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100-462: The Gravina Island Highway begins at a cul-de-sac on the coast of Gravina Island, at the point where the originally proposed bridge would have spanned. The highway then proceeds westward, as a two-lane, unpaved gravel road. After a short length, the road turns northward, passing a few small lakes, and a large forest. The roadway continues northwest, passing several small creeks, a small pond, and an unpaved private driveway. The highway then crosses over

200-498: A no-through road or no-exit road , is a street with only one combined inlet and outlet. The term "dead end" is not the most common expression used in all English-speaking places. Official terminology and traffic signs include many alternatives, some only used regionally. In the United States, a cul-de-sac is often not an exact synonym for "dead end " and refers to a dead end street with a circular end allowing for easy turning at

300-435: A place , a special place, a handsome place, a safe place, a welcoming place, a place where you might wish to live." "narrowness and enclosure and intimacy bring a feeling of safety to Roslyn Place... 'Stay on our street' is all the kids have to know". Gated communities , whose numbers steadily increase worldwide, use cul-de-sac and loop street networks because the dendrite structure reduces the number of through roads and thus

400-459: A 2010 study on sprawl in North America by a legal expert concludes that "neighborhoods dominated by cul-de-sacs are less walkable than those that include street grids.   ... On the other hand, cul-de-sacs do have a countervailing public benefit: because of their very inaccessibility, they tend to have less automobile traffic. Given the existence of important public policy goals on both sides,

500-561: A Loss, and be in Confusion and Suspense; or if he pushes on daringly, may be easily destroyed. The same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle , when he criticized the Hippodamian grid : ... but for security in war [the arrangement is more useful if it is planned in] the opposite [manner], as it used to be in ancient times. For that [arrangement] is difficult for foreign troops to enter and find their way about when attacking. In

600-509: A bridge to the island, and another $ 75 million to connect it to the power grid with an electrical intertie. The Ketchikan Borough Assembly turned the proposal down when the administration of Governor Tony Knowles also expressed its disfavor to the idea. Eventually, the corporation's prison plans led to the exposure of the wide-ranging Alaska political corruption probe , which eventually ensnared U.S. Senator Ted Stevens . The bridge idea persisted. The 2005 Highway Bill provided for $ 223m to build

700-476: A city seeking to maximize walkability should not favor cul-de-sacs over grids, but should also allow some cul-de-sacs as a legitimate residential option.   ... In addition, there are "middle ground" alternatives between prohibiting cul-de-sacs and mandating them. For example, a city could encourage cul-de-sacs combined with pedestrian walkways." This design combination is shown in the Village Homes layout and

800-505: A cul-de-sac or being on a through-street. It also established again that simple, linear cul-de-sacs with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly-used permeability is a crime hazard. More generally, the New Urbanism movement has offered criticism of

900-560: A cul-de-sac street as does social networking. Design guidelines based on the CPTED perspective recommend its use for those reasons. Cul-de-sac streets increase spontaneous outdoor activity by children. A study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and cul-de-sacs. The findings indicate that cul-de-sacs showed substantial increase in play activity than

1000-428: A disconnected network of cul-de-sac and looped streets is inconvenient and non-intuitive, particularly when combined with curvilinear geometry. Loss of orientation and sense of direction is also a common experience in older cities with cul-de-sac streets (Medina of Arab cities or Mediterranean hill towns ) as well as in cities with highly-irregular block geometries and sizes and corresponding street alignments that produce

1100-465: A framework for urban planning decision-making. Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision-making process. Most urban planning processes use a top-down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working. Sherry Arnstein 's "ladder of citizen participation" is often used by many urban planners and city governments to determine

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1200-810: A grid but irregular. The western part of the excavated village, where the workers lived, shows fifteen narrow and short dead ends laid out perpendicularly on either side of a wider, straight street; all terminate at the enclosing walls. Dead end streets also appeared during the classical period of Athens and Rome . The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes. He writes: The Ancients in All Towns were for having some intricate Ways and turn again Streets [i.e., dead ends or loops], without any Passage through them, that if an Enemy comes into them, he may be at

