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131-469: The normal minimum occupancy level is two or three occupants. Many jurisdictions exempt other vehicles, including motorcycles, charter buses, emergency and law enforcement vehicles, low-emission and other green vehicles , and/or single-occupancy vehicles paying a toll . HOV lanes are normally introduced to increase average vehicle occupancy and persons traveling with the goal of reducing traffic congestion and air pollution . The introduction of HOV lanes in

262-687: A Tank-to-wheel basis. They have better fuel economy than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles but are hampered by range or maximum distance attainable before discharging the battery. The electric car batteries are their main cost. They provide a 0% to 99.9% reduction in CO 2 emissions compared to an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle, depending on the source of electricity. Hybrid cars may be partly fossil fuel (or biofuel) powered and partly electric or hydrogen-powered. Most combine an internal combustion engine with an electric engine, though other variations too exist. The internal combustion engine

393-412: A car . Some laws have limits on top speeds, power of the motors, range, etc. while others do not. Horse and carriage are just one type of animal propelled vehicle. Once a common form of transportation, they became far less common as cities grew and automobiles took their place. In dense cities, the waste produced by large numbers of transportation animals was a significant health problem. Oftentimes

524-412: A "nonroad" engine program ( 42 U.S.C.   § 7547 ), which expanded EPA regulation to locomotives, heavy equipment and small equipment engines fueled by diesel (compression-ignition), and gas and other fuels (spark-ignition), and marine transport. EPA has developed a variety of voluntary programs to incentivize and promote reduction in transportation-related air pollution, including elements of

655-624: A city, the solo driving rate is 82%. Some underused HOV lanes in several states have been converted to high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT), which offer solo drivers access to HOV lanes after paying a toll. HOV lanes are also an effective way to manage traffic after natural disasters, as seen in New York City after Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. At the time Mayor Bloomberg banned passenger cars with fewer than three occupants from entering Manhattan. The restriction affected all bridges and tunnels entering

786-516: A criteria pollutant, controlling it through mobile source authorities, but it was required to do so after successful litigation by Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) in 1976 (43 FR 46258 ). The 1977 CAA Amendments created a process for regular review of the NAAQS list, and created a permanent independent scientific review committee to provide technical input on the NAAQS to EPA. EPA added regulations for PM2.5 in 1997 (62 FR 38652 ), and updates

917-519: A lot geographically. Studies suggest that when taking into account both production and operation, electric cars would cause more emissions in economies where production of electricity is not clean, e.g., it is mostly coal based. For this reason, some studies found that driving electric cars is less environmentally damaging in western US states than in eastern ones, where less electricity is produced using cleaner sources. Similarly, in countries like India, Australia or China, where large portion of electricity

1048-525: A move away from hydrocarbon fuels and from our present automobile and highway paradigm. The European Union is promoting the marketing of greener cars via a combination of binding and non-binding measures. As of April 2010, 15 of the 27 member states of the European Union provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles and some alternative fuel vehicles , which includes all Western European countries except Italy and Luxembourg , plus

1179-752: A new section to authorize abatement of international air pollution. The Air Quality Act of 1967 ( Pub. L.   90–148 ) authorized planning grants to state air pollution control agencies, permitted the creation of interstate air pollution control agencies, and required HEW to define air quality regions and develop technical documentation that would allow states to set ambient air quality and pollution control technology standards, and required states to submit implementation plans for improvement of air quality, and permitted HEW to take direct abatement action in air pollution emergencies. It also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. This enabled

1310-577: A new title to address the issue of acid rain, and particularly nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) emissions from electric power plants powered by fossil fuels, and other industrial sources. The Acid Rain Program was the first emissions trading program in the United States, setting a cap on total emissions that was reduced over time by way of traded emissions credits, rather than direct controls on emissions. The program evolved in two stages:

1441-517: A passenger in order to use the HOV lane in New York State. A police officer on a routine HOV patrol became suspicious when he noticed that the so-called passenger was wearing sunglasses and using the visor on a cloudy morning. When the officer approached the vehicle, he discovered that the "passenger" was, in fact, a mannequin wearing lipstick, designer shades, a full-length wig, and a blue sweater. The driver

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1572-435: A perk for the rich. HOT tolls are collected by staffed toll booths , automatic number plate recognition , or electronic toll collection systems. Some systems use RFID transmitters to monitor entry and exiting of the lane and charge drivers depending on demand. Typically, tolls increase as traffic density and congestion within the tolled lanes increase, a policy known as congestion pricing . The goal of this pricing scheme

1703-503: A person as "natural persons and corporations". This argument was rejected in traffic court, where the presiding judge commented, "Common sense says carrying a sheaf of papers in the front seat does not relieve traffic congestion." In March 2015, a motorist tried to use a cardboard cutout of actor Jonathan Goldsmith to access an HOV lane in Fife, Washington . The officer noted that other drivers had used sleeping bags in earlier attempts to access

1834-627: A reason for growing food prices, particularly US Bio-ethanol fuel production which has affected maize prices. In order to have a low environmental impact, biofuels should be made only from waste products, or from new sources like algae . Multiple companies are offering and developing two, three, and four wheel vehicles combining the characteristics of a bicycle with electric motors. US Federal, State and Local laws do not clearly nor consistently classify these vehicles as bicycles , electric bicycles , motorcycles , electric motorcycles , mopeds , Neighborhood Electric Vehicle , motorised quadricycle or as

1965-531: A regular basis in order to promote green vehicles and other " green technology ". These sleek driver-only vehicles can travel long distances at highway speeds using only the electricity generated instantaneously from the sun. A conventional vehicle can become a greener vehicle by mixing in renewable fuels or using less carbon intensive fossil fuel . Typical gasoline -powered cars can tolerate up to 10% ethanol . Brazil manufactured cars that run on neat ethanol, though there were discontinued. Another available option

2096-549: A series of laws to reduce air pollution, and Congress began discussing whether to take further action in response. At the time, the primary federal agencies interested in air pollution were the United States Bureau of Mines , which was interested in "smoke abatement" (reducing smoke from coal burning), and the United States Public Health Service , which handled industrial hygiene and was concerned with

2227-592: A solely national program, the CAA imposes responsibilities on the U.S. states to create plans to implement the Act's requirements. EPA then reviews, amends, and approves those plans. EPA first promulgated SIP regulations in 1971 and 1972. The 1970 Amendments imposed eight criteria that an implementation plan must meet. The EPA is required to approve plans that adhere to the Senate's three-year mandate for primary air quality standards even if

