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170-687: As is the case in many Romance languages (including French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian), the Spanish word for death, muerte, is a feminine noun . As such, it is common in Spanish-speaking cultures to personify death as a female figure. A common term for the personification of death across Latin America is "la Parca" from one of the three Roman Parcae , a figure similar to the Anglophone Grim Reaper, though usually depicted as female and without

340-417: A lwa . The oungan and manbo conduct initiatory ceremonies whereby people become ounsi , oversee their training, and act as their counsellor, healer, and protector. In turn, the ounsi are expected to be obedient to their oungan or manbo . One of the ounsi becomes the hungenikon or reine-chanterelle , the mistress of the choir. They are responsible for overseeing

510-414: A prèt Vodou ("Vodou priest"). Priestesses are termed manbo , alternatively spelled mambo . Oungan numerically dominate in rural Haiti, while there is a more equitable balance of priests and priestesses in urban areas. The oungan and manbo are tasked with organising liturgies, preparing initiations, offering consultations with clients using divination, and preparing remedies for

680-457: A sosyete soutyen ( société soutien , support society), through which subscriptions are paid to help maintain the ounfò and organize the major religious feasts. Another ritual figure sometimes present is the prèt savann ("bush priest"), a man with a knowledge of Latin who is capable of administering Catholic baptisms, weddings, and the last rites , and who is willing to perform these at Vodou ceremonies. In rural areas especially,

850-490: A dialect continuum , where the speech variety of a location differs only slightly from that of a neighboring location, but over a longer distance these differences can accumulate to the point where two remote locations speak what may be unambiguously characterized as separate languages. This makes drawing language boundaries difficult, and thus there is no unambiguous way to divide the Romance varieties into individual languages. Even

1020-518: A black sombrero, and in another by a statue of Star Wars -character Darth Vader . In Port-au-Prince, it is common for Vodouists to include human skulls on their altar for the Gede. In ounfòs where both Rada and Petwo deities are worshipped, their altars are kept separate. Various spaces other than the temple are used for Vodou ritual. Cemeteries are seen as places where spirits reside, making them suitable for certain rituals, especially to approach

1190-606: A coffin for seven years. Her sister was the goddess of life and destiny, Laima , symbolizing the relationship between beginning and end. Like the Scandinavians, Lithuanians and Latvians later began using Grim Reaper imagery for death. In Breton folklore, a spectral figure called the Ankou ( or Angau in Welsh ) portends death. Usually, the Ankou is the spirit of the last person that died within

1360-500: A congregation may consist of an extended family. Here, the priest will often be the patriarch of that family. Families, particularly in rural areas, often believe that through their zansèt (ancestors) they are tied to a premye mèt bitasyon (original founder); their descent from this figure is seen as giving them their inheritance both of the land and of familial spirits. In other examples, particularly in urban areas, an ounfò can act as an initiatory family. A priest becomes

1530-722: A depiction of Death striking the hour. A version first appeared in 1490. In the Netherlands , and to a lesser extent in Belgium , the personification of Death is known as Magere Hein ("Thin Hein") or Pietje de Dood ("Peter the Death"). Historically, he was sometimes simply referred to as Hein or variations thereof such as Heintje , Heintjeman and Oom Hendrik ("Uncle Hendrik "). Related archaic terms are Beenderman ("Bone-man"), Scherminkel (very meager person, "skeleton") and Maaijeman (" mow -man",

1700-579: A devil or angel of death (e.g., Habakkuk 2:5 ; Job 18:13 ). In both the Book of Hosea and the Book of Jeremiah , Maweth/Mot is mentioned as a deity to whom God can turn over Judah as punishment for worshiping other gods. The memitim are a type of angel from biblical lore associated with the mediation over the lives of the dying. The name is derived from the Hebrew word mĕmītǐm (מְמִיתִים – "executioners", "slayers", "destroyers") and refers to angels that brought about

1870-445: A gift from Bondye that can be revealed to the individual through visions or dreams. Many priests and priestesses are often attributed fantastical powers in stories told about them, and may bolster their status with claims to have received revelations from the lwa , sometimes via visits to the lwa 's own abode. There is often bitter competition between different oungan and manbo . Their main income derives from healing

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2040-443: A home for the spirits. After the period of seclusion in the djèvo , the new initiate is brought out and presented to the congregation; they are now referred to as ounsi lave tèt . When the new initiate is presented to the rest of the community, they carry their pot tèt on their head, before placing it on the altar. The final stage of the process involves the initiate being given an ason rattle. The initiation process

2210-591: A potential source of separatist movements; therefore, they have generally fought to eliminate it, by extensively promoting the use of the official language, restricting the use of the other languages in the media, recognizing them as mere "dialects", or even persecuting them. As a result, all of these languages are considered endangered to varying degrees according to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages , ranging from "vulnerable" (e.g. Sicilian and Venetian ) to "severely endangered" ( Franco-Provençal , most of

2380-569: A reference to his scythe ). The concept of Magere Hein predates Christianity , but was Christianized and likely gained its modern name and features (scythe, skeleton, black robe etc.) during the Middle Ages . The designation "Meager" comes from its portrayal as a skeleton , which was largely influenced by the Christian " Dance of Death " ( Dutch : dodendans ) theme that was prominent in Europe during

2550-565: A religion exhibiting diverse cultural influences. As formed in Haiti, Vodou represented "a new religion", "a creolized New World system", one that differs in many ways from African traditional religions. The scholar Leslie Desmangles therefore called it an "African-derived tradition", Ina J. Fandrich termed it a "neo-African religion", and Markel Thylefors called it an "Afro-Latin American religion". Several other African diasporic religions found in

2720-434: A room or corner of a room devoted to Erzuli Freda. Some ounfò will also have additional rooms in which the oungan or manbo lives. The area around the ounfò often contains objects dedicated to particular lwa , such as a pool of water for Danbala, a black cross for Baron Samedi, and a pince (iron bar) embedded in a brazier for Criminel. Sacred trees, known as arbres-reposoirs , sometimes mark

2890-505: A scythe. In Aztec mythology , Mictecacihuatl is the " Queen of Mictlan " (the Aztec underworld ), ruling over the afterlife with her husband Mictlantecuhtli . Other epithets for her include "Lady of the Dead," as her role includes keeping watch over the bones of the dead. Mictecacihuatl was represented with a fleshless body and with jaw agape to swallow the stars during the day. She presided over

3060-836: A single country. Portuguese is the official language of six African countries ( Angola , Cape Verde , Guinea-Bissau , Mozambique , Equatorial Guinea , and São Tomé and Príncipe ), and is spoken as a native language by perhaps 16 million residents of that continent. In Asia, Portuguese is co-official with other languages in East Timor and Macau , while most Portuguese-speakers in Asia—some 400,000 —are in Japan due to return immigration of Japanese Brazilians . In North America 1,000,000 people speak Portuguese as their home language, mainly immigrants from Brazil, Portugal, and other Portuguese-speaking countries and their descendants. In Oceania, Portuguese

3230-480: A sword) belongs to the equipment of the Angel of Death ( Eccl. R. iv. 7). The Angel of Death takes on the particular form which will best serve his purpose; e.g., he appears to a scholar in the form of a beggar imploring pity (the beggar should receive Tzedakah )(M. Ḳ. 28a). "When pestilence rages in the town, walk not in the middle of the street, because the Angel of Death [i.e., pestilence] strides there; if peace reigns in

3400-568: A symbol of fertility, health and abundance, alluding to the close symbolic links between life and death. There was also the goddess of suicide , Ixtab . She was a minor goddess in the scale of Maya mythology . She was also known as The Hangwoman as she came to help along those who had killed themselves. Our Lady of the Holy Death (Santa Muerte) is a female deity or folk saint of Mexican folk religion, whose popularity has been growing in Mexico and

