Misplaced Pages

#797202

116-944: The Hadamar killing centre ( German : NS-Tötungsanstalt Hadamar ) was a killing facility involved in the Nazi involuntary euthanasia programme known as Aktion T4 . It was housed within a psychiatric hospital located in the German town of Hadamar , near Limburg in Hessen . Beginning in 1939, the Nazis used Hadamar and five other sites as killing facilities for Aktion T4 , which performed mass sterilizations and mass murder of "undesirable" members of German society, specifically those with physical and mental disabilities . In total, an estimated 200,000 people were murdered at these facilities, including thousands of children. These actions were in keeping with Nazi ideas about eugenics . While officially ended in 1941,

232-408: A carbonate as byproduct: Thermal combustion is the most common source for carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon -containing compounds; it forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), such as when operating a stove or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. A large quantity of CO byproduct is formed during

348-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it

464-402: A second language , and 75–100   million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220   million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90   million people, or 16% of

580-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become

696-502: A "euthanasia" programme to give the "incurably sick" a "mercy death". Developed by Viktor Brack , it began with mass sterilizations of children deemed "unfit" to reproduce. After that, the hospital staff exterminated children determined to be unfit and the programme was later expanded to adults. By January 1940, the Nazis had set up their first killing facilities. The clinic in Hadamar, which housed

812-401: A "murder factory". U.S. military authorities decided to undertake their first prosecution to adjudicate crimes associated with the systematic racial and social persecution and extermination committed under Nazi Germany policies. Initially, American authorities intended to try Hadamar physicians, nurses, and administrative staff in their custody for the murders of nearly 15,000 German patients at

928-487: A carbon monoxide presence. Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Acute exposure can also lead to long-term neurological effects such as cognitive and behavioural changes. Severe CO poisoning may lead to unconsciousness, coma and death. Chronic exposure to low concentrations of carbon monoxide may lead to lethargy, headaches, nausea, flu-like symptoms and neuropsychological and cardiovascular issues. Carbon monoxide has

1044-572: A concept popular at the time that developed from several disciplines including social history, biology, anthropology and genetics. As Weindling (1989) explained, there had been several movements in Germany since the end of World War I concerned with the 'degeneration' of German racial purity that culminated with the founding in 1927 of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics . Although there had been demands since

1160-406: A dative or dipolar bond . This causes a C←O polarization of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C→O polarization since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide molecule,

1276-417: A full bond. Thus, in valence bond terms, C≡O is the most important structure, while :C=O is non-octet, but has a neutral formal charge on each atom and represents the second most important resonance contributor. Because of the lone pair and divalence of carbon in this resonance structure, carbon monoxide is often considered to be an extraordinarily stabilized carbene . Isocyanides are compounds in which

SECTION 10

#1732855164798

1392-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from

1508-539: A ligand, CO binds through carbon, forming a kind of triple bond. The lone pair on the carbon atom donates electron density to form a M-CO sigma bond . The two π* orbitals on CO bind to filled metal orbitals. The effect is related to the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model . The effects of the quasi-triple M-C bond is reflected in the infrared spectrum of these complexes. Whereas free CO vibrates at 2143 cm-1, its complexes tend to absorb near 1950 cm-1. [REDACTED] In

1624-540: A mixture of an organometallic compound, potassium acetylenediolate 2 K · C 2 O 2 , potassium benzenehexolate 6 K C 6 O 6 , and potassium rhodizonate 2 K · C 6 O 6 . The compounds cyclohexanehexone or triquinoyl (C 6 O 6 ) and cyclopentanepentone or leuconic acid (C 5 O 5 ), which so far have been obtained only in trace amounts, can be regarded as polymers of carbon monoxide. At pressures exceeding 5 GPa , carbon monoxide converts to polycarbonyl ,

1740-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained

1856-417: A net negative charge δ remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small dipole moment of 0.122  D . The molecule is therefore asymmetric: oxygen is more electron dense than carbon and is also slightly positively charged compared to carbon being negative. Carbon monoxide has a computed fractional bond order of 2.6, indicating that the "third" bond is important but constitutes somewhat less than

