Somers Isles in commemoration of Sir George Somers , was passed on to the Somers Isles Company . As Bermudians settled the Carolina Colony and contributed to establishing other English colonies in the Americas , several other locations were named after the archipelago. During this period the first slaves were held and trafficked to
2821-811: The ODbL license. Russ George Russ George (Darcy Russel George; born 6 December 1949) is an American businessman and entrepreneur best known for founding the San Francisco–based firm Planktos Inc. which claims to "restore ecosystems and slow climate change". In 2007 he provided testimony to the House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . The ecorestoration treeplanting company he founded in Canada in 1973 originally called Coast Range has planted upwards of 250 million trees , and continues even now. He used to be member of Greenpeace and
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2912-468: The ODbL license. The experiment did result in an unusually large phytoplankton bloom that lasted at least until September 2012, when it became increasingly difficult to detect as the biomass dispersed into the surrounding waters. In the seas of Southeast Alaska, the relevant area of the experiment, the expected catch of Pink Salmon in 2013 was predicted by salmon experts and managers to be 54 million fish. The catch turned out to be 224 million Pinks,
3003-605: The Outer Banks of North Carolina , United States which is the nearest landmass. Its next nearest neighbour is Cape Sable Island , Nova Scotia Canada which is 1,236 km (768 mi) north of Bermuda. It is also located 1,759 km (1,093 mi) north-northeast of Havana , Cuba , 1,538 km (956 mi) north of the British Virgin Islands, and 1,537.17 km (955.15 mi) north of San Juan , Puerto Rico . The territory consists of 181 islands , with
3094-673: The War of 1812 between Britain and the United States, the British attacks on Washington, D.C. , and the Chesapeake were planned and launched from Bermuda, where the headquarters of the Royal Navy's North American Station had recently been moved from Halifax, Nova Scotia . In 1816, James Arnold, the son of Benedict Arnold , fortified Bermuda's Royal Naval Dockyard against possible US attacks. Today,
3185-736: The (OPR) type of project.” Webb added that the amendment to the London Protocol that relates to OPR has not “yet entered into force so, at the moment, has no legal effect.” Edward A. (Ted) Parson, the Dan and Rae Emmett Professor of Environmental Law and Faculty Co-director of the Emmett Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the University of California, Los Angeles said about the Haida project at
3276-568: The 17th century, the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding, as it needed Bermudians to farm in order to generate income from the land. The Virginia colony, however, far surpassed Bermuda in quality and quantity of tobacco produced. Bermudians began to turn to maritime trades relatively early in the 17th century, but the Somers Isles Company used all its authority to suppress turning away from agriculture. This interference led to islanders demanding, and receiving, revocation of
3367-400: The 1960s. Universal suffrage was adopted as part of Bermuda's Constitution in 1967; voting had previously been dependent on a certain level of property ownership. On 10 March 1973, the governor of Bermuda, Richard Sharples , was assassinated by local Black Power militants during a period of civil unrest. Some moves were made towards possible independence for the islands, however, this
3458-404: The 19th century and after World War II, the territory became a prominent offshore financial centre and tax haven . Divided into nine parishes , Bermuda is a self-governing parliamentary democracy with a bicameral parliament located in the capital Hamilton . The House of Assembly dates from 1620, making it one of the world's oldest legislatures. The premier is the head of government and
3549-645: The Bermudian magazine while Governor George James Bruere slept, and loaded onto these boats. As a consequence, on 2 October the Continental Congress exempted Bermuda from their trade ban, and Bermuda acquired a reputation for disloyalty. Later that year, the British Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act to prohibit trade with the American rebelling colonies and sent HMS Scorpion to keep watch over
3640-626: The Brighton Aquifer located within the Town Hill Formation. Four freshwater lenses occur in Bermuda, with the Central Lens being the largest on Main Island, containing an area of 7.2 km (1,800 acres) and a thickness greater than 10 m (33 ft). Bermuda has a tropical rainforest climate ( Köppen climate classification : Af ), bordering very closely on a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ). It
3731-587: The CBD have adopted two decisions discouraging ocean fertilization, and geoengineering generally. But these are purely advisory – and are moreover so clumsily drafted that even if they were legally binding (which they are not), their operational meaning would be utterly opaque… Nations are under no legal obligation to refrain from ocean fertilization research, nor to submit proposals to any international process.” Search warrants were executed by Environment Canada 's enforcement branch to investigate Russ George's office concerning