3570-450: A thousand lwa , although certain ones are especially widely venerated. In Rada ceremonies, the first lwa saluted is Papa Legba , also known as Legba. Depicted as a feeble old man wearing rags and using a crutch, Papa Legba is the protector of gates and fences and thus of the home, as well as of roads, paths, and crossroads. In Petwo rites, the first lwa invoked is usually Mèt Kalfou . The second lwa usually greeted are

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3740-704: A thousand lwa . Serving as Bondye's intermediaries, they communicate with humans through their dreams or by directly possessing them. Vodouists believe the lwa are capable of offering people help, protection, and counsel in return for ritual service. Each lwa has its own personality, and is associated with specific colors, days of the week, and objects. Particular lwa are also associated with specific human family lineages. These spirits are not seen as moral exemplars for practitioners to imitate. The lwa can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees; they are easily offended, for instance if offered food they dislike. When angered,

3910-485: A time, place or year" – which means death is destiny.) Morana is a Slavic goddess of winter time, death and rebirth. A figurine of the same name is traditionally created at the end of winter/beginning of spring and symbolically taken away from villages to be set in fire and/or thrown into a river, that takes her away from the world of the living. In the Czech Republic , the medieval Prague Astronomical Clock carries

4080-421: A variety of forms, typically that of an ugly, frightful hag, but in some stories she chooses to appear young and beautiful. Some tales recount that the creature was actually a ghost , often of a specific murdered woman or a mother who died in childbirth. When several banshees appeared at once, it was said to indicate the death of someone great or holy. In Ireland and parts of Scotland, a traditional part of mourning

4250-685: Is Spanish , followed by Portuguese , French , Italian and Romanian , which together cover a vast territory in Europe and beyond, and work as official and national languages in dozens of countries. In Europe, at least one Romance language is official in France , Portugal , Spain , Italy , Switzerland , Belgium , Romania , Moldova , Transnistria , Monaco , Andorra , San Marino and Vatican City . In these countries, French, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, Romansh and Catalan have constitutional official status. French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Romanian are also official languages of

4420-498: Is mrityu (cognate with Latin mors and Lithuanian mirtis ), which is often personified in Dharmic religions . In Hindu scriptures, the lord of death is called King Yama ( यम राज , Yama Rāja ). He is also known as the King of Karmic Justice ( Dharmaraja ) as one's karma at death was considered to lead to a just rebirth . Yama rides a black buffalo and carries a rope lasso to lead

4590-544: Is sèvitè ( serviteurs , "devotees"), reflecting their self-description as people who sèvi lwa ("serve the lwa "), the supernatural beings that play a central role in Vodou. Many words used in the religion derive from the Fon language of West Africa; this includes the word Vodou itself. First recorded in the 1658 Doctrina Christiana , the Fon word Vôdoun was used in

4760-540: Is also considered sympathetic to gay people, with many gay and bisexual individuals holding status as Vodou priests and priestesses, and some groups having largely gay congregations. Some Vodouists state that the lwa determine a person's sexual orientation. The lwa Èzili Dantò is sometimes regarded as a lesbian, and is also seen as the patron of masisi (gay men). The anthropologist Alfred Métraux described Vodou as "a practical and utilitarian religion". Its practices largely revolve around interactions with

4930-457: Is an African diasporic religion that developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of syncretism between several traditional religions of West and Central Africa and Roman Catholicism . There is no central authority in control of the religion and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Vodouists, Vodouisants, or Serviteurs. Vodou teaches

5100-683: Is an official language in Spain and in nine countries of South America , home to about half that continent's population; in six countries of Central America (all except Belize ); and in Mexico . In the Caribbean , it is official in Cuba , the Dominican Republic , and Puerto Rico . In all these countries, Latin American Spanish is the vernacular language of the majority of the population, giving Spanish

5270-518: Is called an ounfò , varyingly spelled hounfò , hounfort , or humfo . An alternative term is gangan , although the connotations of this term vary regionally in Haiti. Most communal Vodou activities centre around this ounfò , forming what is called "temple Vodou". The size and shape of ounfòs vary, from basic shacks to more lavish structures, the latter being more common in Port-au-Prince. Their designs are dependent on

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5440-411: Is considered a high ethic. Among Vodouists, a moral person is regarded as someone who lives in tune with their character and that of their tutelary lwa . In general, acts that reinforce Bondye's power are deemed good; those that undermine it are seen as bad. Maji , meaning the use of supernatural powers for self-serving and malevolent ends, are usually thought bad. The term is quite flexible; it

5610-507: Is considered in Talmudic texts to be a member of the heavenly host with often grim and destructive duties. One of Samael's greatest roles in Jewish lore is that of the main angel of death and the head of satans . Talmud teachers of the 4th century associate quite familiarly with him. When he appeared to one on the street, the teacher reproached him with rushing upon him as upon a beast, whereupon

5780-464: Is depicted as a skeletal figure with a scythe, sometimes wearing a cape and crown. He is associated with death and the curing of diseases. In the African-Brazilian religion Umbanda , the orixá Omolu personifies sickness and death as well as healing. The image of the death is also associated with Exu , lord of the crossroads, who rules cemeteries and the hour of midnight. In Haitian Vodou ,

5950-590: Is frequently portrayed as a skeletal old woman, as depicted in 15th-century dialogue "Rozmowa Mistrza Polikarpa ze Śmiercią" (Latin: "Dialogus inter Mortem et Magistrum Polikarpum" ). In Serbia and other South Slavic countries, the Grim Reaper is well known as Smrt ("Death") or Kosač ("Reaper"). Slavic people found this very similar to the Devil and other dark powers. One popular saying about death is: Smrt ne bira ni vreme, ni mesto, ni godinu ("Death does not choose

6120-413: Is generally expensive, complex, and requires significant preparation. Prospective initiates are for instance required to memorise many songs and learn the characteristics of various lwa . Vodouists believe the lwa may encourage an individual towards initiation, bringing misfortune upon them if they refuse. Initiation will often be preceded by bathing in special preparations. The first part of

6290-422: Is limited, and the literature is often hard to interpret or generalize. Many of its speakers were soldiers, slaves, displaced peoples, and forced resettlers, and more likely to be natives of conquered lands than natives of Rome. In Western Europe, Latin gradually replaced Celtic and other Italic languages , which were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated

6460-558: Is linked with mango trees, and Danbala with bougainvillea . Selected trees in Haiti have had metal items affixed to them, serving as shrines to Ogou, who is associated with both iron and the roads. Spaces for ritual also appear in the homes of many Vodouists. These may vary from complex altars to more simple variants including only images of saints alongside candles and a rosary . Many practitioners will also have an altar devoted to their ancestors in their home, to which they direct offerings. Drawings known as vèvè are sketched onto

6630-504: Is no man who lives and, seeing the Angel of Death, can deliver his soul from his hand." Eccl. 8:4 is thus explained in Midrash Rabbah to the passage: "One may not escape the Angel of Death, nor say to him, 'Wait until I put my affairs in order,' or 'There is my son, my slave: take him in my stead.'" Where the Angel of Death appears, there is no remedy, but his name ( Talmud , Ned. 49a; Hul. 7b). If one who has sinned has confessed his fault,

6800-511: Is not uncommon for Death to be female. In England, the personified "Death" featured in medieval morality plays , later regularly appearing in traditional folk songs. The following is a verse of "Death and the Lady" (Roud 1031) as sung by Henry Burstow in the nineteenth century: Fair lady, throw those costly robes aside, No longer may you glory in your pride. Take leave of all sour carnal vain delight I'm come to summon you away this night. In

6970-520: Is now commonly called Pietje de Dood "Little Pete, the Death." Like the other Dutch names, it can also refer to the Devil. In Western Europe , Death has commonly been personified as an animated skeleton since the Middle Ages . This character, which is often depicted wielding a scythe , is said to collect the souls of the dying or recently dead. In English and German culture, Death is typically portrayed as male, but in French, Spanish, and Italian culture, it