1972-545: A nurse and only female defendant, received the lightest sentence, that of 25 years imprisonment with hard labor. On 14 March 1946, Klein, Ruoff, and Willig were executed. In December 1945 the Allies promulgated Allied Control Council Law No. 10, which allowed the elastic charge of " crimes against humanity " to cover the massive scale of extermination the Germans had carried out against Jews, Poles, Gypsies and other populations. This charge

2088-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In

2204-530: A psychiatric facility, was the last of six facilities set up to implement the programme, with murders commencing in January 1941. During the first phase of operations (January to August 1941), 10,072 men, women and children were murdered with carbon monoxide in a gas chamber as part of the Nazi "euthanasia" programme. The gas was obtained in standard cylinders supplied by the chemicals company IG Farben . Thick smoke from

2320-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it

2436-540: A solid polymer that is metastable at atmospheric pressure but is explosive. Carbon monoxide is conveniently produced in the laboratory by the dehydration of formic acid or oxalic acid , for example with concentrated sulfuric acid . Another method is heating an intimate mixture of powdered zinc metal and calcium carbonate , which releases CO and leaves behind zinc oxide and calcium oxide : Silver nitrate and iodoform also afford carbon monoxide: Finally, metal oxalate salts release CO upon heating, leaving

SECTION 20

#1732855164798

2552-431: A total of 10 electrons in the valence shell . Following the octet rule for both carbon and oxygen, the two atoms form a triple bond , with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming

2668-458: A wide range of functions across all disciplines of chemistry. The four premier categories of reactivity involve metal-carbonyl catalysis, radical chemistry, cation and anion chemistries. Most metals form coordination complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide. These derivatives, which are called metal carbonyls , tend to be more robust when the metal is in lower oxidation states. For example iron pentacarbonyl (Fe(CO) 5 )

2784-467: Is isoelectronic with both cyanide anion CN and molecular nitrogen N 2 . Carbon monoxide is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with other triply bonded diatomic species possessing 10 valence electrons, including the cyanide anion, the nitrosonium cation, boron monofluoride and molecular nitrogen . It has a molar mass of 28.0, which, according to the ideal gas law , makes it slightly less dense than air, whose average molar mass

2900-670: Is 28.8. The carbon and oxygen are connected by a triple bond that consists of a net two pi bonds and one sigma bond . The bond length between the carbon atom and the oxygen atom is 112.8  pm . This bond length is consistent with a triple bond, as in molecular nitrogen (N 2 ), which has a similar bond length (109.76 pm) and nearly the same molecular mass . Carbon–oxygen double bonds are significantly longer, 120.8 pm in formaldehyde , for example. The boiling point (82 K) and melting point (68 K) are very similar to those of N 2 (77 K and 63 K, respectively). The bond-dissociation energy of 1072 kJ/mol

3016-688: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and

3132-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as

3248-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German

3364-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic

3480-551: Is an air-stable, distillable liquid. Nickel carbonyl is an example of a metal carbonyl complex that forms by the direct combination of carbon monoxide with the metal: C. Elschenbroich (2006). Organometallics . VCH. ISBN   978-3-527-29390-2 . These volatile complexes are often highly toxic. Some metal–CO complexes are prepared by decarbonylation of organic solvents, not from CO. For instance, iridium trichloride and triphenylphosphine react in boiling 2-methoxyethanol or DMF to afford IrCl(CO)(PPh 3 ) 2 . As

3596-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German

Hadamar killing centre - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25   million speak it as

3828-485: Is formed during the formation of NO 2 , the balance of the sequence of chemical reactions starting with carbon monoxide and leading to the formation of ozone is: (where hν refers to the photon of light absorbed by the NO 2 molecule in the sequence) Although the creation of NO 2 is the critical step leading to low level ozone formation, it also increases this ozone in another, somewhat mutually exclusive way, by reducing

