A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade ), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile ) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade ) or a grenade launcher . A modern hand grenade generally consists of an explosive charge ("filler"), a detonator mechanism, an internal striker to trigger the detonator, an arming safety secured by a transport safety. The user removes the transport safety before throwing, and once the grenade leaves the hand the arming safety gets released, allowing the striker to trigger a primer that ignites a fuze (sometimes called the delay element), which burns down to the detonator and explodes the main charge.
101-464: Grenades work by dispersing fragments (fragmentation grenades), shockwaves ( high-explosive , anti-tank and stun grenades ), chemical aerosols ( smoke , gas and chemical grenades ) or fire ( incendiary grenades ). Their outer casings, generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, are designed to rupture and fragment on detonation, sending out numerous fragments ( shards and splinters ) as fast-flying projectiles. In modern grenades,
202-466: A drag force on supersonic objects ; shock waves are strongly irreversible processes . Shock waves can be: Some other terms: The abruptness of change in the features of the medium, that characterize shock waves, can be viewed as a phase transition : the pressure–time diagram of a supersonic object propagating shows how the transition induced by a shock wave is analogous to a dynamic phase transition . When an object (or disturbance) moves faster than
303-486: A supersonic jet's flyby (directly underneath the meteor's path) and as a detonation wave , with the circular shock wave centred at the meteor explosion, causing multiple instances of broken glass in the city of Chelyabinsk and neighbouring areas (pictured). In the examples below, the shock wave is controlled, produced by (ex. airfoil) or in the interior of a technological device, like a turbine . The wave disk engine (also named "Radial Internal Combustion Wave Rotor")
404-912: A concern related to scramjet engine performance, (2) providing lift for wave-rider configuration, as the oblique shock wave at lower surface of the vehicle can produce high pressure to generate lift, (3) leading to wave drag of high-speed vehicle which is harmful to vehicle performance, (4) inducing severe pressure load and heat flux, e.g. the Type IV shock–shock interference could yield a 17 times heating increase at vehicle surface, (5) interacting with other structures, such as boundary layers, to produce new flow structures such as flow separation, transition, etc. Nikonov, V. A Semi-Lagrangian Godunov-Type Method without Numerical Viscosity for Shocks. Fluids 2022, 7, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7010016 Ingolstadt Ingolstadt ( German: [ˈɪŋɡɔlˌʃtat] ; Austro-Bavarian : [ˈɪŋl̩ʃtɔːd] )
505-405: A distinctive deeply notched surface. This segmentation is often erroneously thought to aid fragmentation , though Mills' own notes show the external grooves were purely to aid the soldier to grip the weapon. Improved fragmentation designs were later made with the notches on the inside, but at that time they would have been too expensive to produce. The external segmentation of the original Mills bomb
606-581: A five-second fuze with a match-tip that was ignited by striking on a ring on the soldier's hand. William Mills , a hand grenade designer from Sunderland , patented, developed and manufactured the " Mills bomb " at the Mills Munition Factory in Birmingham , England in 1915, designating it the No.5. It was described as the first "safe grenade". They were explosive-filled steel canisters with a triggering pin and
707-402: A gas results in different temperatures and densities for a given pressure ratio which can be analytically calculated for a non-reacting gas. A shock wave compression results in a loss of total pressure, meaning that it is a less efficient method of compressing gases for some purposes, for instance in the intake of a scramjet . The appearance of pressure-drag on supersonic aircraft is mostly due to
808-640: A good view of the site of the former fortifications, including a well-preserved section of the ditch. Spanning about 50 acres (20 ha) of the Glacis is Klenzepark , the biggest park in the city. It contained the former Ingolstadt State Fortress and was the site of the Landesgartenschau in 1992. Klenzepark is south of the Danube river, opposite the Ingolstadt old town. In the warm seasons, about 100,000 visitors use
909-528: A grenade which could operate in either fragmentation or blast mode (selected at any time before throwing), the electronically fuzed enhanced tactical multi-purpose ( ET-MP ) hand grenade. During the Great War, handgrenades were frequently used by troops, lacking other means to defend against enemy tanks threatening to over-run the position, to various success. The Interwar period saw some limited development of grenades specifically intended to defeat armour, but it
1010-404: A hand grenade, the objective is to have the grenade explode so that the target is within its effective radius while keeping the thrower out of the same. For this reason, several systems has been used to trigger the explosion. Impact was the first used, with fragile containers of Greek fire that ruptured when landing. Later impact fuzes contained some kind of sensitive explosive to either initiate
1111-469: A handle and known as " stick grenades ". The stick design provides leverage for throwing longer distances, but at the cost of additional weight and length, and has been considered obsolete by western countries since the Second World War and Cold War periods. A friction igniter inside the handle or on the top of the grenade head was used to initiate the fuse. The word grenade is likely derived from