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7140-456: Is one of the most popular deities in the pantheon. Danbala and his consort Ayida-Weddo are often depicted as a pair of intertwining snakes. The Simbi are understood as the guardians of fountains and marshes. Usually seen as a fanmi rather than a nanchon , the Gede are associated with the realm of the dead. The head of the family is Baron Samedi ("Baron Saturday"); he is associated with

7310-521: Is practiced by individuals of various ethnicities. Having faced much criticism through its history, Vodou has been described as one of the world's most misunderstood religions. Vodou is a religion. More specifically, scholars have characterised it as an Afro-Haitian religion, and as Haiti's "national religion". Its main structure derives from the African traditional religions of West and Central Africa which were brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans between

7480-591: Is responsible for Haiti's poverty , a view that in turn has been accused of being rooted in European colonial prejudices towards Africans. Although Vodou permeates every aspect of its adherent's lives, it offers no prescriptive code of ethics. Rather than being rule-based, Vodou morality is deemed contextual to the situation, with no clear binary division between good and evil. Vodou reflects people's everyday concerns, focusing on techniques for mitigating illness and misfortune; doing what one needs to in order to survive

7650-661: Is seen to have ended when the new initiate is first possessed by a lwa . Initiation is seen as creating a bond between a devotee and their tutelary lwa , and the former will often take on a new name that alludes to the name of this lwa . Finally, after the kouche , the new initiate may be expected to visit a Catholic church. The creation of sacred works is important in Vodou. Votive objects used in Haiti are typically made from industrial materials, including iron, plastic, sequins, china, tinsel, and plaster. An altar, or pè , will often contain images (typically lithographs ) of Roman Catholic saints. Since developing in

7820-466: Is sometimes referred as the Angel of Death as well. Jewish tradition also refers to Death as the Angel of Dark and Light, a name which stems from Talmudic lore. There is also a reference to " Abaddon " (The Destroyer), an angel who is known as the "Angel of the Abyss". In Talmudic lore , he is characterized as archangel Michael . In Hebrew scriptures, Death ( Maweth / Mavet(h) ) is sometimes personified as

7990-691: Is sometimes used synonymously with nanchon or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category. It is often claimed that there are 17 nanchon , of which the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant. The Rada lwa are seen as being 'cool'; the Petwo lwa as 'hot'. This means that the Rada are dous or doux , or sweet-tempered, while the Petwo are lwa cho , indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire. Whereas

8160-1059: Is spoken by many residents of Alghero , on the island of Sardinia , and it is co-official in that city. Galician , with more than three million speakers, is official together with Spanish in Galicia , and has legal recognition in neighbouring territories in Castilla y León . A few other languages have official recognition on a regional or otherwise limited level; for instance, Asturian and Aragonese in Spain; Mirandese in Portugal; Friulian , Sardinian and Franco-Provençal in Italy; and Romansh in Switzerland. The remaining Romance languages survive mostly as spoken languages for informal contact. National governments have historically viewed linguistic diversity as an economic, administrative or military liability, as well as

8330-436: Is surrounded with a web of fable. When the time came for him to die and the Angel of Death appeared to him, he demanded to be shown his place in paradise. When the angel had consented to this, he demanded the angel's knife, that the angel might not frighten him by the way. This request also was granted to him, and Joshua sprang with the knife over the wall of paradise; the angel, who is not allowed to enter paradise, caught hold of

8500-436: Is the lwa of vegetation, and because he is seen to give healing properties to various plant species is considered the lwa of healing too. Ogou is a warrior lwa , associated with weapons. Sogbo is a lwa associated with lightning, while his companion, Bade , is associated with the wind. Danbala is a serpent lwa and is associated with water, being believed to frequent rivers, springs, and marshes; he

8670-561: Is the "Netherworld Emissary" Jeoseungsaja ( 저승사자 , shortened to Saja (사자)). He is depicted as a stern and ruthless bureaucrat in Yeomna's service. A psychopomp , he escorts all – good or evil – from the land of the living to the netherworld when the time comes. One of the representative names is Ganglim (강림), the Saja who guides the soul to the entrance of the underworld. According to legend, he always carries Jeokpaeji (적패지),

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8840-515: Is the keening woman (bean chaointe), who wails a lament – in Irish : Caoineadh, caoin meaning "to weep, to wail." In Scottish folklore there was a belief that a black, dark green or white dog known as a Cù Sìth took dying souls to the afterlife. Comparable figures exist in Irish and Welsh stories. In Welsh Folklore, Gwyn ap Nudd is the escort of the grave, the personification of Death and Winter who leads

9010-491: Is the second most spoken Romance language, after French, due mainly to the number of speakers in East Timor . Its closest relative, Galician, has official status in the autonomous community of Galicia in Spain , together with Spanish. Outside Europe, French is spoken natively most in the Canadian province of Quebec , and in parts of New Brunswick and Ontario . Canada is officially bilingual , with French and English being

9180-499: Is thus a term primarily used by scholars and outsiders to the religion; many practitioners describe their belief system with the term Ginen , which especially denotes a moral philosophy and ethical code regarding how to live and to serve the spirits. Vodou is the common spelling for the religion among scholars, in official Haitian Creole orthography, and by the United States Library of Congress . Some scholars prefer

9350-517: Is to echofe ("heat things up"), thus bringing about change, whether that be to remove barriers or to facilitate healing. Secrecy is important in Vodou. It is an initiatory tradition, operating through a system of graded induction or initiation. When an individual agrees to serve a lwa , it is deemed a lifelong commitment. Vodou has a strong oral culture, and its teachings are primarily disseminated through oral transmission, although many practitioners began to use texts after they appeared in

9520-464: Is traditionally depicted with snakes, or with Moses , whose staff turned into serpents. The Marasa, or sacred twins, are typically equated with the twin saints Cosmos and Damian . Scholars like Desmangles have argued that Vodouists originally adopted the Roman Catholic saints to conceal lwa worship when the latter was illegal during the colonial period. Observing Vodou in the latter part of

9690-515: Is usually used to denigrate other Vodouists, although some practitioners have used it as a self-descriptor in reference to Petwo rites. The extended family is of importance in Haitian society, with Vodou reinforcing family ties, and emphasising respect for the elderly. Although there are accounts of male Vodou priests mistreating their female followers, in the religion women can also lay claim to moral authority as social and spiritual leaders. Vodou

9860-470: The gwo bonnanj is thought capable of leaving the head and travelling while a person sleeps. Vodouists believe that every individual is connected to a specific lwa , regarded as their mèt tèt (master of the head). They believe that this lwa informs the individual's personality. Vodou holds that the identity of a person's tutelary lwa can be identified through divination or by consulting lwa when they possess other humans. Some of

10030-412: The lwa Danbala-Wedo. The caye-mystéres is also used to store clothing that will be worn by those possessed by the lwa during rituals. If space is available, the ounfò may also have a room set aside for the patron lwa of that temple. Many ounfòs have a room known as the djévo in which the initiate is confined during their initiatory ceremony. Every ounfò usually has

10200-485: The lwa are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness on an individual. Although there are exceptions, most lwa derive their names from the Fon and Yoruba languages and originated as deities venerated in West or Central Africa. New lwa are nevertheless added to the pantheon, with both talismans and certain humans thought capable of becoming lwa , in

10370-457: The lwa at an ounfò (temple), run by an oungan (priest) or manbo (priestess). Alternatively, Vodou is also practised within family groups or in secret societies like the Bizango . A central ritual involves practitioners drumming, singing, and dancing to encourage a lwa to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Offerings to the lwa , and to spirits of

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10540-419: The lwa call an individual to become an oungan or manbo , and if the latter refuses then misfortune may befall them. A prospective oungan or manbo must normally rise through the other roles in a Vodou congregation before undergoing an apprenticeship with a pre-existing oungan or manbo lasting several months or years. After this apprenticeship, they undergo an initiation ceremony,

