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52-544: Guwen Guanzhi ( Chinese : 古文觀止 ) is an anthology of essays written in literary Chinese . It was first published during the Qing dynasty in 1695. It comprises more than two hundred works from the Warring States period to the Ming dynasty . Today the anthology (in whole but mostly in part) is widely used as required or supplementary reading material of literary Chinese in schools in

104-503: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from

156-601: A standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of

208-426: A tyrant over his fief, allowing his subordinates to extort food supplies and money from the common people. After Geng's death, his son Geng Jimao inherited his father's title and fiefdom, and Geng Jimao was later succeeded by his son Geng Jingzhong . In Guangdong province, Shang Kexi ruled his fief in a similar fashion to Geng Jingzhong. In total, much of the central government's revenue and reserves were spent on

260-850: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;

312-531: Is an idiom meaning "good beyond comparison; cream of the crop." Guwen Guanzhi was first and foremost produced as a practical study aid. The compilers avoided overly difficult texts and made their explanations as clear and concise as possible. In its own time, Guwen Guanzhi's main assets were its ideal size (in terms of number and length of the selected texts), the relative comprehensiveness of its selection, lack of an overly moralistic or tendentious approach, and good notes and comments. The same features have helped

364-483: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to

416-677: The Greater China Region , including the Mainland China , Hong Kong , Macao and Taiwan . Guwen Guanzhi has a total of 221 texts. The texts are arranged by period, and originally the book consisted of 12 fascicles ( juan , 卷). The composition is as follows: Most of the texts are prose written in the "ancient style" which guwen (古文) refers to. The selection includes also three (or four) pieces written in ”parallel prose” (usually not regarded as guwen ), as well as three ci and four fu prose poems. Guanzhi (literally "read-end")

468-566: The Kangxi Emperor to reinforce Albazin against the Russians. Kangxi was impressed by a demonstration of their techniques and ordered 500 of them to defend Albazin, under Ho Yu, a former Koxinga follower, and Lin Hsing-chu, a former General of Wu Sangui. These rattan shield troops did not suffer a single casualty when they defeated and cut down Russian forces traveling by rafts on the river, only using

520-682: The Kensiu language . Revolt of the Three Feudatories Due to their history as defectors that helped to topple the Southern Ming dynasty , the Three Feudatories failed to win over the support of the general Han populace and were eventually defeated by the Qing forces. After the last remaining Han resistance had been put down, the former princely titles were abolished. In the early years of

572-565: The Qing Dynasty , during the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor , central government authority was not strong and the rulers were unable to control the provinces in southern China directly. The government initiated a policy of "letting the Han Chinese govern the Han Chinese" (以漢制漢). Some generals of the former Ming Dynasty who had surrendered to the Qing were allowed to help govern the provinces in

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624-622: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝   'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for

676-573: The Green Standard Army as their main army against the rebels instead of Bannermen. As a result, after 1676, the tide turned in favor of the Qing forces. In the northwest, Wang Fuchen surrendered after a three-year-long stalemate, while Geng Jingzhong and Shang Zhixin surrendered in turn as their forces weakened. In 1676 Shang Zhixin joined the rebellion, consolidating Guangdong under his rule and sending troops north into Jiangxi . In 1677, Wu Sangui suspected Sun Yanling would surrender to

728-533: The Ming capital Beijing . In return, the Qing government had to reward their achievements, and acknowledge their military and political influence. In 1655, Wu Sangui was granted the title of "Pingxi Prince" (平西王; "West Pacifying Prince") and granted governorship of the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou . Shang Kexi and Geng Zhongming were granted the titles of "Pingnan Prince" and "Jingnan Prince" (both mean "South Pacifying Prince") respectively, and were put in charge of

780-547: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China

832-745: The Prince of Ningjing, Zhu Shugui and Prince Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓), son of Zhu Yihai . The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives in exile since their lives were spared from execution. In 1685, the Qing used former Ming loyalist Han Chinese naval specialists who had served under the Zheng family in Taiwan in the siege of Albazin . Former Ming loyalist Han Chinese troops who had served under Zheng Chenggong and who specialized at fighting with rattan shields and swords (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were recommended to

884-793: The Qing in Guangxi and he sent his relative Wu Shizong, to assassinate Sun. Sun's wife Kong Sizhen took control of his troops after his death, although she may already have had control beforehand. In the south, Wu Sangui moved his armies north after conquering Hunan, while the Qing forces concentrated on recapturing Hunan from him. In 1678, Wu finally proclaimed himself emperor of the Great Zhou Dynasty (大周) in Hengzhou (衡州; present-day Hengyang , Hunan province) and established his own imperial court. However Wu died of illness in August (lunar month) that year and