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3822-466: The Convention on Biological Diversity have adopted a resolution, which says that countries should avoid “ ocean fertilization activities,” except those conducted as part of small-scale scientific research projects in coastal waters. Notably, however, the resolution is not legally binding. So, provided countries complied with other provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity, they could go ahead with
3913-435: The Haida Gwaii project, "scientists have seen no evidence that the experiment worked", concluded a 2017 article in Nature . Bermuda Bermuda ( / b ər ˈ m j uː d ə / ; historically known as the Bermudas or Somers Isles ) is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean . The closest land outside the territory is in the American state of North Carolina , about 1,035 km (643 mi) to
4004-416: The Planktos-owned, US-registered vessel Weatherbird II set sail, departing from Fort Lauderdale for an yet unknown location. Unbeknownst to the organizations attempting to put a halt to these operations, a change of plans had taken place, and instead of heading for Galápagos , the vessel set course on the Bermudas for a refueling stop, intending to cruise across the Atlantic and conduct the operation near
4095-399: The Shore Hills Geosol, the Rocky Bay Formation, and the Southampton Formation. The older eolianite ridges (older Bermuda) are more rounded and subdued compared to the outer coastline (Younger Bermuda). Thus, post deposition morphology includes chemical erosion , with inshore water bodies demonstrating that much of Bermuda is partially drowned Pleistocene karst . The Walsingham Formation
4186-505: The US, including the Joe K ring . In 1948, a regularly scheduled commercial airline service began to operate, using land-based aeroplanes landing at Kindley Field (now L.F. Wade International Airport ), helping tourism to reach a peak in the 1960s and 1970s. By the end of the 1970s, however, international business had supplanted tourism as the dominant sector of Bermuda's economy. The Royal Naval Dockyard and its attendant military garrison remained important to Bermuda's economy until
4277-498: The United States, because of the presence of many privateers. The Bermuda Gazette , Bermuda's first newspaper, began publishing in 1784. The editor, Joseph Stockdale , had been given financial incentive to move to Bermuda with his family and establish the newspaper. He also provided other printing services and operated Bermuda's first local postal service. The Bermuda Gazette was sold by subscription and delivered to subscribers, with Stockdale's employee also delivering mail for
4368-501: The calls of raucous birds (most likely the Bermuda petrel , or cahow ) and loud nocturnal noises from wild hogs. With its frequent storm-racked conditions and dangerous reefs, the archipelago became known as the "Isle of Devils". Neither Spain nor Portugal attempted to settle it. For the next century, the island was frequently visited but not settled. The English began to focus on the New World, initially settling in Virginia , starting British colonization in North America, establishing
4459-413: The collapse of their inter-colonial commerce, famine and civil unrest. Lacking political channels with Great Britain, the Tucker Family met in May 1775 with eight other parishioners and resolved to send delegates to the Continental Congress in July, aiming for an exemption from the ban. Henry Tucker noted a clause in the ban which allowed the exchange of American goods for military supplies. The clause
4550-402: The colonists developed a strong sense of devotion to the Crown. The royalists ousted the Somers Isles Company's Governor and elected John Trimingham as their leader (see Governor of Bermuda ). Bermuda's civil war was ended by militias, and dissenters were pushed to settle The Bahamas under William Sayle . The rebellious royalist colonies of Bermuda, Virginia, Barbados and Antigua , were
4641-415: The colony serving as a base for merchants, privateers and the Royal Navy , giving its name to the Bermuda rig and Bermuda sloop . It became an imperial fortress , the most important British naval and military base in the western hemisphere with vast funds lavished on its Royal Naval Dockyard and military defences until the 1950s. Tourism has been a significant contributor to Bermuda's economy since
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#17328442455734732-415: The combined efforts of the Royal Navy, the British garrison and loyalist privateers , such that famine struck the island in 1779. Upon the death of George Bruere in 1780, the governorship passed to his son, George Jr., an active loyalist. Under his leadership, smuggling was stopped, and the Bermudian colonial government was populated with like-minded loyalists. Even Henry Tucker abandoned trading with
4823-485: The company announced to wind down its business due to “unanticipated events in the Canary Islands”. On 13 February 2008, the company announced that funds had run dry and all operations were being postponed indefinitely. In March, the Weatherbird II was sold to an oil exploration interest. In 2012, the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation decided on conducting an 'ocean pasture restoration experiment' by spreading more than 100 tonnes of an iron-rich dirt-like substance over
4914-427: The company's charter in 1684, and the company was dissolved. Bermudians rapidly abandoned agriculture for shipbuilding, replanting farmland with the native juniper trees ( Juniperus bermudiana , called Bermuda cedar). Establishing effective control over the Turks Islands , Bermudians deforested their landscape to begin the salt trade. It became the world's largest and remained the cornerstone of Bermuda's economy for