10710-432: The lwa of agriculture, is for instance associated with Saint Isidore the farmer. Similarly, because he is understood as the "key" to the spirit world, Papa Legba is typically associated with Saint Peter , who is traditionally depicted holding keys in Roman Catholic imagery. The lwa of love and luxury, Èzili Freda, is associated with Mater Dolorosa . Danbala the serpent is often equated with Saint Patrick , who

10880-422: The lwa , and incorporate song, drumming, dance, prayer, possession, and animal sacrifice. Practitioners gather together for sèvices (services) in which they commune with the lwa . Ceremonies for a particular lwa often coincide with the feast day of the Roman Catholic saint which that lwa is associated with. The mastery of ritual forms is considered imperative in Vodou. The purpose of ritual

11050-403: The lwa . Vodou also promotes a belief in destiny , although individuals are still deemed to have freedom of choice. This view of destiny has been interpreted as encouraging a fatalistic outlook, something that the religion's critics, especially from Christian backgrounds, have argued has discouraged Vodouists from improving their society. This has been extended into an argument that Vodou

11220-455: The nanm , or sometimes the espri , which is divided in two parts . One of these is the ti bonnanj ("little good angel"), understood as the conscience that allows an individual to engage in self-reflection and self-criticism. The other part is the gwo bonnanj ("big good angel") and this constitutes the psyche, source of memory, intelligence, and personhood. Both parts are believed to reside within an individual's head, although

11390-462: The ounfò places particular focus on a lwa whom they are devoted to, or that they are impressed by the oungan or manbo who runs the ounfò in question, perhaps having been treated by them. Vodou is hierarchical and includes a series of initiations. There are typically four levels of initiation, the fourth of which makes someone an oungan or manbo . There is much variation in what these initiation ceremonies entail, and

11560-431: The ounfò 's external boundary. Hanging from these trees can be found macounte straw sacks, strips of material, and animal skulls. Various animals, particularly birds but also some mammal species such as goats, are sometimes kept within the perimeter of the ounfò for use as sacrifices. Forming a spiritual community of practitioners, the ounfò 's congregation are known as the pititt-caye (children of

11730-400: The papa ("father") while the priestess becomes the manman ("mother") to the initiate; the initiate becomes their initiator's pitit (spiritual child). Those who share an initiator refer to themselves as "brother" and "sister." Individuals may join a particular ounfò because it exists in their locality or because their family are already members. Alternatively, it may be that

11900-610: The European Union . Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, and Catalan were the official languages of the defunct Latin Union ; and French and Spanish are two of the six official languages of the United Nations . Outside Europe, French , Portuguese and Spanish are spoken and enjoy official status in various countries that emerged from the respective colonial empires . With almost 500 million speakers worldwide, Spanish

12070-413: The Gede are a family of spirits that embody death and fertility. The most well-known of these spirits is Baron Samedi . Yama was introduced to Chinese mythology through Buddhism . In China, he is known as King Yan ( t   閻 王 , s   阎 王 , p   Yánwáng ) or Yanluo ( t   閻羅 王 , s   阎罗 王 , p   Yánluówáng ), ruling the ten gods of

12240-553: The Latin or Neo-Latin languages , are the languages that are directly descended from Vulgar Latin . They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family . The five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are: The Romance languages spread throughout the world owing to the period of European colonialism beginning in

12410-452: The Marasa or sacred twins. In Vodou, every nanchon has its own Marasa, reflecting a belief that twins have special powers. Another important lwa is Agwe , also known as Agwe-taroyo, who is associated with aquatic life and is the protector of ships and fishermen. Agwe is believed to rule the sea with his consort, La Sirène . She is a mermaid , and is sometimes described as Èzili of

12580-510: The Négritude movement have sought to remove Roman Catholic influences. Most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, seeing no contradiction in pursuing the two different systems simultaneously. Smaller Vodouist communities exist elsewhere, especially among Haitian diasporas in Cuba and the United States . Both in Haiti and abroad Vodou has spread beyond its Afro-Haitian origins and

12750-582: The Occitan varieties). Since the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, increased sensitivity to the rights of minorities has allowed some of these languages to start recovering their prestige and lost rights. Yet it is unclear whether these political changes will be enough to reverse the decline of minority Romance languages. Between 350 BC and 150 AD, the expansion of the Roman Empire , together with its administrative and educational policies, made Latin

12920-639: The Republic of Moldova , where it is the dominant language and spoken by a majority of the population, but neighboring areas in Serbia ( Vojvodina and the Bor District ), Bulgaria, Hungary, and Ukraine ( Bukovina , Budjak ) and in some villages between the Dniester and Bug rivers. As with Italian, Romanian is spoken outside of its ethnic range by immigrant communities. In Europe, Romanian-speakers form about two percent of

13090-559: The United States in recent years. Since the pre-Columbian era , Mexican culture has maintained a certain reverence towards death, as seen in the widespread commemoration of the Day of the Dead. La Calavera Catrina , a character symbolizing death, is also an icon of the Mexican Day of the Dead . San La Muerte (Saint Death) is a skeletal folk saint venerated in Paraguay , northeast Argentina . As

13260-417: The declension system of Latin and, as a result, have SVO sentence structure and make extensive use of prepositions . By most measures, Sardinian and Italian are the least divergent languages from Latin, while French has changed the most. However, all Romance languages are closer to each other than to classical Latin . Documentary evidence about Vulgar Latin for the purposes of comprehensive research

13430-495: The soul back to his home, called Naraka , pathalloka, or Yamaloka. There are many forms of reapers, although some say there is only one who disguises himself as a small child. His agents, the Yamadutas , carry souls back to Yamalok. There, all the accounts of a person's good and bad deeds are stored and maintained by Chitragupta . The balance of these deeds allows Yama to decide where the soul should reside in its next life, following

13600-683: The underworld Diyu . He is normally depicted wearing a Chinese judge's cap and traditional Chinese robes and appears on most forms of hell money offered in ancestor worship . From China, Yama spread to Japan as the Great King Enma ( 閻魔 大 王 , Enma-Dai-Ō ), ruler of Jigoku ( 地獄 ); Korea as the Great King Yeomra ( 염라 대왕 ), ruler of Jiok ( 지옥 ); and Vietnam as Diêm La Vương , ruler of Địa Ngục or Âm Phủ . Separately, in Korean mythology , death's principal figure

13770-477: The 15th century; there are more than 900 million native speakers of Romance languages found worldwide, mainly in the Americas , Europe , and parts of Africa . Portuguese, French and Spanish also have many non-native speakers and are in widespread use as lingua francas . There are also numerous regional Romance languages and dialects. All of the five most widely spoken Romance languages are also official languages of

13940-405: The 16th and 19th centuries. Of these, the greatest influences came from the Fon and Bakongo peoples. On the island, these African religions mixed with the iconography of European-derived traditions such as Roman Catholicism and Freemasonry , taking the form of Vodou around the mid-18th century. In combining varied influences, Vodou has often been described as syncretic , or a "symbiosis",

14110-407: The 20th century, Donald J. Cosentino argued that by that point, the use of Roman Catholic saints reflected the genuine devotional expression of many Vodouists. The scholar Marc A. Christophe concurred, stating that most modern Vodouists genuinely see the saints and lwa as one, reflecting Vodou's "all-inclusive and harmonizing characteristics". Many Vodouists possess chromolithographic prints of

14280-509: The Americas formed in a similar way, and owing to their shared origins in West African traditional religion, Vodou has been characterized as a "sister religion" of Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé . Vodou has no central institutional authority, no single leader, and no developed body of doctrine . It thus has no orthodoxy , no central liturgy, and no formal creed. Developing over

