Misplaced Pages

#487512

76-594: Although the Coalition Wars are the most prominent subset of conflicts of this era, some French Revolutionary Wars such as the French invasion of Switzerland (1798), and some Napoleonic Wars such as the French invasion of Russia (June – December 1812) and the Peninsular War (October 1807 – April 1814), are not counted amongst the "Coalition Wars" proper. One of the first usages of the term "Coalition Wars" can be found in

152-467: A House of Deputies ( Abgeordnetenhaus ). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied. After the second war with Denmark in 1864, Holstein came under Austrian administration, and Schleswig and Lauenburg under Prussian administration. But the internal difficulties continued. Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by

228-538: A decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1813–14. It participated in a second invasion of France in 1815, and put an end to Murat's regime in south Italy. The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured Metternich exerting a large degree of influence over foreign policy in the Austrian Empire, a matter nominally decided by the Emperor. Metternich initially supported an alliance with France, arranging

304-570: A defeat at Schindellegi , and although victorious at Rothenthurm they were unable to revert the situation. On 4 May, the Landsgemeinde of Schwyz gave up the fight. Impressed by the resistance of the central Swiss, the French granted them mild terms of surrender and allowed them to keep their arms. The last event of the French invasion was an initially successful revolt of the Upper Valais , which

380-677: A long line of defense going from the Napf to Rapperswil . Reding took control of Lucerne and advanced across the Brünig Pass into the Bernese Oberland , but Schauenburg launched a counterattack towards Schwyz from occupied Zürich , moving through Zug , Lucerne and the Sattel Pass . Zug and Lucerne surrendered, and were soon followed by Glarus after the capture of Rapperswil and battles near Wollerau . Reding's troops had to retreat after

456-783: A position favorable to the Confederacy. On 10 October 1797, Valtellina , Chiavenna and Bormio , dependencies of the Three Leagues , revolted and with French support seceded from the Confederacy to join the Cisalpine Republic. In December, the southern part of the Prince-Bishopric of Basel was occupied and annexed to France. Soon 10,000 French troops gathered near Geneva . The atmosphere inside Switzerland had changed significantly due to these developments, and many pro-French patriots hoped, and anti-French conservatives feared, that

532-573: A stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included

608-501: A system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke  [ de ] ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867. In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851 (re-divided in 1854 ); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise . German was

684-783: A traitor. A Bernese victory at Neuenegg on 5 March, which stopped a French advance from the south through Murten and Freiburg, had no effect in the outcome of the war. Bern suffered 700 killed in the fighting, while French losses are unknown. The surrender of Bern led to even more dependencies across Switzerland declaring themselves independent republics. However, the Directory desired a single central republican state at France's eastern border, not dozens of small ones, and steered towards (re)establishment of national unity, though this time with equality for all its subdivisions. A new Constitution had already been written in Paris by Peter Ochs and approved by

760-554: A very bad reputation among Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement . However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom . Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations. In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in

836-444: A whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in

SECTION 10

#1732848544488

912-540: Is also referred to as the " Age of Metternich ". During this period, Metternich controlled the Habsburg monarchy 's foreign policy. He also had a major influence in European politics. He was known for his strong conservative views and approach in politics. Metternich's policies were strongly against revolution and liberalism. In his opinion, liberalism was a form of legalized revolution. Metternich believed that absolute monarchy

988-452: The Alpine passes , with supplying its war effort and using the military potential of Switzerland as secondary objectives. Due to internal political and social upheaval, the Confederacy could neither reach an arrangement with France nor organize resistance. In September 1797, Switzerland's situation was further aggravated by the removal of François Barthélemy from the Directory, who had defended

1064-628: The Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by George III of the United Kingdom who

1140-787: The Empire of Austria , was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs . During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom , while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire . The empire