1300-543: A grid by blocking through-traffic. Whole neighbourhood street reconfigurations emerged in several cities, mainly concentrated in North America and the UK, which include Berkeley, California ; Seattle, Washington ; and Vancouver, British Columbia . The transformation of grid plans since the 1970s limits access to an existing road that is newly designated as a major artery , enabling traffic to move smoothly on it, alleviating residents' concerns. This selective, sporadic transformation

1400-422: A hard time turning around, which means that children who live in a cul-de-sac must often walk to a bus stop on a main through-road. However, recent research on obesity and urban planning suggests that to be a possible advantage because it enables children to get daily physical activity. Longer walking distances, however, reduce interest to use buses especially when a car is available. This disincentive to walking to

1500-414: A labyrinthine effect. The long history of such cities implies that an irregular, complicated street network that appears entirely illegible to a visitor is well understood and used by the inhabitants. More convincing about its workability for their permanent residents are the case histories of cities such as Regensburg that show a gradual transformation of an imported or imposed orthogonal, "legible" grid to

1600-448: A loop, and 0% the grid. Only 13% of grid street residents preferred their own type and 54% would choose a cul-de-sac. Two other studies, reported in 1990 and 2009 respectively, confirmed the upward trend and determined the premium that cul-de-sac streets command. The first found a 29% premium over the streets in a grid. The second, focused on trails and greenbelts, found that other amenities including cul-de-sac streets add significantly to

1700-532: A modified, improved version of it, mentioned above, that enables pedestrian and bicycle through-movement. While this more permeable version can be applied in new developments easily, modifying existing impermeable cul-de-sac streets is problematic as it encounters property ownership issues. Efforts in that direction are, however, being made. Because of the complicated legal process and the sheer number of existing cul-de-sac streets, however, such efforts would be slow to produce results and may have little impact in changing

1800-421: A period of rapid economic and city expansion, when a detached house on a large lot meant an ideal form of habitation. The temporal coincidence of the wide adoption of a street type and an increasing demand for large lots and houses suggests a necessary relationship between street type and unit density. Historically, however, the earliest systematic application of the cul-de-sac street type by Raymond Unwin (1909) had

1900-455: A return to the 19th century gridiron is undesirable. The decrease in traffic, in turn, is thought to lower the incidence of crime and increase desirability, because in most cases the people who traverse the cul-de-sac either live there or are guests of those who do. CPTED planning principles suggest increased natural surveillance and sense of ownership as a means of fostering security in a neighbourhood. Both of these phenomena occur naturally on

2000-411: A school bus-stop can be overcome in planned cul-de-sac streets by regulating their maximum length to about 500 ft (150 m), as was recommended and practiced by R. Unwin and others. Weighing available evidence has led a few US cities including Austin, Texas ; Charlotte, North Carolina ; and Portland, Oregon , to restrict and regulate the inclusion of cul-de-sac streets in new suburbs. However,

2100-434: A significant role in traffic safety and should be considered in conjunction with the network pattern. While all intersection types in general increase the incidence of fatal crashes, four-way intersections, which rarely occur in a network with cul-de-sac or loop streets, increase total and injurious crashes significantly. The study recommends hybrid street networks with dense concentrations of T-intersections, and concludes that

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2200-584: A similar incentive was provided to developers by CMHC . The incentives, which were discontinued in the 1970s, gave the initial impetus for the application of the hierarchical pattern. In other countries, such incentives do not exist, and adoption is motivated by customer preferences. American urban planning , in the 19th and the early 20th centuries, emphasized a grid plan , partly out of extensive reliance on foot, horse, ⁰and trams for transportation. In such earlier urban development, alleys were included to allow for deliveries of soiled supplies, such as coal, to