5005-413: The corporate world to come up with that about a person. Russ has one aim in life: he wants to try and make the planet a better place. That’s it. I don’t care what else you read." In May 2013, the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation removed George as a director of the company and ended his employment. Russ George sued the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation, its directors, and several others in 2014. In
5096-497: The deep ocean. Critics allege violations of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the London Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea which contain moratoriums on geoengineering experiments. Parties to the London Convention and London Protocol expressed grave concerns about this experiment. Romany M. Webb, Senior Fellow and Associate Research Scholar for the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law at Columbia Law School answered this way: “The parties to
5187-405: The experiment as well as leading to concerns whether the iron used would be contaminated by oils or impurities. Two days later, the vessel departed for the Canary Islands . The vessel was denied port entry in the Canary Islands by local authorities in December 2007, after which the vessel spent several days drifting about before heading northwards to the island of Madeira . Several days later,
5278-435: The fact that previous similar Experiments, like the EisenEx experiment conducted in November 2009 had shown that fertilizing the ocean with iron in this manner would especially promote the growth of a genus of microalgae known as Pseudo-nitzschia which in turn produces large quantities of Domoic acid , a potentially deadly neurotoxin which accumulates through the food chain. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency reported
5369-399: The former British North America (following the 1867 Confederation of Canada and the Colony of Newfoundland becoming the Dominion of Newfoundland in 1907), Bermuda has a distinct dialect of English and has historically had strong ties with other English-speaking countries in the Americas, including the United States, Canada, and the Commonwealth Caribbean . It is an associate member of
5460-445: The iron enrichment he performed in 2012 off the coast of British Columbia. John Disney, President of the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation, made this statement on October 19, 2012: "Our project has generated a great deal of media attention both nationally and internationally. I want to tell you about the project, what we did, how we did it. This project was not entered into lightly. And we have complied with every necessary aspect of
5551-436: The island in large numbers, originating from America and the Caribbean. As the black population grew, so did the fear of insurrection among the white settlers. In 1623, a law to restrain the insolence of the Negroes was passed in Bermuda. It forbade blacks to buy or sell, barter or exchange tobacco or any other produce for goods without the consent of their master. Unrest amongst the slaves predictably erupted several times over
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#17328442455735642-456: The island. The island's forts were stripped of cannons. Yet, wartime trade of contraband continued along well-established family connections. With 120 boats by 1775, Bermuda continued to trade with St. Eustatius until 1781 and provided salt to North American ports. In June 1776, HMS Nautilus secured the island, followed by HMS Galatea in September. Yet, the two British captains seemed more intent on capturing prize money, causing
5733-438: The islands. These were a mixture of native Africans who were trafficked to the Americas via the African slave trade and Native Americans who were enslaved from the Thirteen Colonies . The first African slaves arrived in Bermuda in 1617, not from Africa but from the West Indies. Bermuda Governor Tucker sent a ship to the West Indies to find black slaves to dive for pearls in Bermuda. More black slaves were later trafficked to
5824-426: The knowledge of national authorities, was later described by a leading scientist at the Natural History Museum in London as "hav(ing) had a chilling effect on public trust and on research". In May, 2013, HSRC fired George, removing him as a director of the company, and appointed John Disney as interim CEO. On 15 July 2014, the oceanographic scientific data gathered during the project was made publicly available under
5915-415: The largest catch in Canadian history. Russ has claimed this to be definitive Proof of the success of the Experiment, despite claims that no definitive link between the experiment and the higher levels of the food chain (including Salmon) could be determined. Research conducted on 13 major iron-fertilization experiments in the open ocean since 1990 determined that the method is unproven; with respect to
6006-484: The largest espionage case uncovered in the history of the United States. In the early 20th century Bermuda became a popular destination for American, Canadian and British tourists arriving by sea. The US Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, which enacted protectionist trade tariffs on goods imported into the US, led to the demise of Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade to America and encouraged development of tourism as an alternative source of income. The island