1216-515: The First War of Schleswig (1848–1850). Sardinia allied itself with France for the conquest of Lombardy–Venetia . Austria was defeated in the 1859 armed conflict. The Treaties of Villafranca and Zürich removed Lombardy, except for the part east of the Mincio river, the so-called Mantovano . The Constitution of 1861 , also known as "February Patent", created a House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) and

1292-744: The War of the Third Coalition (1803/05, depending on periodisation). In the latter case, historians do not term the War of the Second Coalition "Napoleonic", since Napoleon did not initiate it himself, but merely "inherited" it from the Revolutionary French Directory which he overthrew during the war. Because it only pertains to wars involving any of the Coalition parties, not all wars counted amongst

1368-526: The first Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire forced Metternich's resignation. Metternich is remembered for his success in maintaining the status quo and the Habsburg influence in international affairs. No Habsburg foreign minister following Metternich held a similar position within the empire for such a long time nor held such a vast influence on European foreign affairs. Historians generally consider

1444-521: The invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War . Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna , which reaffirmed the empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Hungary —as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from the rest of the empire. After Austria

1520-676: The "Helvetic Revolution". The Swiss ancien régime institutions were abolished and replaced by the centralised Helvetic Republic , one of the sister republics of the French First Republic . Before 1798, the modern canton of Vaud belonged to the canton of Bern , to which it had a subject status. Moreover, the majority of the Francophone Vaudois felt oppressed by German-speaking Bern. Several Vaudois patriots such as Frédéric-César de La Harpe advocated for independence. In 1795, La Harpe called on his compatriots to rise up against

1596-508: The "royal" part referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. However, during World War I Austria-Hungary issued military stamps for use in occupied regions, with the text "K.u.K. Feldpost" or K.u.K. Militärpost. The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria

SECTION 20

#1732848544488

1672-719: The 1803 Tribunat report, titled Résultats des guerres, des négociations et des traités qui ont préced́é et suivi la coalition contre la France ("Results of the Wars, Negotiations and Treaties that preceded and followed the Coalition against France"). About the situation in April 1793, when General Dumouriez had just been defeated at Neerwinden and defected to Austria , causing despair in France, it states: "Les événements de cette époque sont les plus pénibles à décrire de tous ceux qui ont signalé les guerres de la coalition ." ("The events of that time are

1748-600: The 1815 Congress of Vienna , including the local government reorganizations from the Revolutions of 1848 to the 1860 October Diploma : The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg. From 1850, Croatia , Slavonia , and the Military Frontier constituted a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation. Administratively, most of

1824-508: The Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War , which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War , with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking land. Crown lands of the Austrian Empire after

1900-468: The Austrian Army to preparedness for another war. Johann Philipp von Stadion, the foreign minister, personally hated Napoleon due to an experience of confiscation of his possessions in France by Napoleon. In addition, the third wife of Francis I, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este , agreed with Stadion's efforts to begin a new war. Klemens Wenzel von Metternich , located in Paris, called for careful advance in

1976-454: The Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary , a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that

2052-522: The Austrian Empire with other European powers whose monarchs had a similar interest in preserving conservative political direction, Metternich was able to establish the Austrian Empire's influence on European politics. Also, because Metternich used the fear of revolutions among European powers, which he also shared, he was able to establish security and predominance of the Habsburgs in Europe. Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in

2128-543: The Austrian foreign minister, other congresses would meet to resolve European foreign affairs. These included the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822). The Metternich congresses aimed to maintain the political equilibrium among the European powers and prevent revolutionary efforts. These meetings also aimed to resolve foreign issues and disputes without resorting to violence. By means of these meetings and by allying

2204-626: The Austrian newspaper discussed why the neighbouring Electorate of Bavaria was likely to side with the French Empire rather than the Austrian-led Coalition. On 30 September 1805, a few days after the launch of the Ulm campaign , Emperor Napoleon addressed his troops in Strasbourg , starting his speech with the words: "Soldats, la guerre de la troisième coalition est commencée." ("Soldiers, the war of