2300-435: A two-lane, gravel access road to the international airport. The Gravina Island Highway officially ends here, as does state maintenance, but a gravel road continues northwest. The road to northwest connects to a much simpler road. The access road has a tunnel under the airport runway. In the early 1980s, the state of Alaska began a study to create an improved connection between Gravina Island and Revillagigedo Island . The study

2400-487: A unit density between 8 and 12 units per acre (20 and 30 per hectare), considerably higher than mid-to-late 20th century. Even in the 21st century, developments rarely achieve densities above 5 to 7 units per acre (12 to 17 per hectare) in the suburbs. Conversely, early 1950s suburban developments that were laid out on a grid exhibit similar low densities. Evidently, street, network type and density are not linked causally; other factors, such as land scarcity and income, influence

2500-427: A word or phrase seeming to have a negative connotation is replaced in street signs with a new coinage ("no outlet" is another alternative name used on street signs). Urban planning Urban planning , also known as town planning , city planning , regional planning , or rural planning in specific contexts, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and

2600-571: Is an integral part of the Fused Grid . George Orwell wrote in his 1946 article " Politics and the English Language " that the term "cul de sac" is another foreign word used in English as pretentious diction and is unnecessary. The word "cul-de-sac" and its synonyms or near synonyms "dead end" and "no exit" have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture, often with the result that

2700-538: Is an interdisciplinary field that includes civil engineering , architecture , human geography , politics , social science and design sciences . Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban design , public consultation , policy recommendations, implementation and management. It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban planners provide designs for streets, parks, buildings and other urban areas. Urban planners work with

2800-464: Is continuing. As traffic volumes increase and as cities decide to remove or reduce traffic on specific streets of central areas, streets are closed off using bollards or landscaping thus making new, originally unplanned dead ends and producing a new, functional blend of the inherited grid with newer street types. A recent variation of limiting traffic is managed closure by using retractable bollards that are activated only by designated card-holders. Since

2900-459: Is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian , Indus Valley , Minoan , and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE . Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in

3000-418: Is necessary not only in the general interest of the population, but, above all, for the sake of the children, whose health (amongst the working classes ) is mainly dependent on the opportunity of moving about in close connection with their dwelling places, without the danger of being run over. In the earlier periods, traffic was excluded from residential streets simply by gates or by employing the cul-de-sac. It

3100-411: Is not a necessary outcome of street network design and can be improved. The practice of naming orthogonal networks by numbers and letters in the corresponding cardinal directions has been criticized by Camilo Sitte as lacking imagination. Nonetheless, police and fire departments now use advanced GPS systems that quickly locate the destination and the shortest path to follow. School buses can also have

Gravina Island Highway - Misplaced Pages Continue

3200-634: Is the Geographic Information System (GIS) that is used to create a model of the existing planning and then to project future impacts on the society, economy and environment. Building codes and other regulations dovetail with urban planning by governing how cities are constructed and used from the individual level. Enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning , planning permissions , and building codes , as well as private easements and restrictive covenants . With recent advances in information and communication technologies and

3300-416: Is the body of scientific concepts, definitions, behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning. There are eight procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today: the rational-comprehensive approach, the incremental approach, the transactive approach, the communicative approach, the advocacy approach, the equity approach,

3400-402: Is unnecessary, or even harmful, as it market efficiency allows for effective land use. A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used. The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what

3500-410: Is viewed as a dynamic social and cultural construct , especially in contemporary, open, multicultural cities. Residential area street configuration can assist its emergence only by reducing through-traffic and increasing local pedestrian movement – a design goal for which connected cul-de-sac and looped streets are suited. Issues of pedestrian trip length and isolation are very evident in

3600-544: The Enlightenment period , several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities. During the Second French Empire , Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann , under the direction of Napoleon III , redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of