14450-475: The Angel of Death like a beast before the slaughterer" ( Grünhut , "Liḳḳuṭim", v. 102a). R. Samuel's father (c. 200) said: "The Angel of Death said to me, 'Only for the sake of the honor of mankind do I not tear off their necks as is done to slaughtered beasts'" ('Ab. Zarah 20b). In later representations, the knife sometimes replaces the sword, and reference is also made to the cord of the Angel of Death, which indicates death by throttling. Moses says to God: "I fear

14620-503: The Angel of Death may not touch him ( Midrash Tanhuma , ed. Buber, 139). God protects from the Angel of Death (Midrash Genesis Rabbah lxviii.). By acts of benevolence, the anger of the Angel of Death is overcome; when one fails to perform such acts the Angel of Death will make his appearance (Derek Ereẓ Zuṭa, viii.). The Angel of Death receives his orders from God (Ber. 62b). As soon as he has received permission to destroy, however, he makes no distinction between good and bad (B. Ḳ. 60a). In

14790-461: The Christian belief of Christ defeating death, many devotees consider the veneration of San La Muerte as being part of their Catholic faith . The rituals connected and powers ascribed to San La Muerte are very similar to those of Santa Muerte; the resemblance between their names, however, is coincidental. In Guatemala , San Pascualito is a skeletal folk saint venerated as "King of the Graveyard." He

14960-669: The European Union (with France, Italy, Portugal, Romania and Spain being part of it). The term Romance derives from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice , "in Roman ", derived from romanicus : for instance, in the expression romanice loqui , "to speak in Roman" (that is, the Latin vernacular ), contrasted with latine loqui , "to speak in Latin" (Medieval Latin, the conservative version of

15130-476: The Ginen, or ancestral spirits, while the ti bonnanj proceeds to face judgement before Bondye. This idea of judgement is more common in urban areas, having been influenced by Roman Catholicism, while in the Haitian mountains it is more common for Vodouists to believe that the ti bonnanj dissolves into the navel of the earth nine days after death. The land of the Ginen is often identified as being located beneath

15300-401: The Grim Reaper with a scythe and black robe. Today, Ingmar Bergman 's 1957 film The Seventh Seal features one of the world's most famous representations of this personification of Death. In Poland , Death – Śmierć or kostuch – has an appearance similar to the Grim Reaper, although its robe was traditionally white instead of black. Because the word śmierć is feminine in gender, death

15470-602: The Lord " smites 185,000 men in the Assyrian camp (II Kings 19:35). When the Angel of Death passes through to smite the Egyptian first-born , God prevents "the destroyer" ( shâchath ) from entering houses with blood on the lintel and side posts ( Exodus 12:23). The "destroying angel" ( mal'ak ha-mashḥit ) rages among the people in Jerusalem (II Sam. 24:16). In I Chronicles 21:15 the "angel of

15640-400: The Lord" is seen by King David standing "between the earth and the heaven , having a drawn sword in his hand stretched out over Jerusalem ." The biblical Book of Job (33:22) uses the general term "destroyers" ( memitim ), which tradition has identified with "destroying angels" ( mal'ake Khabbalah ), and Prov. 16:14 uses the term the "angels of death" ( mal'ake ha-mavet ). The angel Azra'il

15810-599: The Rada are generally righteous, their Petwo counterparts are more morally ambiguous and associated with issues like money. The Rada owe more to Dahomeyan and Yoruba influences; their name probably comes from Arada , a city in the Dahomey kingdom of West Africa. The Petwo derive largely from Kongo religion, although also exhibit Dahomeyan and creolised influences. Some lwa exist andezo or en deux eaux , meaning that they are "in two waters" and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals. Vodou teaches that there are over

15980-688: The Romanian and Italian languages, as well as their common Latin origin. The total of 880 million native speakers of Romance languages (ca. 2020) are divided as follows: Catalan is the official language of Andorra . In Spain, it is co-official with Spanish in Catalonia , the Valencian Community (under the name Valencian ), and the Balearic Islands , and it is recognized, but not official, in an area of Aragon known as La Franja . In addition, it

16150-645: The United States with modern Paganism . Vodou has also absorbed elements from other contexts; in Cuba, some Vodouists have adopted elements from Spiritism . Influenced by the Négritude movement, other Vodouists have sought to remove Roman Catholic and other European influences from their practice of Vodou. In English , Vodou's practitioners are termed Vodouists ; in French and Haitian Creole , they are called Vodouisants or Vodouyizan . Another term for adherents

16320-470: The Waters because she is believed to bring good luck and wealth from the sea. Also given the name Èzili is Èzili Freda or Erzuli Freda, the lwa of love and luxury who personifies feminine beauty and grace, and Ezili Dantor , who takes the form of a peasant woman. Azaka is the lwa of crops and agriculture, usually addressed as "Papa" or "Cousin". His consort is the female lwa Kouzinn. Loco

16490-460: The West African kingdom of Dahomey to signify a spirit or deity. In Haitian Creole, Vodou came to designate a specific style of dance and drumming, before outsiders to the religion adopted it as a generic term for much Afro-Haitian religion. The word Vodou now encompasses "a variety of Haiti's African-derived religious traditions and practices", incorporating "a bundle of practices that practitioners themselves do not aggregate". Vodou

16660-568: The Wild Hunt to collect wayward souls and escort them to the Otherworld, sometimes it is Maleagant , Arawn or Afallach in a similar position. In Greek mythology , Thanatos , the personification of death, is one of the offspring of Nyx (Night). Like her, he is seldom portrayed directly. He sometimes appears in art as a winged and bearded man, and occasionally as a winged and beardless youth. When he appears together with his twin brother, Hypnos ,

16830-540: The adoption of Latin. To some scholars, this suggests the form of Vulgar Latin that evolved into the Romance languages was around during the time of the Roman Empire (from the end of the first century BC), and was spoken alongside the written Classical Latin which was reserved for official and formal occasions. Other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language. With

17000-449: The ancient festivals of the dead, which evolved from Aztec traditions into the modern Day of the Dead after synthesis with Spanish cultural traditions. Mictlāntēcutli, is the Aztec god of the dead and the king of Mictlan , depicted as a skeleton or a person wearing a toothy skull. He is one of the principal gods of the Aztecs and is the most prominent of several gods and goddesses of death and

17170-606: The angel called upon him at his house. To another, he granted a respite of thirty days, that he might put his knowledge in order before entering the next world. To a third, he had no access, because he could not interrupt the study of the Talmud. To a fourth, he showed a rod of fire, whereby he is recognized as the Angel of Death (M. K. 28a). He often entered the house of Bibi and conversed with him (Ḥag. 4b). Often, he resorts to strategy in order to interrupt and seize his victim (B. M. 86a; Mak. 10a). The death of Joshua ben Levi in particular

17340-407: The child of a particular lwa , their mèt tèt . This is followed by a period of seclusion within the djèvo known as the kouche . A deliberately uncomfortable experience, it involves the initiate sleeping on a mat on the floor, often with a stone for a pillow. They wear a white tunic, and a specific salt-free diet is followed. It includes a lav tèt ("head washing") to prepare

17510-705: The city of Luz, the Angel of Death has no power, and, when the aged inhabitants are ready to die, they go outside the city (Soṭah 46b; compare Sanh. 97a). A legend to the same effect existed in Ireland in the Middle Ages ( Jew. Quart. Rev. vi. 336). Death is one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse portrayed in the Book of Revelation , in Revelation 6:7–8 . And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him

17680-462: The community and appears as a tall, haggard figure with a wide hat and long white hair or a skeleton with a revolving head. The Ankou drives a deathly wagon or cart with a creaking axle. The cart or wagon is piled high with corpses and a stop at a cabin means instant death for those inside. Irish mythology features a similar creature known as a dullahan , whose head would be tucked under their arm (dullahans were not one, but an entire species). The head