936-657: The Qing navy and led an invasion of Taiwan, defeating the Tungning navy under Liu Guoxuan in the Battle of Penghu . Zheng Jing's son Zheng Keshuang surrendered in October 1683, and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang was awarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng" (海澄公) and he and his soldiers were inducted into the Eight Banners . Shang Zhixin

988-654: The Qing side during the war. according to another, 213 Han Chinese Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing. According to a third, mustered the Qing a massive army of more than 900,000 northern Han Chinese to fight the Three Feudatories. Fighting in northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Chinese Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as their main military force. The Qing thought that Han Chinese soldiers were superior at fighting other Han people and so used

1040-450: The Three Feudatories, and their expenditure emptied almost half of the imperial treasury. When the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, he felt that the Three Feudatories posed a great threat to his sovereignty and wanted to reduce their power. In 1667, Wu Sangui submitted a request to the Kangxi Emperor , asking for permission to be relieved of his duties in Yunnan and Guizhou provinces, on

1092-571: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,

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1144-529: The anthology survive through centuries. Guwen Guanzhi was compiled and edited by Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou , who at the time of the publication were working as teachers in a private village school in Shaoxing . Very little is known of Wu Chucai (given name Wu Chengquan 吳乘權, sobriquet Chucai, 楚才, 1655–1719), except that he was originally from Shaoxing and never became part of the established literati. Wu Diaohou (given name Wu Dazhi 吳大職, courtesy name Diaohou, 調侯)

1196-589: The case. Instead, altogether almost 90% of the texts in Guwen Guanzhi originate from another Qing era anthology, Guwen xiyi (古文析義), often copied character by character. However, the notes and commentaries are all different. Guwen xiyi was compiled and edited by Lin Yunming (林雲銘, 1628–97, Fujian). Lin Yunming was a mid-ranking official who had passed the metropolitan examination ( jinshi ) in 1658. An earlier version of Lin's manuscript "is said to have been lost in

1248-476: The composition of Guwen Guanzhi is heavily based on a former anthology produced by an altogether different compiler. Though the "blueprint" has often been presumed to be the "imperial" anthology Guwen yuanjian (古文淵鑑), edited during early Qing dynasty under the personal supervision of the Kangxi Emperor, and including the standard commentaries required for the imperial examinations , this has proven not to be

1300-695: The course of the 'Fujian troubles' ...", referring to the Revolt of the Three Feudatories . In 1674, Lin was imprisoned by the pro-Ming rebels, who in turn were defeated by the troops under the command of Wu Xingzuo and others in 1675. Guwen xiyi was published in 1682. Kallio, Jyrki: Enlightenment for the Masses. Confucian Education in the Manner of Guwen guanzhi. Gaudeamus Helsinki University Press. Helsinki (e-book) 2011. ISBN   978-952-495-607-9 . Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are

1352-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from

1404-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as

1456-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In

1508-685: The man who massacred Guangzhou, died, his son followed suit in Guangdong . At the same time, Sun Yanling and Wang Fuchen also rose in revolt in Guangxi and Shaanxi provinces. Zheng Jing , ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning , led an allegedly 150,000 strong army from Taiwan and landed in Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang to fight and join the rebel forces. The Qing forces were initially defeated by Wu in 1673–1674. Manchu Generals and Bannermen were put to shame by

1560-975: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often

1612-665: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as

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1664-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as

1716-540: The performance of the Han Chinese Green Standard Army , who fought better than them against the rebels. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and the Han elite, as they did not join the Three Feudatories. Different sources offer different account of the Han and Manchu forces deployed against the rebels. According to one, 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on

1768-825: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to

1820-405: The preface by Wu Xingzuo, which in the second edition of 1697 has been replaced by the preface of Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou. The 1697 edition also contained some corrections and changes on the notes and commentaries, but was otherwise of lower quality than the first edition. Only the first edition has been the basis for all following editions (through two Qianlong era editions). Analysis shows that

1872-460: The premise that he was ill. Kangxi, not yet ready for a trial of strength with him, refused Wu's request. In 1673, Shang Kexi asked for permission to retire, and in July, Wu Sangui and Geng Jingzhong followed suit. Kangxi sought advice from his council on the issue and received divided responses. Some thought that the Three Feudatories should be left as they were, while others supported the idea of reducing

1924-536: The privilege of choosing warhorses first before the Qing armies. Wu Sangui's forces took up several million taels of silver in military pay, taking up a third of the Qing government's revenue from taxes. Wu was also in charge of handling the Qing government's diplomatic relationships with the Dalai Lama and Tibet. Most of Wu's troops were formerly Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong 's forces and they were well-versed in warfare. In Fujian province, Geng Zhongming ruled as