6097-423: The mid-20th century. In addition to considerable building work, the armed forces needed to source food and other materials from local vendors. Beginning in World War II , US military installations were also located in Bermuda, including a naval air station , and submarine base . The American military presence lasted until 1995. Universal adult suffrage and development of a two-party political system took place in
6188-455: The next century. Bermudians also vigorously pursued whaling , privateering , and the merchant trade. Some islanders, especially in St David's , still trace their ancestry to Native Americans, and many more are unaware that they have such ancestry. Hundreds of Native Americans were shipped to Bermuda. The best-known examples were the Algonquian peoples such as Pequots, Wampanoags, Podunks, Nipmucks, Narragansetts and others who were exiled from
6279-418: The next decades. Major rebellions occurred in 1656, 1661, 1673, 1682, 1730 and 1761. In 1761 a conspiracy was discovered that involved the majority of the blacks on the island. Six slaves were executed and all black celebrations were prohibited. In 1649, the English Civil War was taking place and King Charles I was beheaded in Whitehall , London. The conflict spilled over into Bermuda, where most of
6370-506: The ocean ensuring relatively high humidity and stabilising temperatures. Bermuda is prone to severe weather from recurving tropical cyclones ; however, it receives some protection from a coral reef and its position north of the Main Development Region , which limits the direction and severity of approaching storms. Bermuda is named after Spanish explorer Juan de Bermúdez , who discovered the archipelago in 1505. The islands have been permanently inhabited since 1612 when an English settlement
6461-418: The ocean governance before undertaking the work. I want to make very clear: we do not consider micronutrient replenishment of a naturally occurring substance to be pollution. We are using this for restoration purposes, to restore the salmon back to their rightful place in the Old Massey economy. We have created a great team, working to develop the knowledge that will allow us to have a sustainable future, and that
6552-534: The oceans with Ocean Pasture Restoration, or OPR, related projects, had this to say about OPR safety concerns: “In general, the claim that OPR may cause harmful algal blooms (HABs) and lead to closure of fisheries in coastal waters is completely unfounded. Specifically, the National Academy of Sciences report mentions that OPR does not pose a threat of HABs in the open deep ocean. I fully agree with this.” The Haida project, and all OPR projects, are only conducted in
6643-477: The other hand agreed to sell Planktos Inc. to another company named Diatom Corp. which was renamed to Planktos Corp. to reflect this acquisition. The name change became effective March 7, 2007. In May 2007, Planktos Corp. announced their plans to dissolve 100 tons of iron over a 10 000 square kilometer area on the high seas near the Galápagos Islands , the first of six planned large-scale operations Planktos
6734-474: The release was to increase plankton growth and there promote growth of fisheries and maybe also remove carbon from the atmosphere. Such interventions exist in a near legal vacuum. Critics of the Old Massett Haida project are claiming it violates international law, but this is simply not true. Mainly due to vigorous lobbying by a couple of small NGOs (the same ones now outraged at the Haida project), parties to
6825-468: The ship the Plough . New London (renamed St. George's Town) was settled that year and designated as the colony's first capital. It is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World . In 1616 and 1620 acts were passed banning the hunting of certain birds and young tortoises . The archipelago's limited land area and resources led to the creation of what may be the earliest conservation laws of
6916-656: The south-west. Initial uplift of this rise occurred in the Middle to Late Eocene and concluded by the Late Oligocene , when it subsided below sea level. The volcanic rocks associated with this rise are tholeiitic lavas and intrusive lamprophyre sheets, which form a volcanic basement, on average, 50 m (160 ft) below the island carbonate surface. The limestones of Bermuda consist of biocalcarenites with minor conglomerates . The portion of Bermuda above sea level consists of rocks deposited by aeolian processes , with
7007-593: The southern margin of the Bermuda Platform, one of three topographic highs found on the Bermuda Pedestal . This Bermuda Pedestal sits atop the Bermuda Rise, a mid-basin swell surrounded by abyssal plains . The Bermuda Pedestal is one of four topographic highs aligned roughly from North-East to South-West. The others, all submerged, are Bowditch Seamount to the north-east, and Challenger Bank and Argus Bank to
7098-576: The subjects of an Act of the Rump Parliament of England . The royalist colonies were also threatened with invasion. The Government of Bermuda eventually reached an agreement with the Parliament of England which retained the status quo in Bermuda. In 1655 fifty-four Bermudians became the first British subjects to permanently settle on the Island of Jamaica , followed by a further (200) Bermudians in 1658, following Cromwell’s Invasion of Jamaica . In
7189-404: The tenants or other occupants after Bermuda-grown tobacco became steadily less profitable following the 1620s, becoming family farms that switched from growing tobacco for export to producing food (initially for local consumption). Consequently, a plantation economy did not develop and the slave trade largely ceased by the end of the 17th century. The economy instead became maritime-focused, with