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#17328440290521212-501: A loud popping noise and a puff of smoke on detonation. The grenade body can be reused. Another type is the throwing practice grenade which is completely inert and often cast in one piece. It is used to give soldiers a feel for the weight and shape of real grenades and for practicing precision throwing. Examples of practice grenades include the K417 Biodegradable Practice Hand Grenade by CNOTech Korea. When using
1313-586: A museum for medical history. Marieluise Fleißer set her play Pioneers in Ingolstadt (1928) in the city. In 1945, the car manufacturer Auto Union first arrived in the city. The company's original factories in Chemnitz and Zwickau (both then in Soviet-controlled East Germany ) were shattered during the war , and were seized by the Soviets as reparations . Auto Union executives initially started
1414-474: A nonlinear wave into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud" or "thump" of a sonic boom , commonly created by the supersonic flight of aircraft. The shock wave is one of several different ways in which a gas in a supersonic flow can be compressed. Some other methods are isentropic compressions, including Prandtl –Meyer compressions. The method of compression of
1515-443: A number of examples of shock waves, broadly grouped with similar shock phenomena: Shock waves can also occur in rapid flows of dense granular materials down inclined channels or slopes. Strong shocks in rapid dense granular flows can be studied theoretically and analyzed to compare with experimental data. Consider a configuration in which the rapidly moving material down the chute impinges on an obstruction wall erected perpendicular at
1616-406: A pre-formed fragmentation matrix inside the grenade is commonly used, which may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most anti-personnel (AP) grenades are designed to detonate either after a time delay or on impact. Grenades are often spherical, cylindrical, ovoid or truncated ovoid in shape, and of a size that fits the hand of an average-sized adult. Some grenades are mounted at the end of
1717-454: A shock wave can be very intense, more like an explosion when heard at a distance (not coincidentally, since explosions create shock waves). Analogous phenomena are known outside fluid mechanics. For example, charged particles accelerated beyond the speed of light in a refractive medium (such as water, where the speed of light is less than that in a vacuum ) create visible shock effects, a phenomenon known as Cherenkov radiation . Below are
1818-496: A shock wave, an object in a given medium (such as air or water) must travel faster than the local speed of sound. In the case of an aircraft travelling at high subsonic speed, regions of air around the aircraft may be travelling at exactly the speed of sound, so that the sound waves leaving the aircraft pile up on one another, similar to a traffic jam on a motorway. When a shock wave forms, the local air pressure increases and then spreads out sideways. Because of this amplification effect,
1919-410: A spare parts operation in Ingolstadt in the immediate post-war period, with a view to relocating the entire company to the region. With the help of Marshall Plan aid, Auto Union was formally re-founded in Ingolstadt in 1949, ultimately evolving into the modern-era Audi company , after it was taken over by Volkswagen in 1964. Today, Audi is the region's largest employer and now dominates the economy of
2020-446: A spring-loaded striker hit the cap after the grenade is released like the Mills bomb with the latter being predominant since WWII. There is also an alternative technique of throwing, where the grenade is not thrown immediately after the fuze is ignited, which allows the fuze to burn partially and decrease the time to detonation after throwing; this is referred to as "cooking". A shorter delay
2121-609: A student at Oxford he wrote to his friend Thomas Jefferson Hogg: “I burn with impatience for the moment of Xtianity’s dissolution ” and signed off with the Illuminati's catchphrase “Ecrasez l’imfame”. The musical version of the novel, Frankenstein – A New Musical has many scenes set in Ingolstadt. Ingolstadt is also a pivotal location in The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson . The sixth scene of " Mother Courage and Her Children " by " Bertolt Brecht "
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#17328440290522222-481: A time delay or on impact. Modern fragmentation grenades, such as the United States M67 grenade , have a wounding radius of 15 m (49 ft) – half that of older style grenades, which can still be encountered – and can be thrown about 40 m (130 ft). Fragments may travel more than 200 m (660 ft). These grenades are usually classed as offensive weapons because the effective casualty radius
2323-439: A vertical face and spills over to form a turbulent shock (a breaker) that dissipates the wave's energy as sound and heat. Similar phenomena affect strong sound waves in gas or plasma, due to the dependence of the sound speed on temperature and pressure. Strong waves heat the medium near each pressure front, due to adiabatic compression of the air itself, so that high pressure fronts outrun the corresponding pressure troughs. There
2424-411: Is ocean waves that form breakers on the shore. In shallow water, the speed of surface waves is dependent on the depth of the water. An incoming ocean wave has a slightly higher wave speed near the crest of each wave than near the troughs between waves, because the wave height is not infinitesimal compared to the depth of the water. The crests overtake the troughs until the leading edge of the wave forms