2358-739: A successful trial. Odd plate numbers can enter former "3-in-1" areas on odd days and even plate numbers on even ones. In Shenzhen , HOV 2+ has been implemented on Binhai Avenue since 25 April 2016. The policy was then extended to 7:30 am – 9:30 am and 5:30 pm – 9:30 pm. In Chengdu , from January 23, 2017, HOV 2+ has been implemented on Kehua Road South, Kehua Road Middle, and Tianfu Avenue Section 1 and 2, during 7:00 am-9: 00 am and 5:00 pm-7: 00 pm. In Dalian , an expressway (Northeast Expressway, or Dongbei Expressway) linking old town and new town had one lane in both outbound and inbound directions set to HOV 2+. Starting from September 20, 2017, commuters can opt to drive in HOV lane on Northeast Expressway during

2489-626: A total of 224.0 mi (360.5 km) of HOV lanes. On October 24, 2023, Michigan opened its first-ever HOV lanes on a portion of I-75 in Oakland County from South Boulevard in Bloomfield Township to 12 Mile Road in Madison Heights as part of a freeway modernization project. One lane in both directions is restricted to HOV use from 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. and from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. Monday through Friday, while all other drivers regardless of

2620-478: A vehicle is a better environmental performer relative to other vehicles. This US EPA designation is arrived at by taking into account a vehicle's Air Pollution Score and Greenhouse Gas Score. Higher Air Pollution Scores indicate vehicles that emit lower amounts of pollutants that cause smog relative to other vehicles. Higher Greenhouse Gas Scores indicate vehicles that emit lower amounts of carbon dioxide and have improved fuel economy relative to other vehicles. To earn

2751-467: A vehicle, and an unborn child does not count towards this requirement. In 2009 and 2010 it was found that non-compliance rates on HOV lanes in Brisbane, Australia, were approaching 90%. Enhanced enforcement led to increased compliance, average bus journey times dropped by about 19%, and total person throughput increased by 12%. In February 2010, a 61-year-old woman tried to pass off a life-sized mannequin as

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2882-642: Is Europe's oldest HOV facility that is still in operation. The first HOV facility in the United Kingdom opened in Leeds in 1998. The facility was implemented on A647 road near Leeds as an experimental scheme, but it became permanent. The HOV facility is 1.5 km (0.93 mi) long and operates as a HOV 2+ facility. A 2.8 km (1.7 mi) HOV 3+ facility opened in Linz , Austria , in 1999. The first HOV lane in Norway

3013-577: Is a flexible-fuel vehicle which allows any blend of gasoline and ethanol, up to 85% in North America and Europe, and up to 100% in Brazil. Another existing option is to convert a conventional gasoline-powered to allow the alternative use of CNG . Pakistan , Argentina , Brazil , Iran , India , Italy , and China have the largest fleets of natural gas vehicles in the world. Diesel -powered vehicles can often transition completely to biodiesel , though

3144-415: Is a type of HOV lane that allows for all traffic to enter the lane for a short distance in order to access other streets and business entrances. Because some HOV lanes were not utilized to their full capacity, users of low- or single-occupancy vehicles may be permitted to use an HOV lane if they pay a toll. This scheme is known as high-occupancy toll lane (or HOT lanes), and it has been introduced mainly in

3275-474: Is counted, the Clean Air Act has substantially reduced air pollution and improved US air quality—benefits which EPA credits with saving trillions of dollars and many thousands of lives each year. In the United States, the "Clean Air Act" typically refers to the codified statute at 42 U.S.C. ch. 85 . That statute is the product of multiple acts of Congress , one of which—the 1963 act—was actually titled

3406-593: Is driven. Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman official Bente Øverli stated that "Cars cannot do anything good for the environment except less damage than others." Based on this opinion, Norwegian law severely restricts the use of " greenwashing " to market automobiles, strongly prohibiting advertising a vehicle as being environmentally friendly, with large fines issued to violators. Some studies try to compare environmental impact of electric and petrol vehicles over complete life cycle, including production, operation, and dismantling. In general, results differ vastly dependent on

3537-443: Is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency. Cars with similar production of energy costs can be obtained, during the life of the car (operational phase), large reductions in energy costs through several measures: Green vehicles include vehicles types that function fully or partly on alternative energy sources other than fossil fuel or less carbon-intensive than gasoline or diesel. Another option

3668-450: Is no such thing as an environmentally friendly car. The use of vehicles with increased fuel efficiency is usually considered positive in the short term but criticism of any hydrocarbon-based personal transport remains. The Jevons paradox suggests that energy efficiency programs are often counter-productive, even increasing energy consumption in the long run. Many environmental researchers believe that sustainable transport may require

3799-523: Is now illegal. Cameras that can distinguish between humans and mannequins or dolls were tested in the United Kingdom in 2005. In the United States , law enforcement officials have documented a variety of methods used by drivers in attempts to circumvent HOV occupancy rules: In early 2006, an Arizona woman asserted that she had been improperly ticketed for using the HOV lane because the unborn child she

3930-452: Is often either a gasoline or Diesel engine (in rare cases a Stirling engine may even be used ). They are more expensive to purchase but cost redemption is achieved in a period of about 5 years due to better fuel economy. Compressed air cars , stirling-powered vehicles, and Liquid nitrogen vehicles are less polluting than an electrical vehicles, since the vehicle and its components are environment friendly . Solar car races are held on

4061-489: Is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , the Clean Air Act is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. EPA develops extensive administrative regulations to carry out the law's mandates. Associated regulatory programs, which are often technical and complex, implement these regulations. Among

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4192-491: Is present because that vehicle "will be able return to duty faster after dropping off a fare or arrive sooner to pick up a fare, thereby moving more people to their destinations in fewer vehicles". In Virginia, the San Francisco Bay Area, Houston, and other HOV lane locations, commuters form sluglines where drivers pick up one or more passengers from a designated "casual carpool" or "slug lines" to drive on HOV lanes;

4323-537: Is produced by using coal, driving electric vehicles would cause larger environmental damage than driving petrol vehicles. When justifying use of electric cars over petrol cars, these kinds of studies do not provide sufficiently clear results. Environmental impact is calculated based on fuel mix used to produce electricity that powers electric cars. However, when a gas vehicle is replaced by an equivalent electric vehicle, additional power must be installed in electrical grid. This additional capacity would normally not be based on