3944-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in

4060-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as

4176-670: Is high enough (for instance in an underground sea), formic acid will be formed: These reactions can take place in a few million years even at temperatures such as found on Pluto. Carbon monoxide is a temporary atmospheric pollutant in some urban areas, chiefly from the exhaust of internal combustion engines (including vehicles, portable and back-up generators, lawnmowers, power washers, etc.), but also from incomplete combustion of various other fuels (including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, paraffin, propane, natural gas, and trash). Large CO pollution events can be observed from space over cities. Carbon monoxide is, along with aldehydes , part of

4292-570: Is important in the production of many compounds, including drugs, fragrances, and fuels. Upon emission into the atmosphere, carbon monoxide affects several processes that contribute to climate change . Indoors CO is one of the most acutely toxic contaminants affecting indoor air quality . CO may be emitted from tobacco smoke and generated from malfunctioning fuel burning stoves (wood, kerosene, natural gas, propane) and fuel burning heating systems (wood, oil, natural gas) and from blocked flues connected to these appliances. Carbon monoxide poisoning

4408-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are

4524-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and

4640-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as

4756-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German

Hadamar killing centre - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-521: Is present in small amounts (about 80 ppb ) in the Earth's atmosphere . Most of the rest comes from chemical reactions with organic compounds emitted by human activities and natural origins due to photochemical reactions in the troposphere that generate about 5 × 10 kilograms per year. Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest and bushfires , and other miscellaneous forms of combustion such as fossil fuels . Small amounts are also emitted from

4988-496: Is stronger than that of N 2 (942 kJ/mol) and represents the strongest chemical bond known. The ground electronic state of carbon monoxide is a singlet state since there are no unpaired electrons. The strength of the C-O bond in carbon monoxide is indicated by the high frequency of its vibration, 2143 cm . For comparison, organic carbonyls such as ketones and esters absorb at around 1700 cm . Carbon and oxygen together have

5104-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c.  1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period

5220-445: Is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide has important biological roles across phylogenetic kingdoms. It is produced by many organisms, including humans. In mammalian physiology, carbon monoxide is a classical example of hormesis where low concentrations serve as an endogenous neurotransmitter ( gasotransmitter ) and high concentrations are toxic resulting in carbon monoxide poisoning . It

5336-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish

5452-575: Is the second-most common diatomic molecule in the interstellar medium , after molecular hydrogen . Because of its asymmetry, this polar molecule produces far brighter spectral lines than the hydrogen molecule, making CO much easier to detect. Interstellar CO was first detected with radio telescopes in 1970. It is now the most commonly used tracer of molecular gas in general in the interstellar medium of galaxies, as molecular hydrogen can only be detected using ultraviolet light, which requires space telescopes . Carbon monoxide observations provide much of

5568-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers

5684-412: Is very little CO in the atmosphere of Pluto , which seems to have been formed from comets. This may be because there is (or was) liquid water inside Pluto. Carbon monoxide can react with water to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen: This is called the water-gas shift reaction when occurring in the gas phase, but it can also take place (very slowly) in an aqueous solution. If the hydrogen partial pressure

5800-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to

5916-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as

SECTION 50

#1732855164798

6032-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share

6148-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language

6264-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout

6380-724: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in

6496-644: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c.  765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in

6612-640: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung

6728-536: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit.   ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this

6844-503: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and   Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German

6960-453: The hydroxyl radical , OH) that would otherwise destroy methane. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and ozone. Carbon monoxide is short-lived in the atmosphere (with an average lifetime of about one to two months), and spatially variable in concentration. Due to its long lifetime in the mid-troposphere, carbon monoxide is also used as a tracer for pollutant plumes. Beyond Earth, carbon monoxide

7076-462: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from

SECTION 60

#1732855164798

7192-579: The "decentralized euthanasia" phase of Aktion T4 , where "euthanasia" killings were committed without centralized coordination from Berlin. Resident physicians and staff, headed by nurse Irmgard Huber , directly murdered the majority of these victims, among whom were German patients with disabilities, mentally-disoriented elderly persons from bombed-out areas, "half Jewish" children from welfare institutions, psychologically- and physically-disabled forced labourers and their children, German soldiers, and Waffen SS soldiers deemed psychologically incurable. Because