2525-572: Is a kind of pistonless rotary engine that utilizes shock waves to transfer energy between a high-energy fluid to a low-energy fluid, thereby increasing both temperature and pressure of the low-energy fluid. In memristors , under externally-applied electric field, shock waves can be launched across the transition-metal oxides, creating fast and non-volatile resistivity changes. Advanced techniques are needed to capture shock waves and to detect shock waves in both numerical computations and experimental observations. Computational fluid dynamics
2626-484: Is a theory that the sound pressure levels in brass instruments such as the trombone become high enough for steepening to occur, forming an essential part of the bright timbre of the instruments. While shock formation by this process does not normally happen to unenclosed sound waves in Earth's atmosphere, it is thought to be one mechanism by which the solar chromosphere and corona are heated, via waves that propagate up from
2727-417: Is a type of sound wave produced by constructive interference . Unlike solitons (another kind of nonlinear wave), the energy and speed of a shock wave alone dissipates relatively quickly with distance. When a shock wave passes through matter, energy is preserved but entropy increases. This change in the matter's properties manifests itself as a decrease in the energy which can be extracted as work, and as
2828-513: Is a university for technology, computer sciences and business administration. With approximately 6,000 students, it is the biggest educational institution in Ingolstadt. Several scholarship programmes supported by companies such as Siemens and Conti Temic (Continental AG) provide gifted students with financial assistance during their studies. These students deepen their practical experience by working at these organizations. THI offers several undergraduate and graduate programmes. The sports life of
2929-539: Is about 14 km (9 mi) away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg . The old town is approximately 374 m (1,227 ft) above sea level and the highest point, located in the district of Pettenhofen, is 410.87 m (1,348.00 ft). The lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at 362 m (1,188 ft) above sea level . Ingolstadt uses Central European Time throughout Germany;
3030-632: Is an independent city on the Danube , in Upper Bavaria , with 142,308 inhabitants (as of December 31, 2023). Around half a million people live in the metropolitan area. Ingolstadt is the second largest city in Upper Bavaria after Munich and the fifth largest city in Bavaria after Munich, Nuremberg , Augsburg and Regensburg . The city passed the mark of 100,000 inhabitants in 1989 and has since been one of
3131-424: Is being done. The Rankine–Hugoniot conditions arise from these considerations. Taking into account the established assumptions, in a system where the downstream properties are becoming subsonic: the upstream and downstream flow properties of the fluid are considered isentropic. Since the total amount of energy within the system is constant, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant over both regions. However, entropy
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3232-481: Is commonly used to obtain the flow field with shock waves. Though shock waves are sharp discontinuities, in numerical solutions of fluid flow with discontinuities (shock wave, contact discontinuity or slip line), the shock wave can be smoothed out by low-order numerical method (due to numerical dissipation) or there are spurious oscillations near shock surface by high-order numerical method (due to Gibbs phenomena ). There exist some other discontinuities in fluid flow than
3333-428: Is increasing; this must be accounted for by a drop in stagnation pressure of the downstream fluid. When analyzing shock waves in a flow field, which are still attached to the body, the shock wave which is deviating at some arbitrary angle from the flow direction is termed oblique shock. These shocks require a component vector analysis of the flow; doing so allows for the treatment of the flow in an orthogonal direction to
3434-533: Is much less than the distance it can be thrown, and its explosive power works better within more confined spaces such as fortifications or buildings , where entrenched defenders often occupy. The concussion effect, rather than any expelled fragments, is the effective killer. In the case of the US Mk3A2 , the casualty radius is published as 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in open areas, but fragments and bits of fuze may be projected as far as 200 m (660 ft) from
3535-422: Is on the same order of magnitude as the mean free path of gas molecules. In reference to the continuum, this implies the shock wave can be treated as either a line or a plane if the flow field is two-dimensional or three-dimensional, respectively. Shock waves are formed when a pressure front moves at supersonic speeds and pushes on the surrounding air. At the region where this occurs, sound waves travelling against
3636-476: Is open to the public and presents historic exhibits and offers guided tours. Ingolstadt is a green city with numerous parks, green spaces and forests. The most prominent of these is the " Glacis ", formerly an open space in front of the city walls, now surrounding the historic city centre. It functions as a "green belt" and a buffer area between traffic, residential areas and schools. It is possible to traverse it using spacious paths for pedestrians and cyclists, with
