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62-676: Today the area is usually referred to as the High Plains , and the original term is sometimes used to describe the arid region of North America , which includes parts of northwestern Mexico and the American southwest . The meaning of the term "desert" has varied through time and across cultures. The term was sometimes used to describe any uninhabited or treeless land, whether or not it was arid, and sometimes to refer to hot and arid lands, evoking images of sandy wastelands. European colonists believed that treeless lands were not good for agriculture , thus

124-482: A $ 300,000 annual demonstration project to conserve water that farmers pump from the Ogallala Aquifer. Participating farmers grow corn with just over half of the water that they would normally require to irrigate the fields, or they plant several weeks later than customary. Pivot sprinklers are used in the project, rather than the more expensive drip irrigation. According to district manager Steve Walthour, conservation

186-475: A map labeling the area as the "Great American Desert." In the report that accompanied the map, the party's geographer Edwin James wrote of the region: I do not hesitate in giving the opinion, that it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course, uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture for their subsistence. Although tracts of fertile land considerably extensive are occasionally to be met with, yet

248-832: A rally at the National Mall drew an estimated 40,000 in protest of Keystone XL. In January 2014, the U.S. State Department released its Keystone pipeline Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the Keystone XL Project Executive Summary , which concluded that, according to models, a large crude oil spill from the pipeline that reached the Ogallala could spread as far as 1,214 feet (370 m), with dissolved components spreading as much as 1,050 ft (320 m) further. Early in his presidency, U.S President Donald Trump overturned U.S. President Barack Obama's decision by signing executive memos in support of

310-525: A range of economic activity, including occasional industry. For example, the ASARCO refinery in Amarillo, Texas has been in operation since 1924 due to the plentiful and inexpensive natural gas and water that are needed in metal ore refining. The High Plains has one of the lowest population densities of any region in the continental United States; Wyoming , for example, has the second lowest population density in

372-629: A short distance or on satellite maps. From east to west, the High Plains rise in elevation from around 1,500 to 6,000 ft (460 to 1,830 m). The term "Great Plains", for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian and east of the Rocky Mountains, was not generally used before the early 20th century. Nevin Fenneman's 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States , brought

434-448: A technique that retains moisture for a longer period of time. Soil sensors permit farmers to gather accurate information about the moisture level of their crops. The motivation to save water comes from the district's regulations on extracting water from the aquifer. The United States Geological Survey determined the water level in the aquifer has dropped more in Texas than in any other state in

496-523: Is a shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay, and gravel located beneath the Great Plains in the United States. As one of the world's largest aquifers, it underlies an area of approximately 174,000 sq mi (450,000 km ) in portions of eight states ( South Dakota , Nebraska , Wyoming , Colorado , Kansas , Oklahoma , New Mexico , and Texas ). It was named in 1898 by geologist N. H. Darton from its type locality near

558-475: Is about 32% of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. In the United States, the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction. "Cumulative total groundwater depletion in the United States accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century. In addition to widely recognized environmental consequences, groundwater depletion also adversely impacts

620-420: Is an abundant amount of fossil water in the Ogallala Aquifer, it is slow to replenish itself, with most of the water in the aquifer having been there since the last ice age . Some current estimates predict the usefulness of the aquifer for agriculture to lessen and become useless, perhaps as soon as the early parts of the mid-21st century, leading some farmers to turn away from aquifer-irrigated agriculture. In

682-413: Is drawn from the underlying Ogallala Aquifer , which makes it possible to grow water-intensive crops such as corn, which the region's aridity would otherwise not support. Some areas of the High Plains have significant petroleum and natural gas deposits. The combination of oil, natural gas, and wind energy, along with plentiful underground water, has allowed some areas (such as West Texas ) to sustain

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744-448: Is essential considering declining levels of the aquifer. The local non-profit organization Ogallala Commons, named for the aquifer itself, which not only collaborates and supports the local communicates, also works to conserve the Ogallala Aquifer and the surrounding area. Eleven farmers in 2013 participated in the conservation program, with some planting in dry earth, rather than watered soil. They are leaving more space between plants,

806-472: Is generally greater in the Northern Plains. The depth of the water below the surface of the land ranges from almost 400 feet (120 m) in parts of the north to between 100 and 200 feet (30 and 61 m) throughout much of the south. Present-day recharge of the aquifer with fresh water occurs at an exceedingly slow rate, suggesting that much of the water in its pore spaces is paleowater , dating back to