4454-596: Is the lowest emission fuel available for diesel engines. Diesel engines are the most efficient car internal combustion engines. Biodiesel is the only fuel allowed in some North American national parks because spillages will completely bio-degrade within 21 days. Biodiesel and vegetable oil fuelled , diesel engined vehicles have been declared amongst the greenest in the US Tour de Sol competition. This presents problems, as biofuels can use food resources in order to provide mechanical energy for vehicles. Many experts point to this as

4585-424: Is the speed limitations, and how far one can travel before getting exhausted. Vehicle emissions contribute to the increasing concentration of gases linked to climate change . In order of significance, the principal greenhouse gases associated with road transport are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O). Road transport is the third largest source of greenhouse gases emitted in

4716-560: Is the use of alternative fuel composition in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them function partially on renewable energy sources. Other approaches include personal rapid transit , a public transportation concept that offers automated, on-demand, non-stop transportation on a network of specially built guideways. Examples of vehicles with reduced petroleum consumption include electric cars , plug-in hybrids and fuel cell -powered hydrogen cars . Electric cars are typically more efficient than fuel cell -powered vehicles on

4847-616: Is to minimize traffic congestion within the lanes. Qualification for HOV status varies by scheme, but the following vehicles may be included: New York City HOV lane codes prior to 2008 did not allow motorcycles leading to ticketing of motorcycle drivers and complaints from the American Motorcyclist Association , but have since been revised to comply with the federal regulations listed above. In some jurisdictions such as Ontario , Canada , taxicabs and airport limousines are allowed to use HOV lanes even when no passenger

4978-615: The A1 near Amsterdam . The facility did not attract enough users to overcome public criticism and was converted to a reversible lane open to general traffic after the judge in a legal test case ruled that Dutch traffic law lacked the concept of a car pool and thus that the principle of equality was violated. Spain was the next European country to introduce HOV lanes ( Spanish : Vehículos de Alta Ocupación, VAO ), when median reversible Bus-VAO lanes were opened in Madrid 's A-6 in 1995. This facility

5109-519: The Czech Republic and Romania . The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of electric cars , plug-in hybrids , hybrid electric vehicles and natural gas vehicles . The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is promoting the marketing of greener cars via the SmartWay program. The SmartWay and SmartWay Elite designation mean that

5240-524: The Interstate 66 in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. , are treated as an HOV during the rush hour in the primary direction of flow. The traffic speed differential between HOV and general-purpose lanes creates a potentially dangerous situation if the HOV lanes are not separated by a barrier. A Texas Transportation Institute study found that HOV lanes lacking barrier separations caused a 50% increase in injury crashes. A business access and transit (BAT) lane

5371-705: The National Ambient Air Quality Standards and gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) substantial authority to regulate air quality attainment. A final control plan for the Los Angeles Basin was issued in 1973, and one of its main provisions was a two-phase conversion of 184 mi (296 km) of freeway and arterial roadway lanes to bus/carpool lanes and the development of a regional computerized carpool matching system. However, it took until 1985 before any HOV project

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5502-468: The de facto standard that automobile manufacturers subsequently accepted, to avoid having to develop different emission systems in their vehicles for different states. However, in September 2019, President Donald Trump attempted to revoke this waiver, arguing that the stricter emissions have made cars too expensive, and by removing them, will make vehicles safer. EPA's Andrew Wheeler also stated that while

5633-916: The ozone layer . Consistent with the US commitments in the Montreal Protocol , CAA Title VI, added by the 1990 CAA Amendments, mandated regulations regarding the use and production of chemicals that harm Earth's stratospheric ozone layer. Under Title VI, EPA runs programs to phase out ozone-destroying substances, track their import and export, determine exemptions for their continued use, and define practices for destroying them, maintaining and servicing equipment that uses them, identifying new alternatives to those still in use , and licensing technicians to use such chemicals. Rules for pollutants emitted from internal combustion engines in vehicles. Since 1965, Congress has mandated increasingly stringent controls on vehicle engine technology and reductions in tailpipe emissions. Today,

5764-517: The ramp meter signal. Priority lanes can also be used by trucks, buses, and motorcycles, and the priority lanes can be used by carpoolers at any time. Eleven lanes were opened to electric vehicles in a one-year trial from September 2017. There are also several short T2 and T3 facilities in North Shore City operating during rush hours. In Jakarta, HOV 3+ is known as "Three in One" ( Tiga dalam satu ) and

5895-451: The 2021 Tesla Model 3 Standard Range Plus RWD became the most efficient EPA-certified vehicle considering all fuels and all years, surpassing the 2020 Tesla Model 3 Standard Range Plus and 2019 Hyundai Ioniq Electric . Several authors also include conventional motor vehicles with high fuel economy , as they consider that increasing fuel economy is the most cost-effective way to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions in

6026-454: The Act. The EPA's auto emission standards for greenhouse gas emissions issued in 2010 and 2012 are intended to cut emissions from targeted vehicles by half, double fuel economy of passenger cars and light-duty trucks by 2025 and save over $ 4 billion barrels of oil and $ 1.7 trillion for consumers. The agency has also proposed a two-phase program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for medium and heavy duty trucks and buses. In addition, EPA oversees

6157-607: The Agency feels the plan does not appear feasible. In Union Electric Co. v. Environmental Protection Agency the Supreme Court considered whether the Agency was required to reject plans that were not technologically or economically feasible. The court decided that states could adopt emission standards stricter than national standards and "force" technology (i.e. require installation of more advanced technologies). The 1977 CAA Amendments added SIP requirements for areas that had not attained

6288-415: The Clean Air Act's major regulatory programs. Today, the following are major regulatory programs under the Clean Air Act. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) govern how much ground-level ozone (O 3 ), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM 10 , PM 2.5 ), lead (Pb), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) are allowed in the outdoor air. The NAAQS set

6419-460: The Clean Air Act, and another of which—the 1970 act—is most often referred to as such. In the U.S. Code, the statute itself is divided into subchapters, and the section numbers are not clearly related to the subchapters. However, in the bills that created the law, the major divisions are called "Titles", and the law's sections are numbered according to the title (e.g., Title II begins with Section 201). In practice, EPA, courts, and attorneys often use