3737-467: Is set in Ingolstadt, when count Tilly died in 1632, during the " Thirty Years' War ". Rainer Werner Fassbinder 's 1971 film Pioneers in Ingolstadt is set in the town. The X-Files episode "The Post-Modern Prometheus" makes a reference to the University of Ingolstadt . This was an allusion to Frankenstein , as the episode contained numerous Frankenstein references, and the full title of Frankenstein
3838-545: Is the predominant system today, developed from the match-fuzes that were hand-lit in the early grenades. From there, two sub-groups were developed: friction-ignitors where a cord is pulled or a cap is twisted to ignite the delay-fuze like on the German Stielhandgranate; the other being strike- or percussion-ignitors where the user either hit the cap before the throw like on the Japanese Type 10 grenade , or have
3939-528: Is useful to reduce the ability of the enemy to take cover, throw or kick the grenade away and can also be used to allow a fragmentation grenade to explode into the air over defensive positions. Concerned with a number of serious incidents and accidents involving hand grenades, Ian Kinley at the Swedish Försvarets materielverk identified the two main issues as the time-fuze's burntime variation with temperature (slows down in cold and speeds up in heat) and
4040-640: The Asam brothers (1732–1736). The church of the Augustinians of Johann Michael Fischer (1736) was completely destroyed in World War II. Many buildings of the neo-classical fortification of Leo von Klenze have been preserved, such as the Reduit Tilly and the towers Baur and Triva . As well as being the home of the headquarters of the car manufacturer Audi , the town is also home to Audi's museum mobile , which
4141-525: The Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt . In national rankings, the business school regularly scores among the top ten. The faculty maintains a large network of partner universities for international educational exchange. The Ingolstadt School of management offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration. Among the academic programs offered are also executive MBA and doctoral degrees. Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt (THI)
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4242-642: The Governor of Jamaica in 1721. Improvised grenades were increasingly used from the mid-19th century, the confines of trenches enhancing the effect of small explosive devices. In a letter to his sister, Colonel Hugh Robert Hibbert described an improvised grenade that was employed by British troops during the Crimean War (1854–1856): We have a new invention to annoy our friends in their pits. It consists in filling empty soda water bottles full of powder, old twisted nails and any other sharp or cutting thing we can find at
4343-671: The Hales rifle grenade , developed a modern hand grenade in 1906 but was unsuccessful in persuading the British Army to adopt the weapon until 1913. Hale's chief competitor was Nils Waltersen Aasen , who invented his design in 1906 in Norway, receiving a patent for it in England. Aasen began his experiments with developing a grenade while serving as a sergeant in the Oscarsborg Fortress . Aasen formed
4444-509: The Home Guard as an anti-tank weapon. It was produced in vast numbers; by August 1941 well over 6,000,000 had been manufactured. Sting grenades, also known as stingball or sting ball grenades, are stun grenades based on the design of the fragmentation grenade. Instead of using a metal casing to produce fragmentation, they are made from hard rubber and are filled with around 100 rubber or plastic balls. On detonation, these balls, and fragments from
4545-602: The Iraqi insurgency in the early 2000s against lightly armoured mine-resistant ambush protected (MRAP) vehicles, designed for protection only against improvised explosive devices , as well as drone ordnance in Ukraine 2022–2024. During World War II the United Kingdom used incendiary grenades based on white phosphorus . One model, the No. 76 special incendiary grenade , was mainly issued to
4646-608: The Jacobites in the battles of Killiecrankie and Glen Shiel . These grenades were not very effective owing both to the unreliability of their fuse, as well inconsistent times to detonation, and as a result, saw little use. Grenades were also used during the Golden Age of Piracy , especially during boarding actions; pirate Captain Thompson used "vast numbers of powder flasks, grenade shells, and stinkpots" to defeat two pirate-hunters sent by
4747-553: The Russo-Japanese War . Around the turn of the 20th century, the ineffectiveness of the available types of hand grenades, coupled with their levels of danger to the user and difficulty of operation, meant that they were regarded as increasingly obsolete pieces of military equipment. In 1902, the British War Office announced that hand grenades were obsolete and had no place in modern warfare. But within two years, following
4848-697: The University of Ingolstadt , which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University . In 1800 it was moved to Landshut and in 1826 eventually to Munich . The University of Ingolstadt was an influential defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, led by such notable scholars as Johann Eck . Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516. On 30 April 1632,
4949-449: The springs , the striker spring in particular, coming pre-tensioned from the factory by mechanism designs that had not changed much since the 1930s. In 2019, a new mechanism, fully interchangeable with the old ones, was adopted into service. The main difference, apart from a fully environmentally stable delay, is that the springs now are twist-tensioned by the thrower after the transport safety (pin and ring) has been removed, thus eliminating