868-464: Is the world record for the greatest temperature change in 24 hours. The region is known for the steady, and sometimes intense, winds that prevail from the west. The winds add a considerable wind chill factor in the winter. The development of wind farms in the High Plains is one of the newest areas of economic development. The High Plains are anomalously high in elevation. An explanation has recently been proposed to explain this high elevation. As

930-569: The Athabasca oil sands of Alberta to refineries near Houston, Texas . The proposed route of the pipeline crosses the eastern part of the Nebraska Sandhills ; opponents of the route cite the risk to the Ogallala Aquifer posed by the possibility of contamination from spilled dilute bitumen . Pipeline industry spokesmen have noted that thousands of miles of existing pipelines carrying crude oil and refined liquid hydrocarbons have crossed over

992-520: The Conservation Reserve Program , along with increased restrictions on water use at the state level. Since the 1940s, pumping from the Ogallala has drawn the aquifer down by more than 300 feet (90 m) in some areas. Producers have taken steps to reduce their reliance on irrigated water. Streamlined operations allow them to produce significantly greater yield using roughly the same amount of water needed four decades ago. Still, losses to

1054-472: The Farallon plate was subducted into the mantle beneath the region, water trapped in hydrous minerals in the descending slab was forced up into the lower crust above. Within the crust, this water caused the hydration of dense garnet and other phases into lower density amphibole and mica minerals. The resulting increase in crustal volume raised the elevation by about one mile. Typical plant communities of

1116-498: The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, President Jefferson wrote of the "immense and trackless deserts" of the region. Zebulon Pike wrote "these vast plains of the western hemisphere, may become in time equally celebrated as the sandy deserts of Africa". His map included a comment in the region, "not a stick of timber". In 1823, Major Stephen Long , a government surveyor and leader of the next official exploration expedition, produced

1178-544: The Platte , run below the water level of the aquifer. Because of this, the rivers receive groundwater flow (baseflow), carrying it out of the region rather than recharging the aquifer. The $ 46.1-million Optima Lake dam in western Oklahoma was rendered useless when the dropping level of the aquifer drastically reduced flow of the Beaver River , the lake's intended source of water. The depletion between 2001 and 2008, inclusive,

1240-402: The most recent ice age and probably earlier. Groundwater within the Ogallala generally flows from west to east at an average rate of a foot per day. Hydraulic conductivity , or the ability for a fluid (water) to move through porous material, ranges from 25 to 300 feet (7.6 to 91.4 m) per day. Water quality within the Ogallala varies with the highest quality for drinking and irrigation in

1302-539: The water consumption efficiency of the center-pivot irrigator improved over the years, farmers chose to plant more intensively, irrigate more land, and grow thirstier crops rather than reduce water consumption--an example of the Jevons Paradox in practice. One approach to reducing the amount of groundwater used is to employ treated recycled water for irrigation; another approach is to change to crops that require less water, such as sunflowers . Several rivers, such as

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1364-417: The 2.3 million people (1990 census) who live within the boundaries of the High Plains study area. The deposition of aquifer material dates back two to six million years, from the late Miocene to early Pliocene ages when the southern Rocky Mountains were still tectonically active. From the uplands to the west, rivers and streams cut channels in a generally west to east or southeast direction. Erosion of

1426-550: The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in preparing environmental impact statements for other proposed TransCanada projects. Although it is "common for companies applying to build government projects to be involved in assigning and paying for the impact analysis", several opponents of the project suggested there could be a conflict of interest. In response to that concern, the Department of State's Office of

1488-451: The High Plains commonly experience wide ranges and extremes in temperature. The temperature range from day to night is usually 30 °F (~16.5 °C), and 24-hour temperature shifts of 100 °F (~55.5 °C) are possible, as evidenced by a weather event that occurred in Browning, Montana , from January 23–24, 1916, when the temperature fell from 44 to −56 °F (7 to −49 °C). This

1550-616: The Inspector General conducted an investigation of the potential conflict of interest. The February 2012 report of that investigation states no conflict of interest existed either in the selection of the contractor or in the preparation of the environmental impact statement. U.S. President Barack Obama "initially rejected the Keystone XL pipeline in January 2012, saying he wanted more time for an environmental review." On February 17, 2013,