2280-579: The Bernese aristocrats, but his appeal fell to deaf ears, and he had to flee to Revolutionary France , where he resumed his activism. In late 1797, French general Napoleon Bonaparte , who had just successfully conquered northern Italy and founded the Cisalpine Republic , pressed the French Directory to occupy Switzerland. France's main goal in the invasion was securing access to northern Italy via

2356-618: The Coalitions include Spain , Naples , Piedmont–Sardinia , the Dutch Republic , the Ottoman Empire , Portugal , Sweden , Denmark–Norway , and various German and Italian states. The First until Fifth Coalitions fell apart when one or more parties were defeated by France and were forced to leave the alliance, and sometimes became French allies; the Sixth and Seventh were dissolved after Napoleon

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars - Misplaced Pages Continue

2432-460: The Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation. Following the Congress, the major European powers agreed to meet and discuss resolutions in the event of future disputes or revolutions. Because of Metternich's main role in the architecture of the Congress, these meetings are also referred to as the "Metternich congress" or "Metternich system". Under Metternich as

2508-517: The Directory. Many Swiss rebels detested it, and the National Convention in Basel passed a modified version, which was then adopted by many other entities, but the French government insisted on the original. A proposal by Brune on 16 and 19 March to divide Switzerland into three republics ( Tellgovie , Hélvetie and Rhodanie ) was also overruled. On 12 April 1798, 121 cantonal deputies proclaimed

2584-605: The Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm . The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805. The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with

2660-682: The European monarchies once again feared republican France was expanding its grip on the continent, and had to be opposed and driven back. The French conquest of Switzerland, which had maintained its neutrality ever since the outbreak of the French Revolution, was one of the reasons for the formation of the Second Coalition , and would see an Austro-Russian army conduct the Italian and Swiss expedition in 1799 and 1800. Austrian Empire Timeline The Austrian Empire , officially known as

2736-766: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars are considered "Coalition Wars". For example, the French invasion of Switzerland (1798, between the First and Second Coalition), the Stecklikrieg (1802, between the Second and Third Coalition), the Peninsular War (1807–1814) and the French invasion of Russia (1812, between the Fifth and Sixth Coalition) were not assigned to the "Coalition Wars". The term "Great French War" arose from British historiography, which occasionally used it to refer to

2812-458: The French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, Maximilian IV Joseph , the prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria , proclaimed himself king, followed by the Duke of Württemberg Frederick III on 11 December. Charles Frederick , Margrave of Baden , was given the title of Grand Duke on 12 December. Each of these new states became French allies. Francis II agreed to

2888-486: The French attained a decisive victory at the Battle of Grauholz , confirming Vaud's secession. Schauenburg then received the capitulation signed the day before by Karl Albrecht von Frisching, leader of the pro-French Reform Party, who was appointed head of a new provisional government. Erlach, who intended to continue resistance after retreating from Grauholz, was murdered near Wichtrach by his own soldiers who mistook him for

2964-587: The German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts. Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest. Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks

3040-706: The Helvetic Republic, a client state of Revolutionary France. The new regime abolished cantonal sovereignty and feudalism, establishing a unitary state based on the ideas of the French Revolution . Subsequently, the cantons of Schwyz , Nidwalden and Uri in Central Switzerland rejected the Helvetic constitution. They were able to gather around 10,000 soldiers, under the command of Alois von Reding , Landeshauptmann of Schwyz. Their forces dispersed on

3116-482: The Metternich era as a period of stability : the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms. However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire. The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars - Misplaced Pages Continue

3192-691: The Revolution would now spread to the rest of the Confederacy, with or without direct French military intervention. France used the dissatisfaction of the rural elites in the dependencies and the Enlightened citizenry in the cantons to stimulate revolutionary excitement. The first event of what would become known as the Helvetic Revolution happened with a patriot uprising in Liestal in the canton of Basel on 17 January 1798. The rebels demanded equality before

3268-415: The Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France. Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian budget suffered from wartime expenditures and its international position