1976-420: The provinces of Guangdong and Fujian . The three lords had great influence over their lands and wielded far greater power than any other regional or provincial governors. They had their own military forces and had the authority to alter tax rates in their fiefs. In Yunnan and Guizhou, Wu Sangui was granted permission by the Shunzhi Emperor to appoint and promote his own personal group of officials, as well as

2028-460: The provinces of Hunan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Sichuan were recovered by the Qing, and Wu Shifan retreated to Kunming in October. In 1681, the Qing general Zhao Liangdong proposed a three-pronged attack on Yunnan, with imperial armies from Hunan, Guangxi and Sichuan. Cai Yurong , Viceroy of Yun-Gui , led the attack on the rebels together with Zhang Tai and Laita Giyesu , conquering Mount Wuhua and besieging Kunming. In October, Zhao Liandong's army

2080-492: The rattan shields and swords while fighting naked. "[the Russian reinforcements were coming down to the fort on the river] Thereupon he [Marquis Lin] ordered all our marines to take off their clothes and jump into the water. Each wore a rattan shield on his head and held a huge sword in his hand. Thus they swam forward. The Russians were so frightened that they all shouted: 'Behold, the big-capped Tartars!' Since our marines were in

2132-592: The rebellion by restoring Ming customs and cutting off queues . Later on in 1678, he declared a new dynasty, the Zhou, invoking the name of the great pre-imperial dynasty. Wu offered the Kangxi emperor clemency if he were to leave Beijing and return to the Manchu homeland. Wu's forces captured Hunan and Sichuan provinces. In 1674 both Geng Jingzhong in Fujian and after Shang Zhixin,

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2184-434: The south. That was the result of the crucial contributions those generals had made at decisive moments during the Qing conquest of China. For instance, the navy of Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi brought about the quick capitulation of Joseon in 1636, allowing rapid advance into Ming territories without worrying about what was behind. The defection and subsequent cooperation of Wu Sangui allowed swift capture and settlement of

2236-470: The three lords' powers. Kangxi went against the views of the majority in the council and accepted the three lords' requests for retirement, ordering them to leave their respective fiefs and resettle in Manchuria. In December 1673, Wu Sangui ended his connection to the Qing dynasty and instigated the rebellion under the banner of "opposing Qing and restoring Ming" (反清復明). Wu courted Han Chinese officials to join

2288-578: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with

2340-970: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write

2392-509: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being

2444-400: The water, they could not use their firearms. Our sailors wore rattan shields to protect their heads so that enemy bullets and arrows could not pierce them. Our marines used long swords to cut the enemy's ankles. The Russians fell into the river, most of them either killed or wounded. The rest fled and escaped. [Lin[ Hsing-chu had not lost a single marine when he returned to take part in besieging

2496-571: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c.  200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c.  the 5th century . Although

2548-529: Was forced to commit suicide in 1680; of his thirty six brothers, four were executed when he committed suicide, while the rest of his family was allowed to live. Geng Jingzhong was executed; his brother Geng Juzhong 耿聚忠 was in Beijing with the Qing court with the Kangxi Emperor, during the rebellion, and was not punished for his brother's revolt. Geng Juzhong died of natural causes in 1687. Several Ming princes had accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan in 1661–1662, including

2600-423: Was his younger nephew. Wu Chucai started working on the anthology in 1678 in Fujian where he had travelled to take on duties as a private secretary for his uncle, high imperial official Wu Xingzuo (吳興祚, 1632–97). His nephew joined him in the work later. The anthology was originally published in two editions. The first edition of the 34th year of the Kangxi Emperor 's reign (1695, place of printing unknown) has

2652-696: Was succeeded by his grandson Wu Shifan , who ordered a retreat back to Yunnan. While the rebel army's morale was low, Qing forces launched an attack on Yuezhou (岳州; present-day Yueyang , Hunan province) and captured it, along with the rebel territories of Changde, Hengzhou and others. Wu Shifan's forces retreated to the Chenlong Pass. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Han Chinese Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchu forces involved only in dealing with logistics and provisions, not combat. In 1680,

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2704-469: Was the first to break through into Kunming and the others followed suit, swiftly capturing the city. Wu Shifan committed suicide in December and the rebels surrendered the following day. Zheng Jing 's forces were defeated near Xiamen in 1680 and forced to withdraw to Taiwan. The final victory over the revolt was the Qing conquest of the Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan. Shi Lang was appointed as admiral of

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