7308-410: The "silent killer". It can be found in confined areas of poor ventilation in both surface mines and underground mines. The most common sources of carbon monoxide in mining operations are the internal combustion engine and explosives; however, in coal mines, carbon monoxide can also be found due to the low-temperature oxidation of coal. The idiom " Canary in the coal mine " pertained to an early warning of

7424-726: The 1950s. Today, the site houses a psychiatric hospital, the Vitos Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Hadamar , alongside the Hadamar Memorial Museum, which contains a memorial to the victims and an exhibition regarding the mass murders that took place on the site. Both the clinic and museum are operated by the State of Hessen . 50°27′03″N 8°02′30″E  /  50.45083°N 8.04167°E  / 50.45083; 8.04167 German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )

7540-714: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In

7656-718: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of

7772-451: The German courts were reconstructed under the occupation, in 1946 a doctor and nurse were prosecuted by Germans for the murders of nearly 15,000 German citizens at the hospital. Both were convicted. The hospital continues to operate. It holds a memorial to the euthanasia murders as well as an exhibit about the Nazi programme. Since the late 19th century, doctors and scientists had been developing theories of racial purity based on eugenics ,

7888-475: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of

8004-447: The German states; the invention of the printing press c.  1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of

8120-675: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by

8236-646: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are

8352-845: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German

8468-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c.  thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c.  1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy

8584-517: The Nazis passed the " Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring ", which prescribed compulsory sterilisation for people with medical conditions thought to be hereditary, such as schizophrenia and "imbecility". It is estimated that 360,000 people were sterilised under this law between 1933 and 1939. Beginning in late 1939, Hitler personally issued an order on his private stationery authorizing Philipp Bouhler and Karl Brandt to initiate

8700-428: The O is replaced by an NR (R = alkyl or aryl) group and have a similar bonding scheme. If carbon monoxide acts as a ligand , the polarity of the dipole may reverse with a net negative charge on the oxygen end, depending on the structure of the coordination complex . See also the section "Coordination chemistry" below. Theoretical and experimental studies show that, despite the greater electronegativity of oxygen,

8816-429: The accused. The six-man U.S. military tribunal sentenced the Hadamar chief administrator Alfons Klein , and two male nurses, Heinrich Ruoff and Karl Willig, to death by hanging. Chief physician Adolf Wahlmann received a life sentence with hard labor due to his old age (he was nearly 70) and poor health. Two Hadamar administrative staff received sentences of 35 and 30 years with hard labor, respectively. Irmgard Huber ,

8932-430: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with

9048-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in

9164-436: The dipole moment points from the more-negative carbon end to the more-positive oxygen end. The three bonds are in fact polar covalent bonds that are strongly polarized. The calculated polarization toward the oxygen atom is 71% for the σ-bond and 77% for both π-bonds . The oxidation state of carbon in carbon monoxide is +2 in each of these structures. It is calculated by counting all the bonding electrons as belonging to

9280-450: The early 1920s for legislation on sterilization and euthanasia , these were rejected because it was believed that positive eugenics was more representative of the Weimar political structures and the nation's social needs. This approach ended in 1933 after the ascent of the Nazis in Germany, who implemented a eugenics programme based on their pseudoscientific racial theories . In July 1933,

9396-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of

9512-457: The first months of occupation, American military forces had conducted trials based on classical violations of international law, principally for the German murders of captured Allied service personnel, which had occurred in the last months of the war. The discovery in late March 1945 of the "euthanasia" facility Hadamar near Limburg an der Lahn in west central Germany riveted attention in the United States, with many local newspapers describing it as

9628-463: The gas chamber had been deconstructed, the medical personnel and staff at Hadamar murdered almost all of these people by lethal drug overdoses or deliberate neglect and malnutrition. Though the war ended in Germany on 8 May 1945, the Nazi extermination institutions continued to murder disabled patients by drugs or depriving them of food. The last known patient murdered at Hadamar was a four-year-old mentally handicapped boy, killed on 29 May 1945. During