6550-493: The Clean Diesel Campaign, Ports Initiative, SmartWay program (for the freight transportation sector), and others. The federal government has regulated the chemical composition of transportation fuels since 1967, with significant new authority added in 1970 to protect public health. One of EPA's earliest actions was the elimination of lead in U.S. gasoline beginning in 1971, a project that has been described as "one of

6681-515: The EPA test results with real-world driving. In 1996, EPA proposed updating the Federal Testing Procedures to add a new higher-speed test (US06) and an air-conditioner-on test (SC03) to further improve the correlation of fuel economy and emission estimates with real-world reports. In December 2006 the updated testing methodology was finalized to be implemented in model year 2008 vehicles and set

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6812-527: The EPA with enforcement authority and requiring states to develop State Implementation Plans for how they would meet new national ambient air quality standards by 1977. This cooperative federal model continues today. The law recognizes that states should lead in carrying out the Clean Air Act, because pollution control problems often require special understanding of local conditions such as geography, industrial activity, transportation and housing patterns. However, states are not allowed to have weaker controls than

6943-484: The EPA, as well as giving the EPA the ability to regulate the inclusion of renewable sources, notably, through a $ 27 billion green bank , among other methods. Other important but less foundational Clean Air Act regulatory programs tend to build on or cut across the above programs: The 1963 act required development of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) as part of a cooperative federalist program for developing pollution control standards and programs. Rather than create

7074-498: The HOV designation holds only at peak travel times or in the peak direction. ISTEA also provided that under the Interstate Maintenance Program, only HOV projects would receive the 90% federal matching ratio formerly available for the addition of general purpose lanes. ISTEA, in addition, permitted state authorities to define a high occupancy vehicle as having a minimum of two occupants (HOV 2+). As of 2009, California

7205-430: The HOV facilities on Highways 403 and 404 were saving 14–17 minutes per trip compared to their travel time before the HOV lanes opened. The MTO also estimated that almost 40% of commuters were carpooling on Highway 403 eastbound in the morning peak hour, compared to 14% in 2003, and 37% of commuters were carpooling on Highway 403 westbound in the afternoon peak hour, compared to 22% in 2003. The average rush hour speed on

7336-450: The HOV facility was 29 minutes, and 64 minutes in the general traffic lanes. As of 2012, the I-95 /I-395 HOV facility is 30 mi (48 km) long, extends from Washington, D.C. , to Dumfries, Virginia , and has two reversible lanes separated from the regular lanes by barriers, with access through elevated on- and off-ramps. Three or more people in a vehicle (HOV 3+) are required to travel on

7467-493: The HOV lane. In July 2022, a pregnant woman in Texas argued that her fetus counted as a passenger for the purpose of using the HOV lane following the Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization decision and Texas law subsequently considering fetuses people. According to 2009 data from the U.S. census, 76% drive to work alone and only 10% rideshare. For suburban commuters working in

7598-630: The HOV lanes is 100 km/h (62 mph), compared to 60 km/h (37 mph) in general-traffic lanes on Highway 403. Temporary HOV lanes were added to selections of 400-series highways in the Greater Toronto Area for the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games . As of 2012, there are a few HOV lanes in operation in Europe. The main reason for this is that, in general, European cities have better public transport services and fewer high-capacity multi-lane urban motorways than do

7729-642: The HOV lanes upon payment of a fee that varies based on demand. Tolls change throughout the day according to real-time traffic conditions, which is intended to manage the number of cars in the lanes to maintain good journey times. Proponents claim that all motorists benefit from HOT lanes, even those who choose not to use them. This argument applies only to projects that increase the total number of lanes. Proponents also claim that HOT lanes provide an incentive to use transit and ridesharing. There has been controversy over this concept, and HOT schemes have been called " Lexus " lanes, as critics see this new pricing scheme as

7860-450: The NAAQS from time to time based on emerging environmental and health science. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) govern how much of 187 toxic air pollutants are allowed to be emitted from industrial facilities and other sources. Under the CAA, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs, or air toxics) are air pollutants other than those for which NAAQS exist, which threaten human health and welfare. The NESHAPs are

7991-467: The Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality in areas attaining the NAAQS. The 1977 CAAA also contained requirements pertaining to sources in non-attainment areas for NAAQS. A non-attainment area is a geographic area that does not meet one or more of the federal air quality standards. Both of these 1977 CAAA established major permit review requirements to ensure attainment and maintenance of

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8122-551: The SIP requirements by adding "Prevention of Significant Deterioration" (PSD) requirements. These requirements protect areas, including particularly wilderness areas and national parks, that already met the NAAQS. The PSD provision requires SIPs to preserve good quality air in addition to cleaning up bad air. The new law also required New Source Review (investigations of proposed construction of new polluting facilities) to examine whether PSD requirements would be met. The Clean Air Act provided

8253-890: The SmartWay designation, a vehicle must earn at least a 6 on the Air Pollution Score and at least a 6 on the Greenhouse Gas Score, but have a combined score of at least 13. SmartWay Elite is given to those vehicles that score 9 or better on both the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Scores. A Green Vehicle Marketing Alliance, in conjunction with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), periodically meets, and coordinates marketing efforts. Several automobile magazines, motor vehicle specialized publications and environmental groups publish annual rankings or listings of

8384-456: The U.S. and Canada. However, at around 1.3 persons per vehicle, average car occupancy is relatively low in most European cities. The emphasis in Europe has been on providing bus lanes and on-street bus priority measures. The first HOV lane in Europe was opened in the Netherlands in October 1993 and operated until August 1994. Its facility was a 7 km (4.3 mi) barrier-separated HOV 3+ on

8515-756: The UK as a direct result of air pollution. According to the World Health Organization , up to 13,000 deaths per year among children (aged 0–4 years) across Europe are directly attributable to outdoor pollution. The organization estimates that if pollution levels were returned to within EU limits, more than 5,000 of these lives could be saved each year. Hybrid taxi fleet operators in New York have also reported that reduced fuel consumption saves them thousands of dollars per year. A study by CNW Marketing Research suggested that

8646-494: The UK, and accounts for about 27% of total emissions, and 33% in the United States. Of the total greenhouse gas emissions from transport, over 85% are due to CO 2 emissions from road vehicles. The transport sector is the fastest growing source of greenhouse gases. Vehicle pollutants have been linked to human ill health including the incidence of respiratory and cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer. A 1998 report estimated that up to 24,000 people die prematurely each year in