5050-730: The Aasenske Granatkompani in Denmark, which before the First World War produced and exported hand grenades in large numbers across Europe. He had success in marketing his weapon to the French and was appointed as a Knight of the French Legion of Honour in 1916 for the invention. The Royal Laboratory developed the No. 1 grenade in 1908. It contained explosive material with an iron fragmentation band, with an impact fuze , detonating when
5151-611: The City Museum. The horse was shot from under the king by one of the cannons inside the fortress, a cannon known as "The Fig". When the Swedes withdrew, the city preserved the remains of the king's horse, eventually putting the Schwedenschimmel on display. It has remained thus for almost 400 years. In 1748, Adam Weishaupt , the founder of the Order of Illuminati , was born in Ingolstadt. After
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#17328440290525252-451: The Danube. The Sandrach, the former southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west, reaching the Danube near the Altstadt. Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as "Ingoldes stat", the place of Ingold. c. 1250 , Ingolstadt was granted city status. Ingolstadt
5353-413: The Earth's atmosphere. The Tunguska event and the 2013 Russian meteor event are the best documented evidence of the shock wave produced by a massive meteoroid . When the 2013 meteor entered into the Earth's atmosphere with an energy release equivalent to 100 or more kilotons of TNT, dozens of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima , the meteor's shock wave produced damage as in
5454-472: The French invasion in 1799, the fortress was demolished, and the university was relocated to Landshut . Originally a fortress city, Ingolstadt is enclosed by a medieval defensive wall. The Bavarian fortress (1537–1930) now holds the museum of the Bavarian army . During World War I , future French president Charles de Gaulle was detained there as a prisoner of war . A sappers ' drill ground lies next to
5555-568: The French word spelled exactly the same, meaning pomegranate , as the bomb is reminiscent of the many-seeded fruit in size and shape. Its first use in English dates from the 1590s. Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire , not long after the reign of Leo III (717–741). Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire , a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at
5656-581: The German field marshal Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly died at Ingolstadt during a Swedish siege of the city. The field marshal had been badly wounded in a previous engagement with the Swedes under King Gustavus Adolphus . Ingolstadt proved to be the first fortress in Germany that held out for the entire length of the Swedish siege, and the Swedes eventually withdrew. Gustavus Adolphus' horse remains can be seen in
5757-521: The Gothic era. The Kreuztor (1385) is one of the remaining gates of the old city wall and to this day the key landmark of the city. The Gothic Old City Hall was constructed in the 14th century and later altered several times. The Baroque era is represented by the Old Anatomy Building of the university (1723–1736, designed by Gabriel de Gabrieli) and the church St. Maria de Victoria, which was built by
5858-763: The Paraguayan troops used hand grenades in their attempt to board Brazilian ironclad warships with canoes. Hand grenades were used on naval engagements during the War of the Pacific . During the Siege of Mafeking in the Second Boer War , the defenders used fishing rods and a mechanical spring device to throw improvised grenades. Improvised hand grenades were used to great effect by the Russian defenders of Port Arthur (now Lüshun Port ) during
5959-564: The average time lag is 14 minutes. The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a wide, flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland. In the southwest is the Donaumoos, while in the east, the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second-largest hardwood floodplain on
6060-533: The blast.. Fragmentation grenades are common in armies. They are weapons that are designed to disperse fragments on detonation, aimed to damage targets within the lethal and injury radii. The body is generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, which will provide some fragmentation as shards and splinters, though in modern grenades a pre-formed fragmentation matrix is often used. The pre-formed fragmentation may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most explosive grenades are designed to detonate either after
6161-511: The center of the Counter-Reformation . The freethinking Illuminati order was also founded here in 1776. The city was also a Bavarian state fortress for more than 400 years. The historic old town has been preserved. There are two colleges in the city. The place is one of the three regional centers in Bavaria. The city is mainly characterized by the manufacturing industry, such as automobile and mechanical engineering. The unemployment rate
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#17328440290526262-495: The city centre. The forest serves as a natural reserve, with parts containing unique vegetation or acting as a wildlife reserve. The Danube river runs through Ingolstadt, flowing west to east. In the area of Ingolstadt, the Danube is between 80 and 100 metres wide and flows past Ingolstadt's old town. Ingolstadt is home to the Ingolstadt School of Management , which is the department of business administration and economics of
6363-523: The city is based on the 83 registered sports clubs. The biggest sports club is the MTV 1881 Ingolstadt , with over 3000 registered members in 16 branches. In total, the sports clubs in Ingolstadt have more than 41,000 members. Ingolstadt is especially known for ice hockey and association football . ERC Ingolstadt , founded in 1964, plays in the German Ice Hockey League since the 2002–03 season. With