17850-447: The cord of the Angel of Death" (Grünhut, l.c. v. 103a et seq.). Of the four Jewish methods of execution, three are named in connection with the Angel of Death: Burning (by pouring hot lead down the victim's throat), slaughtering (by beheading), and throttling. The Angel of Death administers the particular punishment that God has ordained for the commission of sin. A peculiar mantle ("idra" – according to Levy, "Neuhebr. Wörterb." i. 32,

18020-771: The course of several centuries, it has changed over time. It displays variation at both the regional and local level —including variation between Haiti and the Haitian diaspora —as well as among different congregations. It is practiced domestically, by families on their land, but also by congregations meeting communally, with the latter termed "temple Vodou". In Haitian culture, religions are not generally deemed totally autonomous. Many Haitians thus practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, with Vodouists usually regarding themselves as Roman Catholics. In Haiti, Vodouists have also practiced Protestantism , Mormonism , or Freemasonry; in Cuba they have involved themselves in Santería, and in

18190-462: The criterion of mutual intelligibility can become ambiguous when it comes to determining whether two language varieties belong to the same language or not. The following is a list of groupings of Romance languages, with some languages chosen to exemplify each grouping. Not all languages are listed, and the groupings should not be interpreted as well-separated genetic clades in a tree model . The Romance language most widely spoken natively today

18360-524: The dead, include fruit, liquor, and sacrificed animals . Several forms of divination are utilized to decipher messages from the lwa . Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play a prominent role. Vodou developed among Afro-Haitian communities amid the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. Its structure arose from the blending of the traditional religions of those enslaved West and Central Africans brought to

18530-580: The destruction of those whom the guardian angels no longer protected. While there may be some debate among religious scholars regarding the exact nature of the memitim, it is generally accepted that, as described in the Book of Job 33:22, they are killers of some sort. According to the Midrash , the Angel of Death was created by God on the first day. His dwelling is in heaven , whence he reaches earth in eight flights, whereas Pestilence reaches it in one. He has twelve wings. "Over all people have I surrendered thee

18700-409: The details are kept secret. Each initiatory stage is associated with a state of mind called a konesan ( conaissance or knowledge). Successive initiations are required to move through the various konesans , and it is in these konesans that priestly power is believed to reside. The first initiation rite is the kanzo ; this term also describes the initiate themselves. Initiation

18870-406: The details of which are kept secret from non-initiates. Other oungan and manbo do not undergo any apprenticeship, but claim that they have gained their training directly from the lwa . Their authenticity is often challenged, and they are referred to as hungan-macoutte , a term bearing some disparaging connotations. Becoming an oungan or manbo is expensive, often requiring

19040-464: The dominant native language in continental Western Europe. Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain , the Roman province of Africa , western Germany , Pannonia and the whole Balkans . During the Empire's decline, and after its fragmentation and the collapse of its Western half in the fifth and sixth centuries, the spoken varieties of Latin became more isolated from each other, with

19210-409: The drop into it. This drop causes his death; he turns putrid, and his face becomes yellow. The expression "the taste of death" originated in the idea that death was caused by a drop of gall. The soul escapes through the mouth, or, as is stated in another place, through the throat; therefore, the Angel of Death stands at the head of the patient ( Adolf Jellinek , l.c. ii. 94, Midr. Teh. to Ps. xi.). When

19380-615: The eighth and ninth centuries Latin gave way to Romance. During the political decline of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, there were large-scale migrations into the empire, and the Latin-speaking world was fragmented into several independent states. Central Europe and the Balkans were occupied by Germanic and Slavic tribes, as well as by Huns . Haitian Vodou Haitian Vodou ( / ˈ v oʊ d uː / )

19550-482: The end of his garment. Joshua swore that he would not come out, and God declared that he should not leave paradise unless he had ever absolved himself of an oath; he had never absolved himself of an oath so he was allowed to remain. The Angel of Death then demanded back his knife, but Joshua refused. At this point, a heavenly voice ( bat ḳol ) rang out: "Give him back the knife, because the children of men have need of it will bring death." Hesitant, Joshua Ben Levi gives back

19720-557: The end of the colonial domination. As a result, Italian outside Italy and Switzerland is now spoken only as a minority language by immigrant communities in North and South America and Australia . In some former Italian colonies in Africa—namely Libya , Eritrea and Somalia —it is spoken by a few educated people in commerce and government. Romania did not establish a colonial empire. The native range of Romanian includes not only

19890-533: The existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Bondye , under whom are spirits known as lwa . Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional West and Central African deities, they are equated with Roman Catholic saints. The lwa divide into different groups, the nanchon ("nations"), most notably the Rada and the Petwo , about whom various myths and stories are told. This theology has been labelled both monotheistic and polytheistic . An initiatory tradition, Vodouists commonly venerate

20060-481: The fame and reputation of individual priests and priestesses can vary widely. Respected Vodou priests and priestesses are often literate in a society where semi-literacy and illiteracy are common. They can recite from printed texts and write letters for illiterate members of their community. Owing to their prominence in a community, the oungan and manbo can effectively become political leaders, or otherwise exert an influence on local politics. A Vodou temple

20230-478: The floor of the peristil using cornmeal, ash, coffee grounds, or powdered eggshells; these are central to Vodou ritual. Usually arranged symmetrically around the poto-mitan , these designs sometimes incorporate letters; their purpose is to summon lwa . Inside the peristil , practitioners also unfurl ceremonial flags known as drapo (flags) at the start of a ceremony. Often made of silk or velvet and decorated with shiny objects such as sequins,

20400-472: The god of sleep, Thanatos generally represents a gentle death. Thanatos, led by Hermes psychopompos , takes the shade of the deceased to the near shore of the river Styx , whence the ferryman Charon , on payment of a small fee , conveys the shade to Hades , the realm of the dead. Homer's Iliad 16.681, and the Euphronios Krater 's depiction of the same episode, have Apollo instruct the removal of

20570-521: The goddess of death and ruler over the realm of the same name, where she received a portion of the dead. In the times of the Black Plague , Death would often be depicted as an old woman known by the name of Pesta, meaning "plague hag", wearing a black hood. She would go into a town carrying either a rake or a broom. If she brought the rake, some people would survive the plague; if she brought the broom, however, everyone would die. Scandinavians later adopted

20740-460: The heroic, semi-divine Sarpedon 's body from the battlefield by Hypnos and Thanatos, and conveyed thence to his homeland for proper funeral rites. Among the other children of Nyx are Thanatos' sisters, the Keres , blood-drinking, vengeful spirits of violent or untimely death, portrayed as fanged and taloned, with bloody garments. In Scandinavia , Norse mythology personified death in the shape of Hel ,

20910-420: The house). They worship under the authority of an oungan or manbo , below whom is ranked the ounsi , individuals who make a lifetime commitment to serving the lwa . Members of either sex can join the ounsi , although most are female. The ounsi 's duties include cleaning the peristil , sacrificing animals, and taking part in the dances at which they must be prepared to be possessed by

21080-474: The initiate for having the lwa enter and reside in their head. Voudoists believe that one of the two parts of the human soul, the gwo bonnanj , is removed from the initiate's head, thus making space for the lwa to enter and reside there. The initiation ceremony requires the preparation of pot tèts (head pots), usually white porcelain cups with a lid in which a range of items are placed, including hair, food, herbs, and oils. These are regarded as

21250-407: The initiation rite is known as the kouche or huño , and is marked by salutations and offerings to the lwa . It begins with the chire ayizan , a ceremony in which palm leaves are frayed and then worn by the initiate. Sometimes the bat ge or batter guerre ("beating war") is performed instead, designed to beat away the old. During the rite, the initiate comes to be regarded as

21420-482: The island of Hispaniola , among them Kongo , Fon , and Yoruba . There, it absorbed influences from the culture of the French colonialists who controlled the colony of Saint-Domingue , most notably Roman Catholicism but also Freemasonry . Many Vodouists were involved in the Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1801 which overthrew the French colonial government, abolished slavery, and transformed Saint-Domingue into