1612-620: The Keystone XL pipeline in January 2017. On January 20, 2021, President Joe Biden signed an executive order to revoke the permit that was granted to TC Energy Corporation for the Keystone XL Pipeline (Phase 4). On June 9, 2021, TC Energy abandoned plans for the Keystone XL Pipeline. Since 2010, the North Plains Groundwater Conservation District, which encompasses eight counties north of Amarillo , including Moore and Dallam Counties, has offered

1674-622: The Ogallala Aquifer for years, in southeast Wyoming, eastern Colorado and New Mexico, western Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The Pioneer crude oil pipeline crosses east-west across Nebraska, and the Pony Express pipeline , which crosses the Ogallala Aquifer in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas, was being converted as of 2013 from natural gas to crude oil, under a permit from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission . As

1736-484: The Ogallala varies with the shape of then-prevailing surface, being deepest where it fills ancient valleys and channels. The Ogallala Formation consists mostly of coarse sedimentary rocks in its deeper sections, which transition upward into finer-grained material. The water-saturated thickness of the Ogallala Formation ranges from a few feet to more than 1,000 feet. Its deepest part is 1200 ft. (300 m) and

1798-517: The Rockies provided alluvial and aeolian sediment that filled the ancient channels and eventually covered the entire area of the present-day aquifer, forming the water-bearing Ogallala Formation. In that respect, the process is similar to those currently prevailing in other modern rivers of the area, such as the Kansas River and its tributaries. The major differences are time and depth. The depth of

1860-484: The Texas Panhandle, the water table has been drained (dewatered). "Vast stretches of Texas farmland lying over the aquifer no longer support irrigation. In west-central Kansas, up to a fifth of the irrigated farmland along a 100-mile swath (160 km) of the aquifer has already gone dry." The center-pivot irrigation system is considered to be a highly efficient system which helps conserve water. However, by 2013, as

1922-415: The United States for ranching livestock , and growing corn , wheat , and soybeans . The success of large-scale farming in areas that do not have adequate precipitation and do not always have perennial surface water for diversion has depended heavily on pumping groundwater for irrigation. Early settlers of the semiarid High Plains were plagued by crop failures due to cycles of drought , culminating in

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1984-424: The amount of evaporation, which in turn increases the amount of caliche in the soil. Both mechanisms reduce the amount of recharge water that reaches the water table. Recharge in the aquifer ranges from 0.024 inches (0.61 mm) per year in parts of Texas and New Mexico to 6 inches (150 mm) per year in south-central Kansas. The regions overlying the Ogallala Aquifer are some of the most productive regions in

2046-574: The aquifer between 2001 and 2011 equated to a third of its cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. The Ogallala is recharged primarily by rainwater, but only about one inch of precipitation actually reaches the aquifer annually. Rainfall in most of the Texas High Plains is minimal, evaporation is high, and infiltration rates are slow. During the 1990s, the aquifer held some three billion acre-feet of groundwater used for crop irrigation as well as drinking water in urban areas. The demand for

2108-407: The aquifer from the land surface. However, the soil of the playa lakes is different and not lined with caliche, making these some of the few areas where the aquifer can recharge. The destruction of playas by farmers and development decreases the available recharge area. The prevalence of the caliche is partly due to the ready evaporation of soil moisture and the semiarid climate; the aridity increases

2170-471: The aquifer, but levels are generally still dropping in areas including southwestern Kansas and the Texas Panhandle . In other areas, such as parts of eastern and central Nebraska and of the region south of Lubbock, Texas , water levels have risen since 1980. The center-pivot irrigator was described as the "villain" in a 2013 New York Times article, "Wells Dry, Fertile Plains Turn to Dust" recounting

2232-469: The aquifer. An aquifer is a groundwater storage reservoir in the water cycle . While groundwater is a renewable source, reserves replenish relatively slowly. The USGS has performed several studies of the aquifer, to determine what is coming in ( groundwater recharge from the surface), what is leaving (water pumped out and baseflow to streams), and what the net changes in storage are (rise, fall or no change). The USGS estimated that total water storage

2294-470: The basin. Farmers on their own land may draw water from the aquifer without charge. Pumping costs are low because the fuel used, natural gas , is inexpensive. The North Plains district first established limits on pumping in 2005 and tightened the regulations four years later. Certain wells are now required to have meters. Yet another challenge facing the district is that higher prices for crops have prompted some to plant additional fields and further increase