3344-466: The abolition of serfdom , cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire. After the death of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg in 1852, the Minister of the Interior Baron Alexander von Bach largely dictated policy in Austria and Hungary. Bach centralized administrative authority for the Austrian Empire, but he also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of

3420-469: The area of Murten and Fribourg . A second army under General Balthazar Alexis Henri Schauenburg advanced from Mont-Terrible , the former Prince-Bishopric of Basel, towards Bern and demanded its government to put pro-French Revolutionary parties in power. The Bernese refusal to do so was used by the French to justify war. Bernese field marshal Karl Ludwig von Erlach was appointed supreme commander of all Swiss forces, while General Guillaume Brune held

3496-526: The case of the war against France. The defeat of French army at the Battle of Bailén in Spain on 27 July 1808 triggered the war. On 9 April 1809, an Austrian force of 170,000 men attacked Bavaria . Despite military defeats of the Austrian army —especially the Battles of Marengo , Ulm , Austerlitz and Wagram —and consequently lost territory throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (the Treaties of Campo Formio in 1797, Luneville in 1801, Pressburg in 1806, and Schönbrunn in 1809), Austria played

3572-404: The country. At the invitation of the Lemanic Republic, 12,000 French troops under General Philippe Romain Ménard  [ fr ] invaded Vaud on 28 January. An incident on 25 January, in which two French hussars were killed by Swiss soldiers in Thierrens , was cited as a pretext. They occupied Vaud without resistance and were cheered on by the population, as Bernese troops withdrew to

3648-403: The court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain. During the Crimean War , Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia , and, while not going to war, was supportive of

3724-437: The crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise (' circles '), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise ), but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54 instead instituted

3800-421: The decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling. The leadership of the Austrian Empire was transferred to a state council composed of Metternich, Francis I's brother Archduke Louis, and Count Franz Anton Kolowrat , who later became

3876-422: The equivalent office over French forces. Fighting began on 1 March, and the next day there were battles around Lengnau , Grenchen and in the Ruhsel forest between Alfermée and Twann , which ended with the surrender of the canton of Solothurn . On 4 March, Bern's government resigned, nevertheless its troops continued to resist the French advance. The next day, the Bernese were defeated at Fraubrunnen and

SECTION 50

#1732848544488

3952-495: The humiliating Treaty of Pressburg , signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava , Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy . In practice this meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806,

4028-464: The law, erected a liberty tree and burnt down three Vogtei castles by 23 January. On 24 January, the urban elite of Vaud proclaimed the Lemanic Republic ( République lémanique ) in Lausanne , which became its seat of government. Next, citizens and subjects in countless Swiss cities, cantons and their dependencies rebelled, and after the example of Vaud, more than 40 other short-lived republics were proclaimed in February, March and April throughout

4104-465: The marriage between Napoleon and Francis I's daughter, Marie-Louise; however, by the 1812 campaign, he had realised the inevitability of Napoleon's downfall and took Austria to war against France. Metternich's influence at the Congress of Vienna was remarkable, and he became not only the premier statesman in Europe but the virtual ruler of the Empire until 1848—the Year of revolutions —and the rise of liberalism equated to his political downfall. The result

4180-442: The most painful to describe of all those that marked the wars of the coalition ." [emphasis added]). In January 1805, the Salzburger Intelligenzblatt was one of the first to number the Coalition Wars when it discussed "Das Staatsinteresse von Baiern bei dem dritten Koalitions-Kriege" ("The national interest of Bavaria in the Third Coalition War"). Although the Third Coalition had been formed by that time, war had not yet broken out;

4256-555: The nearly continuous period of warfare from 1792 to 1815, or as the final phase of the Anglo-French Second Hundred Years' War , spanning the period 1689 to 1815. Historian Mike Rapport (2013) suggested using the term "French Wars" to unambiguously describe the entire period from 1792 to 1815. The main European powers who forged the various anti-French Coalitions were Great Britain , Russia , Austria , and Prussia , although except for Great Britain not all of them were involved in every Coalition. Smaller powers that occasionally joined