21590-502: The knife in exchange for the Angel of Death's name. To never forget the name, he carved Troke into his arm, the Angel of Death's chosen name. When the knife was returned to the Angel, Joshua's carving of the name faded, and he forgot. (Ket. 77b; Jellinek, l.c. ii. 48–51; Bacher, l.c. i. 192 et seq.). The Rabbis found the Angel of Death mentioned in Psalm 89:48, where the Targum translates: "There

21760-578: The language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca), and with barbarice loqui , "to speak in Barbarian " (the non-Latin languages of the peoples living outside the Roman Empire). From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice , or "in the Roman vernacular". Most of the Romance-speaking area in Europe has traditionally been

21930-474: The late 1800s, the character of Death became known as the Grim Reaper in English literature. The earliest appearance of the name "Grim Reaper" in English is in the 1847 book The Circle of Human Life : All know full well that life cannot last above seventy, or at the most eighty years. If we reach that term without meeting the grim reaper with his scythe, there or there about, meet him we surely shall. The " Angel of

22100-409: The late Middle Ages. "Hein" was a Middle Dutch name originating as a short form of Heinric (see Henry (given name) ). Its use was possibly related to the comparable German concept of "Freund Hein." Notably, many of the names given to Death can also refer to the Devil; it is likely that fear of death led to Hein's character being merged with that of Satan . In Belgium, this personification of Death

22270-576: The latter case through their strength of personality or power. Vodouists often refer to the lwa living in the sea or in rivers, or alternatively in Ginen, a term encompassing a generalized understanding of Africa as the ancestral land of the Haitian people. The lwa divide into nanchon or "nations". This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved Africans were divided into "nations" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity. The term fanmi (family)

22440-471: The list with the names of the dead written on a red cloth. When he calls the name of Jeokpaeji three times, the soul leaves the body and follows him inevitably. The Kojiki relates that the Japanese goddess Izanami was burnt to death giving birth to the fire god Hinokagutsuchi . She then entered a realm of perpetual night called Yomi-no-Kuni . Her husband Izanagi pursued her there but discovered his wife

22610-434: The liturgical singing and shaking the chacha rattle which dictates the rhythm during ceremonies. They are aided by the hungenikon-la-place , commandant general de la place , or quartermaster , who is charged with overseeing offerings and keeping order during the rites. Another figure is le confiance (the confidant), the ounsi who oversees the ounfò 's administrative functions. Congregants often form

22780-410: The living. Vodou ethical standards correspond to its sense of cosmological order, with a belief in the interdependence of things playing a role in Vodou approaches to ethical issues. Serving the lwa is central to Vodou and its moral codes reflect the reciprocal relationship that practitioners have with these spirits; for Vodouists, virtue is maintained by ensuring a responsible relationship with

22950-420: The mid-19th century, chromolithography has also had an impact on Vodou imagery, facilitating the widespread availability of images of the Roman Catholic saints who are equated with the lwa . Various Vodouists have made use of varied available materials in constructing their shrines. Cosentino encountered a shrine in Port-au-Prince where Baron Samedi was represented by a plastic statue of Santa Claus wearing

23120-466: The mid-20th century. The terminology used in Vodou ritual is called langaj . Unlike in Santería and Candomblé, which employ Yoruba as a liturgical language not understood by most practitioners, in Vodou the liturgies are predominantly in Haitian Creole, the everyday language of most Vodouists. Male priests are referred to as an oungan , alternatively spelled houngan or hungan , or

23290-534: The most native speakers of any Romance language. In Africa it is one of the official languages of Equatorial Guinea . Spanish was one of the official languages in the Philippines in Southeast Asia until 1973. In the 1987 constitution, Spanish was removed as an official language (replaced by English), and was listed as an optional/voluntary language along with Arabic. It is currently spoken by a minority and taught in

23460-452: The name Mot and a version of Mot later became Maweth, the devil or angel of death in Judaism. Latvians named Death Veļu māte , but for Lithuanians it was Giltinė , deriving from the word gelti ("to sting"). Giltinė was viewed as an old, ugly woman with a long blue nose and a deadly venomous tongue. The legend tells that Giltinė was young, pretty, and communicative until she was trapped in

23630-566: The official languages and government services in French theoretically mandated to be provided nationwide. In parts of the Caribbean, such as Haiti , French has official status, but most people speak creoles such as Haitian Creole as their native language. French also has official status in much of Africa, with relatively few native speakers but larger numbers of second language speakers. Although Italy also had some colonial possessions before World War II , its language did not remain official after

23800-584: The other continents to such an extent that about two-thirds of all Romance language speakers today live outside Europe. Despite other influences (e.g. substratum from pre-Roman languages, especially Continental Celtic languages ; and superstratum from later Germanic or Slavic invasions), the phonology , morphology , and lexicon of all Romance languages consist mainly of evolved forms of Vulgar Latin. However, some notable differences exist between today's Romance languages and their Roman ancestor. With only one or two exceptions, Romance languages have lost

23970-682: The phallus, the skull, and the graveyard cross, the latter used to mark out his presence in a Haitian cemetery. His consort is Gran Brigit, who has authority over cemeteries and is mother to many of the other Gede. The Gede regularly satirise the ruling authorities, and are welcomed to rituals as they are thought to bring merriment. The Gede's symbol is an erect penis, while the banda dance associated with them involves sexual-style thrusting, and those possessed by these lwa typically make sexual innuendos. Most lwa are associated with specific Roman Catholic saints. These links are reliant on "analogies between their respective functions"; Azaka,

24140-526: The phrase si Bondye vle ("if Bondye wishes"), suggesting a belief that all things occur in accordance with this divinity's will. Vodouists regard Bondye as being transcendent and remote; as the God is uninvolved in human affairs, they see little point in approaching it directly. While Vodouists often equate Bondye with the Christian God , Vodou does not incorporate belief in a powerful antagonist that opposes

24310-418: The pillar through which the lwa enter the room during ceremonies. It is around this central post that offerings, including both vèvè patterns and animal sacrifices, are made. However, in the Haitian diaspora many Vodouists perform their rites in basements, where no poto mitan are available. The peristil typically has an earthen floor, allowing libations to the lwa to drain directly into

24480-584: The population in Italy , Spain , and Portugal . Romanian is also spoken in Israel by Romanian Jews, where it is the native language of five percent of the population, and is spoken by many more as a secondary language. The Aromanian language is spoken today by Aromanians in Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, and Greece. Flavio Biondo was the first scholar to have observed (in 1435) linguistic affinities between

24650-473: The power," said God to the Angel of Death, "only not over this one [i.e. Moses ] which has received freedom from death through the Law." It is said of the Angel of Death that he is full of eyes. In the hour of death, he stands at the head of the departing one with a drawn sword, to which clings a drop of gall . As soon as the dying man sees Death, he is seized with a convulsion and opens his mouth, whereupon Death throws

24820-407: The purchase of ritual paraphernalia and land on which to build a temple. To finance this, many save up for a long time. Vodouists believe that the oungan 's role is modelled on the lwa Loco; in Vodou mythology, he was the first oungan and his consort Ayizan the first manbo . The oungan and manbo are expected to display the power of second sight , something regarded as

24990-400: The religion's priests and priestesses are deemed to have "the gift of eyes", capable of seeing the identity of a person's tutelary lwa . Vodou holds that Bondye has preordained the time of everyone's death, but does not teach the existence of an afterlife realm akin to the Christian ideas of heaven and hell . Instead, a common belief is that at bodily death, the gwo bonnanj join

25160-520: The republic of Haiti. The Roman Catholic Church left for several decades following the Revolution, allowing Vodou to become Haiti's dominant religion. In the 20th century, growing emigration spread Vodou abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Vodou and related traditions in West Africa and the Americas, such as Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé , while some practitioners influenced by