3700-740: The Foundation for the Built Environment in the UK for encouraging car transport for even short distances, as more direct connections are precluded by the geometry, which necessitates long travel distances even to physically-nearby locations. This increases fuel consumption and vehicle emissions and has negative effects on health by reducing walking and cycling rates. Related research in the United States by Richard Jackson has shown that people in car-based (cul-de-sac heavy) communities weigh on average 6 pounds (2.7 kg) more than those in traditional towns (with open grid networks). An extensive analysis of

3800-665: The Gravina Island Bridge between Gravina Island and nearby Ketchikan , on Revillagigedo Island . The provisions and earmarks were negotiated by Alaska's Rep. Don Young , who chaired the House Transportation Committee and were supported by the Chair of the Senate Appropriations Committee , Alaska's Senator Stevens. This bridge, nicknamed "The Bridge to Nowhere" by critics, was intended to replace

3900-491: The Internet of Things , an increasing number of cities are adopting technologies such as crowdsorced mobile phone sensing and machine learning to collect data and extract useful information to help make informed urban planning decisions. An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure. They formulate plans for

4000-562: The Radburn model in the late 1960s. In the 1960s the cul-de-sac attained systematic international application in planned new cities such as Doxiadis' Islamabad (1960). In the UK, new towns such as Harlow (1947) by Sir Frederick Gibberd and Milton Keynes (1967) incorporated cul-de-sacs and crescents in their layouts. Planning theorists have suggested the use of alternatives to cul-de-sacs. Most notably, Christopher Alexander et al., in his 1977 book " A Pattern Language " (pattern #49) suggests

4100-594: The United States (such as Radburn , New Jersey , and Village Homes , California ), England (such as Milton Keynes ), and Greece (such as Papagou , a suburb of Athens ). Acknowledging their use, Germany , under the 2009 amendment to the Road Traffic Act, introduced an additional sign for cul-de-sacs that are permeable to pedestrians and cyclists (see under signage below). A new system for organizing connected, permeable cul-de-sacs into complete neighbourhoods,

Gravina Island Highway - Misplaced Pages Continue

4200-420: The auto ferry which is currently the only connection between Ketchikan and its airport. While the federal earmark was withdrawn after meeting opposition from Oklahoma Senator Tom Coburn , though the state of Alaska received $ 300 million in transportation funding, the state of Alaska continued to study improvements in access to the airport, which could conceivably include improvements to the ferry service. Despite

4300-415: The fused grid , has been developed by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation . In the development context and planning literature of North America , cul-de-sacs have been associated with low-density residential development. Sustainable development theorists and proponents claim that to be, in some undefined way, inefficient. The increased prevalence of cul-de-sac streets occurred in the 1960s and 1970s,

4400-549: The water supply , identifying transportation patterns, recognizing food supply demands, allocating healthcare and social services, and analyzing the impact of land use. In order to predict how cities will develop and estimate the effects of their interventions, planners use various models. These models can be used to indicate relationships and patterns in demographic, geographic, and economic data. They might deal with short-term issues such as how people move through cities, or long-term issues such as land use and growth. One such model

4500-634: The 1920s, the garden city movement became more popular in the United States and, with it, came its design elements, such as the cul-de-sac. Clarence Stein , a main proponent of the movement, incorporated it in the Radburn, New Jersey (1929) subdivision, which was to become a model for subsequent neighborhood developments. The first modern cul-de-sac (1922) in America might be found in Buffalo, New York . The country's Federal Housing Authority (FHA) recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and

4600-662: The 1960s, the pattern has been the dominant road network structure of suburbs and exurbs in the United States, Canada, and Australia. It is also increasingly popular in Latin America , Western Europe , and China . In this pattern, there are only a few roads (relative to the number of cul-de-sac streets) leading out of the subdivision and into other subdivisions or onto major roads. In the US, these changes can be attributed to real-estate developers' desire to meet FHA guidelines and make federal home loans available to their customers. In Canada,

4700-511: The 19th century grew at a tremendous rate. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter of public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the Victorian era , was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate

4800-454: The 8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used orthogonal (or grid-like) plans. Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect and urban planner, is considered to be "the father of European urban planning", and the namesake of the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout. The ancient Romans also used orthogonal plans for their cities. City planning in the Roman world

4900-672: The Government Creek via the Government Creek Bridge, a 143-foot-long (44 m), two-lane, concrete-constructed bridge over the creek. The highway continues northwest, traveling near the coast for several miles, continuing through forests, before crossing Gravina Creek via the Gravina Creek Bridge, a 63-foot-long (19 m), two-lane, concrete-constructed bridge traveling over the creek. The road travels northwest for about another 0.1 miles (0.16 km), before intersecting

5000-702: The Multiple Nuclei Model among others. Participatory planning is an urban planning approach that involves the entire community in the planning process. Participatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Technical aspects of urban planning involve the application of scientific, technical processes, considerations and features that are involved in planning for land use , urban design , natural resources , transportation , and infrastructure . Urban planning includes techniques such as: predicting population growth , zoning , geographic mapping and analysis, analyzing park space, surveying

5100-501: The UK, their prior existence is implied by the Public Health Act 1875 , which banned their use in new developments. Inferential evidence of their earlier use can also be drawn from the text of a German architect, Rudolf Eberstadt, that explains their purpose and utility: We have, in our medieval towns, showing very commendable methods of cutting up the land. I ought to mention here that to keep traffic out of residential streets

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5200-418: The United States. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that around 2.5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to population elements of global migration. New planning theories have adopted non-traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and

5300-466: The amount of through-traffic (vehicular or pedestrian) that might notice an accident or crime victim in need of help. Proponents of cul-de-sacs and gated communities have in turn countered that the reduction in through-traffic makes any "stranger" much more recognisable in the closed local environment and thus reduces crime danger. That view has in turn been characterized as unrealistic. It is argued that, since only very few of all non-locals passing through

5400-449: The area are potential criminals, increased traffic should increase rather than decrease safety. Research has expanded the discussion on the disputed issue. A 2008 study did extensive spatial analysis and correlated several building, site plan and social factors with crime frequencies and identified subtle nuances to the contrasting positions. The study looked at, among others, a) dwelling types, b) unit density (site density) c) movement on

5500-436: The back-to-front housing arrangement where the front of the house fronts onto the cul-de-sac street while the rear fronts onto the main roads. Some of the problems can be mitigated by the newer practice of connecting the neighbouring roads and cul-de-sacs with public pedestrian or cycle paths. In effect, this removes the discontinuity aspect for these modes of transport. Built examples of such connected cul-de-sacs can be found in

5600-461: The built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas , such as transportation , communications , and distribution networks , and their accessibility . Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements . The primary concern was the public welfare , which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation , protection and use of

5700-530: The cognate fields of civil engineering, landscape architecture , architecture, and public administration to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability goals. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though today, urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning , zoning , economic development , environmental planning , and transportation planning . Creating

5800-545: The coming of the Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions. From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main lines, ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During

5900-453: The consequences of the industrial age , by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The following century would therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning, not representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm. At the beginning of the 20th century, urban planning began to be recognized as a separate profession. The Town and Country Planning Association

6000-433: The corresponding number of entries and exits that need to be controlled. Dead ends are traditionally considered safer traffic environments for children than normal streets, but research shows that areas with many dead ends in fact have higher rates of traffic accidents involving young children. This increased risk of death is due to multiple factors, including: Cul-de-sacs are criticised by urban designers like those of

6100-517: The cul-de-sac and crescent (loop) street types not intended to network with each other. It has been suggested that such street layouts can cause increased traffic on the collector streets. It is recognized that cul-de-sacs and looped streets inherently remove car traffic through them and restrict access to residents only. Resident traffic is naturally channelled to minor residential collectors and to arterials that provide inter-neighbourhood and inter-district connectivity. A study, reported in 1990, compared