2356-749: The central portion of the great North American Continent there lies an arid and repulsive desert, which for many a long year served as a barrier against the advance of civilisation. From the Sierra Nevada to Nebraska, and from the Yellowstone River in the north to the Colorado upon the south, is a region of desolation and silence. Nor is Nature always in one mood throughout this grim district. It comprises snow-capped and lofty mountains, and dark and gloomy valleys. There are swift-flowing rivers which dash through jagged cañons; and there are enormous plains, which in winter are white with snow, and in summer are grey with

2418-413: The country after Alaska . In contrast to the stagnant population growth in the northern and western High Plains, cities in west Texas have shown sustained growth; Amarillo and Lubbock both have populations above 200,000 and have continued to grow. Smaller towns, on the other hand, often struggle to sustain their population . Ogallala Aquifer The Ogallala Aquifer ( oh-gə- LAH -lə )

2480-444: The disastrous Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Only after World War II , when center-pivot irrigation became available, was the land mass of the High Plains aquifer system transformed into one of the most agriculturally productive regions in the world. Ground water levels decline when the rate of extraction by irrigation exceeds the rate of recharge. At places, the water table was measured to drop more than 5 ft (1.5 m) per year at

2542-408: The earlier reports had been accurate and the climate had changed. Some even credited the settlers themselves as having caused the change by planting crops and trees. The slogan " rain follows the plow " described this belief, which today is discredited. Whether the agricultural productivity of the region in modern times can continue for much longer is in doubt. It has been demonstrated that while there

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2604-525: The eye in their extent and monotony." Descriptions such as Irving's led some geography textbooks of the time to show sand dunes and camels in the area of what is now Kansas and Nebraska. While many other travelers reported similar conditions and conclusions, there were problems in the interpretation and the use of the word "desert", as descriptions of the American High Plains almost always included comments about "Innumerable Herds of Buffaloes ", which

2666-407: The hazards of overpumping. The rate at which groundwater is recharged is limited by several factors. Much of the plains region is semiarid , with steady winds that hasten evaporation of surface water and precipitation. In many locations, the aquifer is overlain, in the vadose zone , with a shallow layer of caliche that is practically impermeable ; this limits the amount of water able to recharge

2728-468: The irrigated land in the entire United States lies over the aquifer, which yields about 30% of the ground water used for irrigation in the United States. The aquifer is at risk of over-extraction and pollution. Since 1950, agricultural irrigation has reduced the saturated volume of the aquifer by an estimated 9%. Once depleted, the aquifer will take over 6,000 years to replenish naturally through rainfall. The aquifer system supplies drinking water to 82% of

2790-491: The lead agency in the transboundary pipeline project, the U.S. State Department commissioned an environmental-impact assessment as required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 . The Environmental Impact Statement concluded that the project posed little threat of "adverse environmental impacts", the report was drafted by Cardno Entrix , a company that assisted both the Department of State and

2852-480: The long-term sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the nation’s water needs." According to Matthew Sanderson, a professor of sociology at Kansas State University , these trends are exacerbated by an agricultural subsidy system and a United States tax code that encourage overinvestment in water-using technology due to a treadmill of production . Robertson suggests federal policy reforms to increase incentives to conserve groundwater, such as amendments to

2914-440: The northern region while the southern region had the poorest. Human and natural processes over the past 60 to 70 years, including irrigation density, climate, and nitrogen applications, have caused higher concentrations of contaminants including nitrates. Nitrate levels generally meet USGS water quality standards, but continue to gradually increase over time. This trend can impact the future groundwater sustainability for portions of

2976-401: The plains to Oregon and California , the wasteland connotation of "desert" was seen to be false, but the sense of the region as uninhabitable remained until irrigation and railroad transportation made up for the lack of surface water and wood. The region's relative lack of water and wood affected the development of the United States. Settlers heading westward often attempted to pass through

3038-497: The popular belief that the land was commercially valueless. By the mid-19th century, people had begun settling in the region despite its poor reputation. The local inhabitants came to realize the area was at the time well suited for farming, due in part to the fact that large portions of the region sit atop one of the world's largest groundwater reservoirs, the Ogallala Aquifer . Experts of the era proposed theories that maintained

3100-428: The region are shortgrass prairie , prickly pear cacti and scrub . Sagebrush steppe is also present, particularly in high and dry areas closer to the Rocky Mountains. Agriculture in the forms of cattle ranching and the growing of wheat , corn , and sunflower is the primary economic activity in the region. The region's aridity necessitates either dryland farming methods or irrigation; much water for irrigation