6464-534: The city. Population development since 1450: As one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria—besides Landshut , Munich , Straubing and Burghausen —the city of Ingolstadt features many Gothic buildings, such as the Herzogskasten ('old ducal castle', c. 1255 ) and the New Castle , which was built from 1418 onwards. The largest church is the Gothic hall church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenmunster), which
6565-522: The detonation point. Concussion grenades have also been used as depth charges (underwater explosives) around boats and underwater targets; some like the US Mk 40 concussion grenade are designed for use against enemy divers and frogmen . Underwater explosions kill or otherwise incapacitate the target by creating a lethal shock wave underwater. The US Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) announced in 2016 that they were developing
6666-414: The effect of shock compression on the flow. In elementary fluid mechanics utilizing ideal gases , a shock wave is treated as a discontinuity where entropy increases abruptly as the shock passes. Since no fluid flow is discontinuous, a control volume is established around the shock wave, with the control surfaces that bound this volume parallel to the shock wave (with one surface on the pre-shock side of
6767-517: The end of a long and steep channel. Impact leads to a sudden change in the flow regime from a fast moving supercritical thin layer to a stagnant thick heap. This flow configuration is particularly interesting because it is analogous to some hydraulic and aerodynamic situations associated with flow regime changes from supercritical to subcritical flows. Astrophysical environments feature many different types of shock waves. Some common examples are supernovae shock waves or blast waves travelling through
6868-503: The end of the 2016–17 season. Ingolstadt is one of the many settings in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein . Primarily, Victor Frankenstein attends university in Ingolstadt. It is also widely regarded as the place where the unnamed monster was created. The Illuminati was founded in Ingolstadt and Shelley's husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley , was sympathetic to the radical group's aim of freeing society from Christian influence. In 1810 as
6969-431: The enemy but also in stone and ceramic jars. Later, glass containers were employed. In Song China (960–1279), weapons known as ' thunder crash bombs ' ( 震天雷 ) were created when soldiers packed gunpowder into ceramic or metal containers fitted with fuses. A 1044 military book, Wujing Zongyao ( Compilation of Military Classics ), described various gunpowder recipes in which one can find, according to Joseph Needham ,
7070-458: The enemy camp, the whole place will be set ablaze... Grenade-like devices were also known in ancient India. In a 12th-century Persian historiography, the Mojmal al-Tawarikh , a terracotta elephant filled with explosives set with a fuse was placed hidden in the van and exploded as the invading army approached. A type of grenade called the 'flying impact thunder crash bomb' (飛擊震天雷) was developed in
7171-492: The exception of its season of debut and 2007–08, the club has reached the national playoffs every year as of 2014 , and has reached the semi-finals three times. They won the German Ice Hockey League Championship in 2014. The football club FC Ingolstadt 04 came into existence in 2004 after the merger of the football branches of MTV Ingolstadt and ESV Ingolstadt. In the 2007–08 season, it was promoted from
7272-402: The flow reach a point where they cannot travel any further upstream and the pressure progressively builds in that region; a high-pressure shock wave rapidly forms. Shock waves are not conventional sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties. Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or "snap" noise. Over longer distances, a shock wave can change from
7373-414: The fluid medium and one on the post-shock side). The two surfaces are separated by a very small depth such that the shock itself is entirely contained between them. At such control surfaces, momentum, mass flux and energy are constant; within combustion, detonations can be modelled as heat introduction across a shock wave. It is assumed the system is adiabatic (no heat exits or enters the system) and no work
7474-427: The information can propagate into the surrounding fluid, then the fluid near the disturbance cannot react or "get out of the way" before the disturbance arrives. In a shock wave the properties of the fluid ( density , pressure , temperature , flow velocity , Mach number ) change almost instantaneously. Measurements of the thickness of shock waves in air have resulted in values around 200 nm (about 10 in), which
7575-447: The insufficient aspects of numerical and experimental tools lead to two important problems in practices: (1) some shock waves can not be detected or their positions are detected wrong, (2) some flow structures which are not shock waves are wrongly detected to be shock waves. In fact, correct capturing and detection of shock waves are important since shock waves have the following influences: (1) causing loss of total pressure, which may be
7676-402: The interstellar medium, the bow shock caused by the Earth's magnetic field colliding with the solar wind and shock waves caused by galaxies colliding with each other. Another interesting type of shock in astrophysics is the quasi-steady reverse shock or termination shock that terminates the ultra relativistic wind from young pulsars . Shock waves are generated by meteoroids when they enter