4332-511: The now unified Italy. After the Austrian army was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The frequent abbreviation K.u.K. ( Kaiserliche und Königliche , "Imperial and Royal") does not refer to that dual monarchy but originated in 1745, when

4408-431: The press and abandoned public trials. He later represented the Absolutist (or Klerikalabsolutist ) party, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life. This period in the history of the Austrian Empire would become known as the era of neo-absolutism, or Bach's absolutism. The pillars of the so-called Bach system ( Bachsches System ) were, in

4484-401: The third coalition has begun.") The term is distinct from " French Revolutionary Wars ", which covers any war involving Revolutionary France between 1792 and 1799, when Napoleon seized power with the Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799), which is usually considered the end of the French Revolution. Since the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802) had already begun when Napoleon seized power,

4560-469: The title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire . Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. This new empire or " Kaiserthum " ( lit.   ' Kaiser -dom ' ) comprised all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy , which had until then been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy ) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast,

4636-409: The war as a whole may or may not be counted amongst the French Revolutionary Wars, which therefore may end in 1799, 1801 ( Treaty of Lunéville ), or 1802 ( Treaty of Amiens ). It also differs from " Napoleonic Wars ", which is variously defined as covering any war involving France ruled by Napoleon between 1799 and 1815 (which includes the War of the Second Coalition, 1798–1802), or not commencing until

SECTION 60

#1732848544488

4712-430: The words of Adolf Fischhof , four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks . Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen . This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach

4788-401: Was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described the state as a Regnum Independens . Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in

4864-414: Was also the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg ; Hanover and Lauenburg were incorporated into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, having been occupied several times since 1801, but Britain remained at war with France and no treaty was signed recognising their annexation. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which

4940-410: Was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but the actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France,

5016-438: Was defeated in 1814 and 1815 and a new balance of power was established between the parties at the Congress of Vienna . French invasion of Switzerland French victory The French invasion of Switzerland ( German : Franzoseneinfall ) occurred from January to May 1798 as part of the French Revolutionary Wars . The independent Old Swiss Confederacy collapsed from the invasion and simultaneous internal revolts called

5092-414: Was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary . Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss )

5168-411: Was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with

5244-493: Was held by George IV and William IV as Kings of Hanover. Succession could only be in the male line, so on Queen Victoria 's accession to the British throne, her uncle, Ernest Augustus , succeeded as King of Hanover, thus ending the personal union with Great Britain that dated to 1714. Klemens von Metternich became Foreign Minister in 1809. He also held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I . The period of 1815–1848

5320-423: Was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon 's declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars , except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during

5396-419: Was significantly undermined, the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg provided plenty of time to strengthen the army and economy. Moreover, the ambitious Archduke Charles and Johann Philipp von Stadion never abandoned the goal of further war with France. Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the Council of War and Commander in Chief of the Austrian army. Endowed with the enlarged powers, he reformed

5472-483: Was suppressed in late May. The Nidwalden uprising, an episode related to the invasion though distinct from it, took place in September 1798 and was quashed by the French under Schauenburg, leaving some 100 killed on both sides, along with 300 civilians massacred. The invasion strained the recently concluded Treaty of Campo Formio (18 October 1797) that had ended the War of the First Coalition against France. Now,

5548-497: Was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany. During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation . Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as

5624-479: Was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia , and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance . The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy. Due to

5700-455: Was the end of the empire. Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw either the end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted

5776-467: Was the only proper system of government. This notion influenced his anti-revolutionary policy to ensure the continuation of the Habsburg monarchy in Europe. Metternich was a practitioner of balance-of-power diplomacy. His foreign policy aimed to maintain international political equilibrium to preserve the Habsburgs' power and influence in international affairs. Following the Napoleonic Wars , Metternich

#487512