8777-661: The United States progressed slowly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Major growth occurred from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s. The first freeway HOV lane in the United States was implemented in the Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway in Northern Virginia , between Washington, DC, and the Capital Beltway , and was opened in 1969 as a bus-only lane . The busway was opened in December 1973 to carpools with four or more occupants, becoming

8908-560: The United States. The first practical implementation was California 's formerly private toll 91 Express Lanes , in Orange County, California , in 1995, followed in 1996 by Interstate 15 north of San Diego . According to the Texas A&;M Transportation Institute, by 2012 there were 294 corridor-miles of HOT/Express lanes and 163 corridor-miles of HOT/Express lanes under construction in the United States. Solo drivers are permitted to use

9039-853: The acceptable levels of certain air pollutants in the ambient air in the United States. Prior to 1965, there was no national program for developing ambient air quality standards, and prior to 1970 the federal government did not have primary responsibility for developing them. The 1970 CAA amendments required EPA to determine which air pollutants posed the greatest threat to public health and welfare and promulgate NAAQS and air quality criteria for them. The health-based standards were called "primary" NAAQS, while standards set to protect public welfare other than health (e.g., agricultural values) were called "secondary" NAAQS. In 1971, EPA promulgated regulations for sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide (36 FR 22384 ). Initially, EPA did not list lead as

9170-589: The administration's decision. In March 2022 the Biden administration reversed the Trump-era rule, allowing California to again set stricter auto emissions standards. Between the Second Industrial Revolution and the 1960s, the United States experienced increasingly severe air pollution . Following the 1948 Donora smog event, the public began to discuss air pollution as a major problem, states began to pass

9301-526: The advantages of exclusive bus lanes and encouraged their funding. In the 1970s the FHWA began to allow state highway agencies to spend federal funds on HOV lanes. As a result of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo , interest in ridesharing picked up, and states began experimenting with HOV lanes. In order to reduce crude oil consumption, the 1974 Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act mandated maximum speed limits of 55 mph (89 km/h) on public highways and became

9432-528: The agency respects federalism, it could not allow one state to dictate standards for the entire nation. California's governor Gavin Newsom considered the move part of Trump's "political vendetta" against California and stated his intent to sue the federal government. Twenty-three states, along with the District of Columbia and the cities of New York City and Los Angeles, joined California in a federal lawsuit challenging

9563-425: The air, measure their quantity, and have a plan to control and minimize them as well as to periodically report. This consolidated requirements for a facility into a single document. In non-attainment areas, permits were required for sources that emit as little as 50, 25, or 10 tons per year of VOCs depending on the severity of the region's non-attainment status. Most permits are issued by state and local agencies. If

9694-436: The applicable NAAQS ("nonattainment areas"). In these areas, states were required to adopt plans that made "reasonable further progress" toward attainment until all "reasonably available control measures" could be adopted. As progress on attainment was much slower than Congress originally instructed, major amendments to SIP requirements in nonattainment areas were part of the 1990 CAA Amendments. The 1977 CAA Amendments modified

9825-403: The best green cars of a given year . The following table presents a selection of the annual top pickings. Dedicated electric and green vehicle motor shows: Clean Air Act Amendments The Clean Air Act ( CAA ) is the United States' primary federal air quality law , intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide . Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since, it

9956-583: The bus lane for three months in 1974 due to a strike by bus operators, and then permanently at a 3+ HOV from 1976. It is one of the most efficient HOV facilities in North America and was converted into a high-occupancy toll lane operation in 2013 to allow low-occupancy vehicles to bid for excess capacity on the lane in the Metro ExpressLanes project. Beginning in the 1970s, the Urban Mass Transportation Administration recognized

10087-408: The causes of lung health problems. After several years of proposals and hearings, Congress passed the first federal legislation to address air pollution in 1955. The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 authorized a research and training program, sending $ 3 million per year to the U.S. Public Health Service for five years, but did not directly regulate pollution sources. The 1955 Act's research program

10218-499: The city except the George Washington Bridge. Green vehicle A green vehicle , clean vehicle , eco-friendly vehicle or environmentally friendly vehicle is a road motor vehicle that produces less harmful impacts to the environment than comparable conventional internal combustion engine vehicles running on gasoline or diesel , or one that uses certain alternative fuels . Presently, in some countries

10349-406: The driver pulls over near the sluglines and shouts out their destination, and people in the line going to that destination enter the car on a first-come, first-served basis. Fines are usually imposed on drivers of non-qualifying vehicles who use the lanes. Following the introduction of HOVs, some drivers placed inflatable dolls in the passenger seat, a practice that persists today, even though it

10480-409: The early 1990s, two laws reinforced the U.S. commitment to HOV lane construction. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 included HOV lanes as one of the transportation control measures that could be included in state implementation plans to attain federal air quality standards. The 1990 amendments also deny the administrator of the EPA the authority to block FHWA from funding 24-hour HOV lanes as part of

10611-472: The equipment required to be installed in new and modified industrial facilities, and the rules for determining whether a facility is "new". The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop standards for newly constructed and modified stationary sources (industrial facilities) using the "best system of emission reduction which (taking into account the cost of achieving such reduction) the [EPA] determines has been adequately demonstrated." EPA issued its first NSPS regulation

10742-422: The extra energy cost of manufacture, shipping, disposal, and the short lives of some of these types of vehicle (particularly gas-electric hybrid vehicles ) outweighs any energy savings made by their using less petroleum during their useful lifespan. This type of argument is the long smokestack argument. Critics of the report note that the study prorated all of Toyota's hybrid research-and-development costs across

10873-695: The facility during rush hours on weekdays. The second freeway HOV facility, which opened in 1970, was the contraflow bus lane on the Lincoln Tunnel Approach and Helix in Hudson County, New Jersey . According to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the Lincoln Tunnel XBL is the country's HOV facility with the highest number of peak hour persons among HOV facilities with utilization data available, with 23,500 persons in

11004-657: The federal funding and legislation of the 1960s. In the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 ( Pub. L.   91–604 ), Congress greatly expanded the federal mandate by requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both industrial and mobile sources. The law established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), New Source Performance Standards (NSPS); and National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), and significantly strengthened federal enforcement authority, all toward achieving aggressive air pollution reduction goals. To implement