25330-428: The resources and tastes of the oungan or manbo running them. Each ounfò is autonomous, and often has its own unique customs. The main ceremonial room in the ounfò is the peristil , understood as a microcosmic representation of the cosmos . In the peristil , brightly painted posts hold up the roof; the central post is the poto mitan , which is used as a pivot during ritual dances and

25500-568: The result of internal migration in Argentina since the 1960s, the veneration of San La Muerte has been extended to Greater Buenos Aires and the national prison system as well. Saint Death is depicted as a male skeleton figure usually holding a scythe . Although the Catholic Church in Mexico has attacked the devotion of Saint Death as a tradition that mixes paganism with Christianity and is contrary to

25670-549: The rise of the Roman Empire, spoken Latin spread first throughout Italy and then through southern , western , central , and southeastern Europe , and northern Africa along parts of western Asia . Latin reached a stage when innovations became generalised around the sixth and seventh centuries. After that time and within two hundred years, it became a dead language since "the Romanized people of Europe could no longer understand texts that were read aloud or recited to them." By

25840-404: The saints, while images of these Christian figures can also be found on temple walls, and on the drapo flags used in Vodou ritual. Vodouists also often adopt and reinterpret biblical stories and theorise about the nature of Jesus of Nazareth . Vodou holds that Bondye created humanity in its image, fashioning humans from water and clay. It teaches the existence of a soul, usually called

26010-434: The school curriculum. Portuguese, in its original homeland, Portugal , is spoken by almost the entire population of 10 million. As the official language of Brazil , it is spoken by more than 200 million people, as well as in neighboring parts of eastern Paraguay and northern Uruguay . This accounts for slightly more than half the population of South America, making Portuguese the most spoken official Romance language in

26180-500: The sea, under the earth, or above the sky. Some Vodouists believe that the gwo bonnanj stays in the land of the Ginen for a year and a day before being absorbed into the Gede family. However, Vodouists usually distinguish the spirits of the dead from the Gede proper, for the latter are lwa . Vodou also teaches that the dead continue to participate in human affairs, with these spirits often complaining that they suffer from hunger, cold, and damp, and thus requiring sacrifices from

26350-399: The sick, supplemented with payments received for overseeing initiations and selling talismans and amulets. In many cases, oungan and manbo become wealthier than their clients. Oungan and manbo are generally powerful and well-respected members of Haitian society. Being an oungan or manbo provides an individual with both social status and material profit, although

26520-401: The sick. There is no priestly hierarchy, with oungan and manbo being largely self-sufficient. In many cases, the role is hereditary. Historical evidence suggests that the role of the oungan and manbo intensified over the course of the 20th century. As a result, "temple Vodou" is now more common in rural areas of Haiti than it was in historical periods. Vodou teaches that

26690-403: The soil; where this is not possible, libations are poured into an enamel basin. Some peristil include seating around the walls. Adjacent rooms in the ounfò include the caye-mystéres , also known as the bagi , badji , or sobadji . This is where stonework altars, known as pè , stand against the wall or are arranged in tiers. Also present may be a sink dedicated to

26860-462: The soul forsakes the body, its voice goes from one end of the world to the other, but is not heard (Gen. R. vi. 7; Ex. R. v. 9; Pirḳe R. El. xxxiv.). The drawn sword of the Angel of Death, mentioned by the Chronicler (I. Chron. 21:15; comp. Job 15:22; Enoch 62:11), indicates that the Angel of Death was figured as a warrior who kills off the children of men. "Man, on the day of his death, falls down before

27030-402: The spellings Vodoun , Voudoun , or Vodun , while in French the spellings vaudou or vaudoux also appear. The spelling Voodoo , once common, is now generally avoided by practitioners and scholars when referring to the Haitian religion. This is both to avoid confusion with Louisiana Voodoo , a related but distinct tradition, and to distinguish it from the negative connotations that

27200-512: The spirits of the dead. In rural Haiti, cemeteries are often family owned and play a key role in family rituals. Crossroads are also ritual locations, selected as they are believed to be points of access to the spirit world. Other spaces used for Vodou rituals include Christian churches, rivers, the sea, fields, and markets. Certain trees are regarded as having spirits resident in them and are used as natural altars. Different species of tree are associated with different lwa ; Oyu, for example,

27370-459: The supreme being akin to the Christian notion of Satan . Vodou has also been characterized as polytheistic . It teaches the existence of beings called the lwa , a term varyingly translated into English as "spirits", "gods", or " geniuses ". These lwa are also known as the mystères , anges , saints , and les invisibles , and are sometimes equated with the angels of Christian cosmology. Vodou teaches that there are over

27540-552: The term Voodoo has in Western popular culture . Vodou is monotheistic , teaching the existence of a single supreme God. This entity is called Bondye or Bonié, a name deriving from the French term Bon Dieu ("Good God"). Another term for it is the Gran Mèt , borrowed from Freemasonry. For Vodouists, Bondye is the ultimate source of power, the creator of the universe, and the maintainer of cosmic order. Haitians frequently use

27710-665: The theory of reincarnation . Yama is also mentioned in the Mahabharata as a great philosopher and devotee of the Supreme Brahman . The Canaanites of the 12th- and 13th-century BC Levant personified death as the god Mot ( lit.  "Death"). He was considered a son of the king of the gods , El . His contest with the storm god Baʿal forms part of the Ba'al Cycle from the Ugaritic texts . The Phoenicians also worshipped death under

27880-599: The town, walk not on the edges of the road. When pestilence rages in the town, go not alone to the synagogue, because there the Angel of Death stores his tools. If the dogs howl, the Angel of Death has entered the city; if they make sport, the prophet Elijah has come" (B. Ḳ. 60b). The "destroyer" ( saṭan ha-mashḥit ) in the daily prayer is the Angel of Death (Ber. 16b). Midr. Ma'ase Torah (compare Jellinek, "B. H." ii. 98) says: "There are six Angels of Death: Gabriel over kings; Ḳapẓiel over youths; Mashbir over animals; Mashḥit over children; Af and Ḥemah over man and beast." Samael

28050-400: The underworld. His headdress was shown decorated with owl feathers and paper banners and he wore a necklace of human eyeballs, while his earspools were made from human bones. He was not the only Aztec god to be depicted in this fashion, as numerous other deities had skulls for heads or else wore clothing or decorations that incorporated bones and skulls. In the Aztec world, skeletal imagery was

28220-465: The western dialects coming under heavy Germanic influence (the Goths and Franks in particular) and the eastern dialects coming under Slavic influence. The dialects diverged from Latin at an accelerated rate and eventually evolved into a continuum of recognizably different typologies. The colonial empires established by Portugal , Spain , and France from the fifteenth century onward spread their languages to

28390-899: Was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth. He is also known as the Pale Horseman whose name is Thanatos , the same as that of the ancient Greek personification of death, and the only one of the horsemen to be named. Romance languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Romance languages , also known as

28560-428: Was made from a spine; or they would toss a basin of blood on the person, which was a sign that the person was next to die. Gaelic lore also involves a female spirit known as Banshee (Modern Irish Gaelic: bean sí pron. banshee, literally fairy woman ), who heralds the death of a person by shrieking or keening. The banshee is often described as wearing red or green, usually with long, disheveled hair. She can appear in

28730-462: Was no longer as beautiful as before. After an argument, she promised she would take a thousand lives every day, becoming a goddess of death, as well as giving birth to the gods, Raijin and Fūjin , while dead. There are also death gods called shinigami (死神), which are closer to the Western tradition of the Grim Reaper; while common in modern Japanese arts and fiction, they were essentially absent in traditional mythology. The Sanskrit word for death

28900-425: Was said to have large eyes and a smile that could reach the head's ears. The dullahan would ride a black horse or a carriage pulled by black horses, and stop at the house of someone about to die, and call their name, and immediately the person would die. The dullahan did not like being watched, and it was believed that if a dullahan knew someone was watching them, they would lash that person's eyes with their whip, which

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