9744-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,

9860-602: The hospital crematorium billowed over Hadamar in the summer of 1941, during which the staff celebrated the cremation of their 10,000th patient with beer and wine. Up to 100 victims arrived in post-buses every day. They were told to disrobe for a "medical examination". Sent before a physician, each was recorded as having one of 60 fatal diseases, as "incurables" were to be given a "mercy death". The doctor identified each person with different-coloured sticking plasters for one of three categories: murder; murder & remove brain for research; murder & extract gold teeth. Families of

9976-440: The hospital in the last months of the war. As these civilian forced laborers were citizens of countries allied to the United States, American prosecutors were able to open proceedings against seven Hadamar defendants associated with the murders of the "Eastern workers". On 15 October 1945, chief United States prosecutor Leon Jaworski (who later gained prominence in the 1970s as Watergate Special Prosecutor), won convictions for all

10092-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of

10208-549: The information about the molecular clouds in which most stars form . Beta Pictoris , the second brightest star in the constellation Pictor , shows an excess of infrared emission compared to normal stars of its type, which is caused by large quantities of dust and gas (including carbon monoxide) near the star. In the atmosphere of Venus carbon monoxide occurs as a result of the photodissociation of carbon dioxide by electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths shorter than 169 nm . It has also been identified spectroscopically on

10324-534: The institution. At the time, however, they lacked jurisdiction to do so under international law. U.S. military officials could not try German nationals for murdering their fellow citizens. International law restricted them to prosecute crimes committed against their own service personnel and civilian nationals, and those of their allies, in the territories that they held. Among the Hadamar victims were 476 Soviet and Polish forced labourers. Identified as having tuberculosis , they were transported to Hadamar and murdered at

10440-405: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . Carbon monoxide The most common source of carbon monoxide is the partial combustion of carbon-containing compounds. Numerous environmental and biological sources generate carbon monoxide. In industry, carbon monoxide

10556-439: The main sources of indoor CO emission come from cooking and heating devices that burn fossil fuels and are faulty, incorrectly installed or poorly maintained. Appliance malfunction may be due to faulty installation or lack of maintenance and proper use. In low- and middle-income countries the most common sources of CO in homes are burning biomass fuels and cigarette smoke. Miners refer to carbon monoxide as " whitedamp " or

10672-468: The more electronegative oxygen. Only the two non-bonding electrons on carbon are assigned to carbon. In this count, carbon then has only two valence electrons in the molecule compared to four in the free atom. Carbon monoxide occurs in various natural and artificial environments. Photochemical degradation of plant matter for example generates an estimated 60 million tons/year. Typical concentrations in parts per million are as follows: Carbon monoxide (CO)

10788-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted

10904-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from

11020-572: The ocean, and from geological activity because carbon monoxide occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle . Because natural sources of carbon monoxide vary from year to year, it is difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas. Carbon monoxide has an indirect effect on radiative forcing by elevating concentrations of direct greenhouse gases , including methane and tropospheric ozone . CO can react chemically with other atmospheric constituents (primarily

11136-404: The oxidative processes for the production of chemicals. For this reason, the process off-gases have to be purified. Many methods have been developed for carbon monoxide production. A major industrial source of CO is producer gas , a mixture containing mostly carbon monoxide and nitrogen, formed by combustion of carbon in air at high temperature when there is an excess of carbon. In an oven, air

11252-482: The presence of metal catalysts. With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. Chlorination of CO is the industrial route to the important compound phosgene . With borane CO forms the adduct H 3 BCO , which is isoelectronic with the acylium cation [H 3 CCO] . CO reacts with sodium to give products resulting from C−C coupling such as sodium acetylenediolate 2 Na · C 2 O 2 . It reacts with molten potassium to give

11368-538: The presence of strong acids, alkenes react with carboxylic acids . Hydrolysis of this species (an acylium ion ) gives the carboxylic acid, a net process known as the Koch–Haaf reaction . In the Gattermann–Koch reaction , arenes are converted to benzaldehyde derivatives in the presence of CO, AlCl 3 , and HCl . A mixture of hydrogen gas and CO reacts with alkenes to give aldehydes. The process requires