11135-476: The federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport, and, for the first time, to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections. The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. While only six states had air pollution programs in 1960, all 50 states had air pollution programs by 1970 due to

11266-418: The federal standards, but carves out a special exemption for California due to its past issues with smog pollution in the metropolitan areas. In practice, when California 's environmental agencies decide on new vehicle emission standards, they are submitted to the EPA for approval under this waiver, with the most recent approval in 2009. The California standard was adopted by twelve other states, and established

11397-403: The first instance in which buses and carpools officially shared a HOV lane over a considerable distance. In 2005, the two lanes of this HOV 3+ facility carried during the morning peak hour (6:30 am to 9:30 am) a total of 31,700 people in 8,600 vehicles (3.7 persons/veh), while the three or four general-purpose lanes carried 23,500 people in 21,300 vehicles (1.1 persons/veh). Average travel time in

11528-441: The first instance when the U.S. federal government provided funding for ridesharing and states were allowed to spend their highway funds on rideshare demonstration projects. The 1978 Surface Transportation Assistance Act made funding for rideshare initiatives permanent. Also during the early 1970s, ridesharing was recommended for the first time as a tool to mitigate air quality problems. The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments established

11659-414: The first stage required more than 100 electric generating facilities larger than 100 megawatts to meet a 3.5 million ton SO 2 emission reduction by January 1995. The second stage gave facilities larger than 75 megawatts a January 2000 deadline. The program has achieved all of its statutory goals. The CAA ozone program is a technology transition program intended to phase out the use of chemicals that harm

11790-422: The food is produced for them using diesel powered tractors, and thus there is some environmental impact as a result of their use. Human-powered transport includes walking, bicycles , velomobiles , row boats , and other environmentally friendly ways of getting around. In addition to the health benefits of the exercise provided, they are far more environmentally friendly than most other options. The only downside

11921-448: The fuel is a very strong solvent , which can occasionally damage rubber seals in vehicles built before 1994. More commonly, however, biodiesel causes problems simply because it removes all of the built-up residue in an engine, clogging filters , unless care is taken when switching from dirty fossil-fuel derived diesel to bio-diesel. It is very effective at 'de-coking' the diesel engines combustion chambers and keeping them clean. Biodiesel

12052-471: The general lanes. For example, Interstate 110 in California has four HOV lanes on an upper deck. HOV bypass lanes are intended to allow carpool traffic, busses and police to bypass areas of regular congestion in many places. An HOV lane may operate as a reversible lane , working in the direction of the dominant traffic flow in both the morning and the afternoon. All lanes of a 10 miles (16 km) section of

12183-413: The great public health achievements of the 20th century." EPA continues to regulate the chemical composition of gasoline , avgas , and diesel fuel in the United States. The 1990 amendments authorized a national operating permit program, sometimes called the "Title V Program", covering thousands of large industrial and commercial sources. It required large businesses to address pollutants released into

12314-433: The introduction of Jakarta's bus rapid transit in December 2003, the policy was extended to 7:00 am – 10:00 am and 4:00 pm – 7:00 pm. In September 2004, the evening time was changed to 4:30 pm – 7:00 pm. Car jockeys are paid by drivers to ride on vehicles, so that those vehicles would bypass the three in one restriction. On August 30, 2016, an odd–even rationing ( ganjil-genap ) system began to replace "3-in-1" rule, after

12445-604: The largest Clean Air Act settlements have been reached with automakers accused of circumventing the Act's vehicle and fuel standards (e.g., the 2015 " Dieselgate " scandal). Much of EPA's regulation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions occurs under the programs discussed above. EPA began regulating GHG emissions following the 2007 Supreme Court ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA , the EPA's subsequent endangerment finding, and development of specific regulations for various sources. The EPA's authority to regulate carbon dioxide emissions

12576-622: The latter numbering scheme. Although many parts of the statute are quite detailed, others set out only the general outlines of the law's regulatory programs, and leave many key terms undefined. Responsible agencies, primarily EPA, have therefore developed administrative regulations to carry out Congress's instructions. EPA's proposed and final regulations are published in the Federal Register , often with lengthy background histories. The existing CAA regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C, Parts 50–98. These Parts more often correspond to

12707-896: The law requires EPA to establish and regularly update regulations for pollutants that may threaten public health, from a wide variety of classes of motor vehicles, that incorporate technology to achieve the "greatest degree of emission reduction achievable", factoring in availability, cost, energy, and safety ( 42 U.S.C.   § 7521 ). EPA sets standards for exhaust gases, evaporative emissions, air toxics, refueling vapor recovery, and vehicle inspection and maintenance for several classes of vehicles that travel on roadways. EPA's "light-duty vehicles" regulations cover passenger cars, minivans, passenger vans, pickup trucks, and SUVs. "Heavy-duty vehicles" regulations cover large trucks and buses. EPA first issued motorcycle emissions regulations in 1977 (42 FR 1122 ) and updated them in 2004 (69 FR 2397 ). The air pollution testing system for motor vehicles

12838-460: The lifetimes of pre-existing facilities. In the 1977 CAA Amendments, Congress required EPA to conduct a "new source review" process ( 40 CFR 52 , subpart I) to determine whether maintenance and other activities rises to the level of modification requiring application of NSPS. The Acid Rain Program (ARP) is an emissions trading program for power plants to control the pollutants that cause acid rain . The 1990 CAA Amendments created

12969-657: The longest continuous HOV facility in the U.S. is on I-15 in Utah , extending approximately 72.0 mi (115.9 km) from Layton to Spanish Fork with a single HOV lane in each direction for a total of 144.0 mi (231.7 km) of HOV lanes. While the Utah facility is the longest, the I-495 Capital Beltway in the Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Area extends 56.0 mi (90.1 km) but has two HOV lanes in each direction for

13100-424: The morning peak hours of 06:30-08:30, and evening peak hours of 16:30-19:00. A fine of CNY100 (about USD15) will be enforced for first violators. For a second violation, the fine will double. HOV lanes may be either a single traffic lane within the main roadway with distinctive markings or a separate roadway with one or more traffic lanes either parallel to the general lanes or grade-separated , above or below