3162-428: The region as quickly as possible, on the way to what was considered to be better land farther west. These early settlers gave telling names to the various streams of the region, such as "Sweet water Creek" or "Poison Creek". Because it was not considered desirable, the area became one of the last strongholds of independent American Indians . Railroad interests seeking rights-of-way through the region also benefited from

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3224-536: The relentless decline of parts of the Ogallala Aquifer. Sixty years of intensive farming using huge center-pivot irrigators has emptied parts of the High Plains Aquifer. Hundreds to thousands of years of rainfall would be needed to replace the groundwater in the depleted aquifer. In Kansas in 1950, irrigated cropland covered 250,000 acres (100,000 ha); with the use of center-pivot irrigation, nearly three million acres of land were irrigated. In some places in

3286-573: The saline alkali dust. They all preserve, however, the common characteristics of barrenness, inhospitality, and misery. 30°0′N 107°0′W  /  30.000°N 107.000°W  / 30.000; -107.000 High Plains (United States) The High Plains are a subregion of the Great Plains , mainly in the Western United States , but also partly in the Midwest states of Nebraska, Kansas, and South Dakota, generally encompassing

3348-419: The scarcity of wood and water, almost uniformly prevalent, will prove an insuperable obstacle in the way of settling the country. These perceptions were echoed by Washington Irving , who wrote in 1836 "The region, which resembles one of the ancient steppes of Asia, has not inaptly been termed The Great American Desert. It spreads forth into undulating and treeless plains and desolate sandy wastes, wearisome to

3410-585: The term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Prior to 1916, the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, in contrast to the lower Prairie Plains of the Midwestern states. Today, the term "High Plains" is usually used for a subregion instead of the whole of the Great Plains. The High Plains has a "cold semi-arid" climate — Köppen BSk —receiving between 10–20 in (250–510 mm) of precipitation annually. Due to low moisture and high elevation,

3472-458: The term desert also had the connotation of "unfit for farming." The High Plains region is mostly semi-arid grassland and steppe . Today much of the region supports agriculture through the use of aquifer water irrigation , but in the 19th century, the area's relative lack of water and wood made it seem unfit for settler farming. When the region was obtained by the United States as part of

3534-473: The time of maximum extraction. In extreme cases, the deepening of wells was required to reach the steadily falling water table. In the 21st century, recognition of the significance of the aquifer has led to increased coverage from regional and international journalists. Water conservation practices ( terracing and crop rotation ), more efficient irrigation methods (center pivot and drip ), and reduced area under irrigation have helped to slow depletion of

3596-549: The town of Ogallala, Nebraska . The aquifer is part of the High Plains Aquifer System, and resides in the Ogallala Formation , which is the principal geologic unit underlying 80% of the High Plains . Large-scale extraction for agricultural purposes started after World War II due partially to center pivot irrigation and to the adaptation of automotive engines to power groundwater wells. Today about 27% of

3658-501: The water outstrips its replenishment. The water level is particularly on the decline in Texas and New Mexico. Continued long-term use of the aquifer is "troublesome and in need of major reevaluation," according to the historian Paul H. Carlson , professor-emeritus from Texas Tech University in Lubbock . In 2008, TransCanada Corporation proposed the construction of the 1,661-mile (2,673 km) Keystone XL pipeline to carry oil from

3720-646: The western part of the Great Plains before the region reaches the Rocky Mountains . The High Plains are located in eastern Montana , southeastern Wyoming , southwestern South Dakota , western Nebraska , eastern Colorado , western Kansas , eastern New Mexico , the Oklahoma Panhandle , and the Texas Panhandle . The southern region of the Western High Plains ecology region contains the geological formation known as Llano Estacado which can be seen from

3782-606: Was about 2,925,000,000 acre-feet (3,608 km ) in 2005. Withdrawals from the Ogallala Aquifer for irrigation amounted to 26 km (21,000,000 acre⋅ft) in 2000. Since major groundwater pumping began in the late 1940s, overdraft from the High Plains Aquifer has amounted to 332,000,000 acre-feet (410 km ), 85% of the volume of Lake Erie. Many farmers in the Texas High Plains , which rely particularly on groundwater, are now turning away from irrigated agriculture as pumping costs have risen and as they have become aware of

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3844-444: Was written on Pike's map just above "not a stick of timber". The giant herds and teeming wildlife of the Great Plains were well known by the time the term Great American Desert came into common use, undermining the idea of a wasteland; however, the relevant concept inherent in the reports of the region was that it could not be farmed, something the reports generally agreed on. By the middle of the 19th century, as settlers migrated across

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