11484-451: The programme lasted until the German surrender in 1945. Nearly 15,000 German citizens were transported to the hospital and murdered there, most by gas chamber and the rest by lethal injection and starvation. In addition, hundreds of forced labourers from Poland and other countries occupied by the Nazis were murdered there. Hadamar and its hospital fell within the American occupation zone after

11600-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation

11716-418: The quantity of NO that is available to react with ozone. Carbon monoxide is one of the most acutely toxic indoor air contaminants . Carbon monoxide may be emitted from tobacco smoke and generated from malfunctioning fuel burning stoves (wood, kerosene, natural gas, propane) and fuel burning heating systems (wood, oil, natural gas) and from blocked flues connected to these appliances. In developed countries

11832-469: The second "decentralized" phase of Aktion T4 , an estimated 4,500 victims were murdered at Hadamar. On 26 March 1945, the US 2nd Infantry Division captured the town of Hadamar and American officials began to investigate the murders that had been committed at its hospital. The Hadamar Trial, 8–15 October 1945, was the first mass atrocity trial in the American occupation zone of Germany following World War II. In

11948-510: The series of cycles of chemical reactions that form photochemical smog . It reacts with hydroxyl radical ( OH) to produce a radical intermediate HOCO, which rapidly transfers its radical hydrogen to O 2 to form peroxy radical (HO 2 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Peroxy radical subsequently reacts with nitrogen oxide (NO) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and hydroxyl radical. NO 2 gives O( P) via photolysis, thereby forming O 3 following reaction with O 2 . Since hydroxyl radical

12064-575: The site's high fencing. Since the crematorium ovens were more often than not fed with two corpses at a time, the cremation process was less than perfect. This often resulted in the aforementioned thick, acrid smog hanging over the town. According to a letter sent by Bishop Antonius Hilfrich of the Diocese of Limburg to the Reich Justice Minister in August 1941, local children taunted each other with

12180-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,

12296-433: The surface of Neptune's moon Triton . Solid carbon monoxide is a component of comets . The volatile or "ice" component of Halley's Comet is about 15% CO. At room temperature and at atmospheric pressure, carbon monoxide is actually only metastable (see Boudouard reaction ) and the same is true at low temperatures where CO and CO 2 are solid, but nevertheless it can exist for billions of years in comets. There

12412-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in

12528-451: The victims were sent "comfort letters" with falsified causes of death. Families could also request a funerary urn , but the ashes were not from their family member. Despite the hospital's precautions to cover up the T-4 programme, the local population were fully aware of events at the hospital. The people murdered in the Hadamar hospital were brought in by train and bus, apparently vanishing behind

12644-490: The war. During 8–15 October 1945, United States forces conducted the Hadamar Trial, the first mass atrocity trial in the years following World War II. They prosecuted doctors and staff on charges of murdering citizens of allied countries, namely, forced labourers from Poland and other countries. The US had jurisdiction for these crimes under international law. Several people were convicted and executed for these crimes. After

12760-446: The words "You're not very clever; you will go to Hadamar and into the ovens". As people learned of these activities, especially the role of the "grey buses" in collecting victims, there was growing opposition. Fearing public unrest, Hitler officially announced in August 1941 that the "euthanasia" activities had been curtailed. After nearly a year of suspension, the murder of 'undesirables' resumed in August 1942, in what has been termed

12876-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during

12992-579: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching

13108-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of

13224-530: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially

13340-485: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which

13456-608: Was introduced in the indictment by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at Nuremberg . In early 1946, "euthanasia" crimes such as those at Hadamar were transferred to the German courts, newly reconstructed under the occupation. In early 1947, a German tribunal in Frankfurt tried 25 Hadamar personnel, including Wahlmann and Huber, for the murder of some 15,000 German patients at the facility. Although some had their sentences increased, they were all released early in

#797202