13231-640: The morning peak, and 62,000 passengers during the four-hour morning peak. The first permanent HOV facility in California was the bypass lane at the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge toll plaza, opened to the public in April 1970. The El Monte Busway ( I-10 / San Bernardino Freeway ) in Los Angeles was initially only available for buses when it opened in 1973. Three-person carpools were allowed to use

13362-854: The most important, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards program sets standards for concentrations of certain pollutants in outdoor air, and the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program which sets standards for emissions of particular hazardous pollutants from specific sources. Other programs create requirements for vehicle fuels, industrial facilities, and other technologies and activities that impact air quality. Newer programs tackle specific problems, including acid rain, ozone layer protection, and climate change. The CAA has been challenged in court many times, both by environmental groups seeking more stringent enforcement and by states and utilities seeking greater leeway in regulation. Although its exact benefits depend on what

13493-584: The national greenhouse gas inventory reporting program. Following the Supreme Court decision in West Virginia v. EPA , which ruled that Congress did not grant EPA the authority to require "outside the fence" options for limiting carbon dioxide at power plants, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 specifically defined carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride as greenhouse gases to be regulated by

13624-553: The national minimum criteria set by EPA. EPA must approve each SIP, and if a SIP is not acceptable, EPA can retain CAA enforcement in that state. For example, California was unable to meet the new standards set by the 1970 amendments, which led to a lawsuit and a federal state implementation plan for the state. The federal government also assists the states by providing scientific research, expert studies, engineering designs, and money to support clean air programs. The law also prevents states from setting standards that are more strict than

13755-403: The newly created EPA immediately before major amendments in 1970. EPA has administered the Clean Air Act ever since, and Congress added major regulatory programs in 1977 and 1990. Most recently, the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA resulted in an expansion of EPA's CAA regulatory activities to cover greenhouse gases . The Clean Air Act of 1963 ( Pub. L.   88–206 )

13886-407: The next year, covering steam generators, incinerators, Portland cement plants, and nitric and sulfuric acid plants (36 FR 24876 ). Since then, EPA has issued dozens of NSPS regulations, primarily by source category. The requirements promote industrywide adoption of available pollution control technologies. However, because these standards apply only to new and modified sources, they promote extending

14017-978: The number of occupants in their vehicle can freely use the lanes outside of those hours. The first HOV facilities in Canada were opened in Greater Vancouver and Toronto in the early 1990s, followed shortly by facilities in Ottawa , Gatineau , Montreal , and later Calgary . As of 2010 there were about 150 km (93 mi) of highway HOV lanes in 11 locations in British Columbia , Ontario , and Quebec , and over 130 km (81 mi) of arterial HOV lanes in 24 locations in Greater Vancouver, Calgary, Toronto, Ottawa, and Gatineau. The Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO) in 2006 estimated that commuters in Toronto using

14148-439: The precedent of a 12-year review cycle for the test procedures. In February 2005, EPA launched a program called "Your MPG" that allows drivers to add real-world fuel economy statistics into a database on EPA's fuel economy website and compare them with others and with the original EPA test results. EPA conducts fuel economy tests on very few vehicles. Two-thirds of the vehicles the EPA tests themselves are randomly selected and

14279-494: The region considered, due to difference in energy sources to produce electricity that fuels electric vehicles. When considering only CO 2 emissions, it is noted that production of electric cars generate about twice as much emissions as that of internal combustion cars. However, emissions of CO 2 during operation are much larger (on average) than during production. For electric cars, emissions caused during operation depend on energy sources used to produce electricity and thus vary

14410-462: The region, commonly known as T2 and T3 lanes. There is a T2 transit lane in Tamaki Drive, in a short stretch between Okahu Bay Reserve and downtown Auckland. There are also T2 priority lanes on Auckland's Northern , Southern , Northwestern , and Southwestern Motorways . These priority lanes are left-side on-ramp lanes heading towards the motorway, where vehicles with two or more people can bypass

14541-470: The relatively small number of Priuses on the road, rather than using the incremental cost of building a vehicle; used109,000 miles (175,000 km) for the length of life of a Prius (Toyota offers a 150,000-mile (240,000 km) warranty on the Prius' hybrid components, including the battery), and calculated that a majority of a car's cradle-to-grave energy gets expended during the vehicle's production, not while it

14672-837: The remaining third is tested for specific reasons. Although originally created as a reference point for fossil-fueled vehicles, driving cycles have been used for estimating how many miles an electric vehicle will get on a single charge. The 1970 CAA amendments provided for regulation of aircraft emissions ( 42 U.S.C.   § 7571 ), and EPA began regulating in 1973. In 2012, EPA finalized its newest restrictions on NOx emissions from gas turbine aircraft engines with rated thrusts above 26.7 kiloNewton (3 short ton-force ), meaning primarily commercial jet aircraft engines, intended to match international standards. EPA has been investigating whether to regulate lead in fuels for small aircraft since 2010, but has not yet acted. The 1990 CAA Amendments ( Pub. L.   101–549 § 222) added rules for

14803-1025: The same ratios of energy sources ("clean" versus fossil fuels ) than the current capacity. Only when additional electricity production capacity installed to switch from petrol to electric vehicles would predominantly consist of clean sources, switch to electric vehicles could reduce environmental damage. Another common problem in methodology used in comparative studies is that it only focuses on specific kinds of environmental impact. While some studies focus only on emission of gas pollutants over life cycle or only on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO 2 , comparison should also account for other environmental impacts such as pollutants released otherwise during production and operation or ingredients that can not be effectively recycled. Examples include use of lighter high performing metals, lithium batteries and more rare metals in electric cars, which all have high environmental impact. A study that also looked at factors other than energy consumption and carbon emissions has suggested that there

14934-560: The sanctions for a state's failure to comply with the Clean Air Act, if the secretary of transportation wishes to approve the FHWA funds. On the other hand, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991 encouraged the construction of HOV lanes, which were made eligible for Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) funds in regions not attaining federal air quality standards. CMAQ funds may be spent on new HOV lane construction, even if

15065-508: The standards used for controlling, reducing, and eliminating HAPs emissions from stationary sources such as industrial facilities. The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop a list of HAPs, and then develop national emissions standards for each of them. The original NESHAPs were health-based standards. The 1990 CAA Amendments ( Pub. L.   101–549 Title III) codified EPA's list, and required creation of technology-based standards according to "maximum achievable control technology" (MACT). Over