7777-719: The late 16th century and first used in September 1, 1592 by the Joseon Dynasty during the Japanese invasions of Korea . The grenade was 20 cm in diameter, weighed 10 kg, and had a cast iron shell. It contained iron pellets, and an adjustable fuse. The grenade was used with a dedicated grenade launcher called a 'wangu' (碗口). It was used in both the besieging and defense of fortifications, to great effect. The first cast-iron bombshells and grenades appeared in Europe in 1467, where their initial role
7878-506: The main charge directly, or set off a primer charge that in turn detonates the main charge. This turned out to present significant drawbacks; either the primer is so sensitive that unintended and premature ignition happens, while a more stable substance often fails to set off the grenade when landing in softer ground, not seldom even allowing the targeted troops to hurl the grenade back. Thus, the only significant use of impact fuzes since WWI has been in anti-tank grenades. Fuze-delayed grenades
7979-485: The major cities in Germany. After Regensburg, Ingolstadt is the second largest German city on the Danube . The city was first mentioned in 806. In the late Middle Ages, the city was one of the capitals of the Bavarian duchies alongside Munich, Landshut and Straubing , which is reflected in the architecture. On March 13, 1472, Ingolstadt became the seat of the first university in Bavaria , which later distinguished itself as
8080-416: The medium. For the purpose of comparison, in supersonic flows, additional increased expansion may be achieved through an expansion fan , also known as a Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan . The accompanying expansion wave may approach and eventually collide and recombine with the shock wave, creating a process of destructive interference. The sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft
8181-768: The mid-17th century, infantry known as " grenadiers " began to emerge in the armies of Europe, who specialized in shock and close quarters combat, mostly with the usage of grenades and fierce melee combat. In 1643, it is possible that grenados were thrown amongst the Welsh at Holt Bridge during the English Civil War . The word grenade was also used during the events surrounding the Glorious Revolution in 1688, where cricket ball-sized (8.81 to 9 in (224 to 229 mm) in circumference) iron spheres packed with gunpowder and fitted with slow-burning wicks were first used against
8282-501: The oblique shock as a normal shock. When an oblique shock is likely to form at an angle which cannot remain on the surface, a nonlinear phenomenon arises where the shock wave will form a continuous pattern around the body. These are termed bow shocks . In these cases, the 1d flow model is not valid and further analysis is needed to predict the pressure forces which are exerted on the surface. Shock waves can form due to steepening of ordinary waves. The best-known example of this phenomenon
8383-533: The park every month, mostly young people. While about 75% of the park visitors come from Ingolstadt and the surrounding area, the remaining approximately 25% travel from more distant places. The biggest forest in Ingolstadt is the Auwald ("riverside forest", also called "Schüttel"). It is found on both the northern and southern banks of the Danube, and is one of the biggest well-preserved river forests in Germany, extending mainly from Neuburg to Ingolstadt with extensions to
8484-498: The possibility of unintentional arming of the hand grenade. Modern manufacturers of hand grenades include: Shockwave In physics, a shock wave (also spelled shockwave ), or shock , is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a medium, but is characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous, change in pressure , temperature , and density of
8585-418: The prototype of the modern hand grenade. The shells ( pào ) are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of 'divine fire' ( shén huǒ , gunpowder). They are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor ( mu pào ), and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into
8686-499: The river. Two military air bases are located nearby, one used for testing aircraft. The long military tradition of the city is reflected in today's civil and cultural life. Former "off-limit" military training areas have been converted into well-used public parks. Adolf Scherzer composed the " Bayerischen Defiliermarsch ". Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was set at the Ingolstädter Alte Anatomie (Old Anatomy Building), now
8787-448: The rubber casing explode outward in all directions as reduced lethality projectiles, which may ricochet. It is intended that people struck by the projectiles will receive a series of fast, painful stings, without serious injury. Some types have an additional payload of CS gas . Sting grenades do not reliably incapacitate people, so they can be dangerous to use against armed subjects. They sometimes cause serious physical injury, especially
8888-461: The rubber fragments from the casing. People have lost eyes and hands to sting grenades. Sting grenades are sometimes called "stinger grenades", which is a genericized trademark as "Stinger" is trademarked by Defense Technology for its line of sting grenades. Chemical and gas grenades burn or release a gas, and do not explode. Practice or simulation grenades are similar in handling and function to other hand grenades, except that they only produce