7280-520: The time, “There’s a ruckus going on over an experiment in ocean fertilization conducted off the coast of British Columbia in July and disclosed this week. The Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation, an enterprise of the Haida village of Old Massett, used a large fishing vessel to spread 100 tons of iron sulfate-rich dust on the ocean surface west of Haida Gwaii (or the Queen Charlotte Islands). The aim of
7371-552: The true conditions in Jamestown from the sailors, and made multiple attempts to rebel and stay in Bermuda. They argued that they had a right to stay and establish their own government. The new settlement became a prison labour camp, and built two ships, the Deliverance and the Patience . In 1612, the English began settlement of the archipelago, officially named Virgineola, with arrival of
7462-437: The west-northwest. Bermuda is an archipelago consisting of 181 islands , although the most significant islands are connected by bridges and appear to form one landmass. It has a land area of 54 square kilometres (21 sq mi). Bermuda has a tropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Its climate also exhibits oceanic features similar to other coastal areas in the Northern Hemisphere with warm, moist air from
7553-767: Was a centre of intrigue for Confederate agents, is preserved as a public museum. During the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), 5,000 Boer prisoners of war were housed on five islands of Bermuda. They were located according to their views of the war. "Bitterenders" ( Afrikaans : Bittereinders ), who refused to pledge allegiance to the British Crown, were interned on Darrell's Island and closely guarded. Other islands such as Morgan's Island held 884 men, including 27 officers; Tucker's Island held 809 Boer prisoners, Burt's Island 607, and Port's Island held 35. Hinson's Island housed underage prisoners. The camp cemetery
7644-593: Was confirmed by Benjamin Franklin when Tucker met with the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety . Independently, others confirmed this business arrangement with Peyton Randolph , the Charlestown Committee of Safety, and George Washington . Three American boats, operating from Charlestown, Philadelphia and Newport, sailed to Bermuda, and on 14 August 1775, 100 barrels of gunpowder were taken from
7735-547: Was decisively rejected in a referendum in 1995 . At the 2020 Summer Olympics , Bermuda became the smallest overseas territory to earn a gold medal, as Flora Duffy won Bermuda's first ever Olympic gold medal in the women's triathlon . Bermuda is a group of low-forming volcanoes in the Atlantic Ocean , in the west of the Sargasso Sea , roughly 578 nmi (1,070 km; 665 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras on
7826-461: Was established at St. George's , which is also the territory’s largest settlement. Forming part of British America , Bermuda was governed under Royal charter by the Somers Isles Company until 1684, when it became a crown colony . The first enslaved Africans were taken to Bermuda in 1616. The Somers Isles Company ensured a steady flow of free but indentured servants until 1684, and most tobacco farms owned by overseas adventurers were sold to
7917-536: Was one of the centres for illegal alcohol smuggling during the era of Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933). A rail line was constructed in Bermuda in the 1920s, opening in 1931 as the Bermuda Railway , which was abandoned in 1948. The right of way is now the Bermuda Railway Trail. In 1930, after several failed attempts, a Stinson Detroiter seaplane flew to Bermuda from New York City : It
8008-787: Was part of the crew of the Rainbow Warrior , though today he considers Greenpeace one of his greatest opponents. In the 90s, he founded several companies conducting Cold Fusion research. In the late 1980s, Russell embraced the idea of near limitless energy from the fusion of atoms after hearing of the Fleischmann–Pons experiment. Shortly after, in 1989, Darcy Russ George and Ronald A. Brightsen founded Clustron Science Corp. in Order to conduct Experiments regarding Cold Fusion themselves. In 1998, Russ George founded Saturna Technologies and eWorld Travel Corp. an Internet Travel Service Company, which
8099-497: Was planning to conduct in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean from 2007 to 2009. These plans caught the attention of the several NGOs, the first of which was the eco-justice ETC Group, which raised alarm about the large-scale geoengineering project. This in turn caused other organizations to take notice of Planktos Corp: The start of the operation was delayed by almost three months due to supply delays, but finally, on November 5, 2007,
8190-419: Was renamed to GYK Ventures Inc. in 2002, then renamed a second time to Diatom Corp. in 2005. In March 2005, he incorporated a company named D2Fusion Inc. which would supposedly produce and sell fusion-powered heating devices. In August 2005, George sold Planktos Inc. and D2Fusion Inc. to a Vancouver -based company named Solar Energy Ltd. for a stated value of $ 1.5 million and $ 2 million respectively. Solar on
8281-547: Was the first aeroplane ever to reach the islands. In 1936, Deutsche Luft Hansa began to experiment with seaplane flights from Berlin via the Azores with continuation flights to New York City. In 1937, Imperial Airways and Pan American Airways began operating scheduled flying boat airline services from New York and Baltimore to Darrell's Island, Bermuda . In World War II, the Hamilton Princess Hotel became
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