15196-551: The state does not adequately monitor requirements, the EPA may take control. The public may request to view the permits by contacting the EPA. The permit is limited to no more than five years and requires a renewal. One of the most public aspects of the Clean Air Act, EPA is empowered to monitor compliance with the law's many requirements, seek penalties for violations, and compel regulated entities to come into compliance. Enforcement cases are usually settled, with penalties assessed well below maximum statutory limits. Recently, many of

15327-525: The strict amendments, EPA Administrator William Ruckelshaus spent 60% of his time during his first term on the automobile industry, whose emissions were to be reduced 90% under the new law. Senators had been frustrated at the industry's failure to cut emissions under previous, weaker air laws. Major amendments were added to the Clean Air Act in 1977 (1977 CAAA) (91 Stat. 685, Pub. L.   95–95 ). The 1977 Amendments primarily concerned provisions for

15458-865: The term is used for any vehicle complying or surpassing the more stringent European emission standards (such as Euro6), or California 's zero-emissions vehicle standards (such as ZEV , ULEV , SULEV , PZEV ), or the low-carbon fuel standards enacted in several countries. Green vehicles can be powered by alternative fuels and advanced vehicle technologies and include hybrid electric vehicles , plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , battery electric vehicles , compressed-air vehicles , hydrogen and fuel-cell vehicles , neat ethanol vehicles , flexible-fuel vehicles , natural gas vehicles , clean diesel vehicles, and some sources also include vehicles using blends of biodiesel and ethanol fuel or gasohol . In 2021, with an EPA -rated fuel economy of 142 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (1.7 L/100 km),

15589-426: The transport sector in the short run. As part of their contribution to sustainable transport , these vehicles reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions , and contribute to energy independence by reducing oil imports. An environmental analysis extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design

15720-622: The years, EPA has issued dozens of NESHAP regulations, which have developed NESHAPs by pollutant, by industry source category, and by industrial process. There are also NESHAPs for mobile sources (transportation), although these are primarily handled under the mobile source authorities. The 1990 amendments (adding CAA § 112(d-f)) also created a process by which EPA was required to review and update its NESHAPs every eight years, and identify any risks remaining after application of MACT, and develop additional rules necessary to protect public health. The New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) are rules for

15851-440: Was carrying in her womb justified her use of the lane, while noting that Arizona traffic laws do not define what constitutes a person. However, a judge subsequently ruled that to qualify as an "individual" under Arizona traffic laws, the individual must occupy a "separate and distinct" space in a vehicle. Likewise, in California, in order to use HOV lanes, there must be two (or, if posted, three) separate individuals occupying seats in

15982-512: Was constructed in Los Angeles County , and by 1993 there were only 58 mi (93 km) of HOV lanes countywide. A significant policy shift took place in October 1990, when a memorandum from the FHWA administrator stated that " FHWA strongly supports the objective of HOV preferential facilities and encourages the proper application of HOV technology. " Regional administrators were directed to promote HOV lanes and related facilities. Also in

16113-426: Was deemed to be insufficient. The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act ( Pub. L.   89–272 ) amended the 1963 Clean Air Act and set the first federal vehicle emissions standards, beginning with the 1968 models. These standards were reductions from 1963 emissions levels: 72% reduction for hydrocarbons , 56% reduction for carbon monoxide , and 100% reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons. . The law also added

16244-512: Was extended in 1959, 1960, and 1962 while Congress considered whether to regulate further. Beginning in 1963, Congress began expanding federal air pollution control law to accelerate the elimination of air pollution throughout the country. The new law's programs were initially administered by the U.S. Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare , and the Air Pollution Office of the U.S. Public Health Service , until they were transferred to

16375-404: Was first implemented by governor Sutiyoso . HOV 3+ is implemented on weekdays in existing roads of Sisingamangaraja Road (fast and slow lane), Jalan Jenderal Sudirman (fast and slow lane), Jalan M.H. Thamrin (fast and slow lane), Medan Merdeka Barat Road, Majapahit Road, and sections of Jalan Jenderal Gatot Subroto . The policy was originally implemented only between 7:00 am and 10:00 am. Since

16506-1056: Was implemented in May 2001 as an HOV 3+ on Elgeseter Street, an undivided four-lane arterial road in Trondheim . This facility was followed by HOV lanes in Oslo and Kristiansand . The first HOV lane (known as a Transit Lane T2 or T3) in Australia opened in February 1992, located on the Eastern Freeway in Melbourne travelling inbound. In May 2005, T2 Transit lanes were opened on Hoddle Street in Melbourne. As of 2012, there were also T2 and T3 facilities in Canberra , Sydney and Brisbane . In Auckland , New Zealand , there are several short HOV 2+ and 3+ lanes throughout

16637-478: Was issued a traffic ticket for using the HOV lane without a human passenger, which carries a fine of $ 135 in 2010 and two points on a driver's license. In January 2013, a motorist tried to claim that the Articles of Incorporation of his business, which had been placed unbuckled on the passenger’s seat, constituted a person, citing the principle of corporate personhood and California's state Vehicle Code, which defines

16768-485: Was originally developed in 1972 and used driving cycles designed to simulate driving during rush-hour in Los Angeles during that era. Until 1984, EPA reported the exact fuel economy figures calculated from the test. In 1984, EPA began adjusting city (aka Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or UDDS ) results downward by 10% and highway (aka HighWay Fuel Economy Test or HWFET) results by 22% to compensate for changes in driving conditions since 1972, and to better correlate

16899-524: Was questioned by the court in West Virginia v. EPA (2022) but restored by Congress with the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 , which clarified that carbon dioxide is one of the pollutants covered by the Clean Air Act. Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA, and GHGs from stationary sources are controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of

17030-533: Was the first federal legislation to permit the U.S. federal government to take direct action to control air pollution. It extended the 1955 research program, encouraged cooperative state, local, and federal action to reduce air pollution, appropriated $ 95 million over three years to support the development of state pollution control programs, and authorized the HEW Secretary to organize conferences and take direct action against interstate air pollution where state action

17161-430: Was the state with the most HOV facilities in the country, with 88, followed by Minnesota with 83 facilities, Washington with 41, Texas with 35, and Virginia with 21. By 2006, HOV lanes in California were operating at two-thirds of their capacity, and these HOV facilities carried on average 2,518 persons per hour during peak hours, substantially more people than the congested general-traffic lanes. As of October 2016,

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