8989-458: The shock wave. The slip surface (3D) or slip line (2D) is a plane across which the tangent velocity is discontinuous, while pressure and normal velocity are continuous. Across the contact discontinuity, the pressure and velocity are continuous and the density is discontinuous. A strong expansion wave or shear layer may also contain high gradient regions which appear to be a discontinuity. Some common features of these flow structures and shock waves and
9090-431: The solar interior. A shock wave may be described as the furthest point upstream of a moving object which "knows" about the approach of the object. In this description, the shock wave position is defined as the boundary between the zone having no information about the shock-driving event and the zone aware of the shock-driving event, analogous with the light cone described in the theory of special relativity . To produce
9191-598: The success of improvised grenades in the trench warfare conditions of the Russo-Japanese War, and reports from General Sir Aylmer Haldane , a British observer of the conflict, a reassessment was quickly made and the Board of Ordnance was instructed to develop a practical hand grenade. Various models using a percussion fuze were built, but this type of fuze suffered from various practical problems, and they were not commissioned in large numbers. Marten Hale, known for patenting
9292-555: The third-highest division at the time, Regionalliga Süd to 2. Bundesliga . In the 2008–09 season, it was relegated to the penultimate place, but was promoted again in 2010-11 and remained in 2. Bundesliga till 2015. In 2015, Ingolstadt won the 2. Bundesliga and were promoted to the country's highest league, the Bundesliga . During their first season in the Bundesliga, Ingolstadt finished in 11th place. They were relegated to 2. Bundesliga by
9393-464: The time, sticking a bit of tow in for a fuse then lighting it and throwing it quickly into our neighbors' pit where it bursts, to their great annoyance. You may imagine their rage at seeing a soda water bottle come tumbling into a hole full of men with a little fuse burning away as proud as a real shell exploding and burying itself into soft parts of the flesh. In March 1868 during the Paraguayan War ,
9494-600: The top of the grenade hit the ground. A long cane handle (approximately 16 inches or 40 cm) allowed the user to throw the grenade farther than the blast of the explosion. It suffered from the handicap that the percussion fuse was armed before throwing, which meant that if the user was in a trench or other confined space, he was apt to detonate it and kill himself when he drew back his arm to throw it. Early in World War I , combatant nations only had small grenades, similar to Hales' and Aasen's design. The Italian Besozzi grenade had
9595-459: Was 3.3% in February 2022. Covering an urban area of 133.35 km (51.49 sq mi), Ingolstadt is geographically Bavaria's fourth-largest city after Munich, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. At its largest point, the city is about 18 km (11 mi) from east to west and from north to south about 15 km (9 mi). The city boundary has a length of 70 km (43 mi). The city boundary
9696-477: Was announced as the first major innovation in the area of handgrenades since the Great War . Developed by Ian Kinley at Försvarets Materielverk (FMV), shgr 07 is a self-righting, jumping hand grenade containing some 1900 balls that covers a cone 10 metres in diameter with the centre about 2 metres in height. This minimize the dangers outside the lethal zone as there is little to no random scattering of fragments from
9797-495: Was begun in 1425. The church was built to serve as a second parish church beside Saint Maurice as well as the burial place for Louis and his family and intended to be the official burial place for the future Dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Its peculiar and rare angle of footprint was emulated in the 20th century built Cathedral of Newark . Also, the churches of Saint Maurice (1235) and of the Gnadenthal and Franciscan monasteries date from
9898-481: Was not until the outbreak of WWII serious efforts were made. While there were infantry anti-tank weapons available, they were either not ubiquitous enough, ineffective or both. Anti-tank grenades were a suitable stopgap to ensure a rudimentary capability for every squad to be used for self-defence. Once rocket-propelled shaped charges became available in greater numbers, anti-tank hand grenades became almost obsolete. However, they were still used with limited success in
9999-457: Was retained, as it provided a positive grip surface. This basic "pin-and-pineapple" design is still used in some modern grenades. After the Second World War , the general design of hand grenades has been fundamentally unchanged, with pin-and-lever being the predominant igniter system with the major powers, though incremental and evolutionary improvements continuously were made. In 2012, Spränghandgranat 07 (shgr 07, "Blast hand-grenade 07")
10100-530: Was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut . Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle as well as the Church of Our Lady (Münster zur Schönen Unseren Lieben Frau), also known as "Upper Parish" (Obere Pfarr), whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture . In 1472, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded
10201-421: Was with the besieging and defense of castles and fortifications. A hoard of several hundred ceramic hand grenades was discovered during construction in front of a bastion of the Bavarian city of Ingolstadt , Germany, dated to the 17th century. Many of the grenades retained their original black powder loads and igniters. The grenades were most likely intentionally dumped in the moat of the bastion prior to 1723. By
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