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6200-551: The cul-de-sac street type among home buyers is implied by the evidence that they often pay up to a 20% premium for a home on such a street, according to one study. That could be because there is considerably less passing traffic, resulting in less noise and reduced actual or perceived risk, increasing the sense of tranquility. A survey of residents on three types of streets: cul-de-sac, loop, and through (grid) recorded their preferences among these types. It found that 82% of cul-de-sac residents preferred their own street type, 18% preferred

6300-424: The degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning. One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments. Additionally, in US there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government-funded infrastructure projects. Participatory urban planning has been criticized for contributing to

6400-497: The demise of the bridge proposal, Governor Sarah Palin spent $ 26 million in transportation funding for the planned access road on the island that ultimately served little use. The entire route is in Ketchikan Gateway Borough . Cul-de-sac A dead end , also known as a cul-de-sac ( / ˈ k ʌ l d ə s æ k , ˈ k ʊ l -/ ; French: [kydsak] , lit.   ' bag bottom ' ), or

6500-553: The development and management of urban and suburban areas. They typically analyze land use compatibility as well as economic, environmental, and social trends. In developing any plan for a community (whether commercial, residential, agricultural, natural or recreational), urban planners must consider a wide array of issues including sustainability , existing and potential pollution , transport including potential congestion , crime , land values, economic development, social equity, zoning codes, and other legislation. The importance of

6600-478: The edges of rivers and property lines. They also choose these discontinuous network patterns of cul-de-sac and loop streets because of the often significant economies in infrastructure costs compared to the grid plan . From an environmental perspective, cul-de-sacs allow greater flexibility than the common grid in adapting to the natural grades of a site and to its ecologically sensitive features, such as streams, creeks, and mature forest growth. The desirability of

6700-718: The efficient transportation of goods, resources, people, and waste; the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development; improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO 2 emissions as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments. Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments, recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes. Urban planning

6800-493: The end of World War II , new subdivisions in the United States and Canada, as well as New Towns in England and other countries have made extensive use of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loops) street types. Typically, there is one or several central roads in the subdivision with many cul-de-sac streets of varying length, branching out from the main roads, to fill the land in the subdivision, a dendrite or hierarchical pattern. Since

6900-626: The end of the road. In Australia, Canada, and some parts of the United States, a street is usually referred to as a court when it has a bulbous end. Dead ends are added to road layouts in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some dead ends provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists , pedestrians or other non-automotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths, an example of filtered permeability . The International Federation of Pedestrians proposed to call such streets "living end streets" and to provide signage at

7000-400: The engineer or architect does to the home, that is, make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants. The widely adopted consensus-building model of planning, which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon, rather than challenging, the power structures of the community. Instead, agonism has been proposed as

7100-554: The entry of the streets that make this permeability for pedestrians and cyclists clear. Its application retains the dead end's primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity. The earliest examples of dead ends were unearthed in the El Lahun workers' village in Egypt , which was built in c. 1885 BC. The village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to

7200-420: The environment, as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities. Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people, maintaining sustainability standards. Similarly, in the early 21st century, Jane Jacobs 's writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize

7300-490: The hierarchical but more conducive to short trips. Local trips in it are shorter in distance but about equivalent in time with the hierarchical layout. A later similar comparative traffic study of about 830 acres (3.4 km ; 340 ha) concluded that all types of layouts perform adequately in most land-use scenarios and that a refined hierarchical, dendrite network can improve traffic performance. Anecdotal and research evidence suggests that navigation (especially on foot) in

7400-520: The home value. The positive feelings that a cul-de-sac street could evoke, that residents value, are expressed vividly by Allan Jacobs in describing Roslyn Place , a short (250 ft [76 m]), narrow (60 ft [18 m]), densely built (14 du per acre [35 per hectare]), and wood-paved cul-de-sac in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania: "Step into Roslyn Place and you are likely to sense, immediately, that you are in

7500-448: The ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher crime rates and social problems. In the second half of the 20th century, urban planners gradually shifted their focus to individualism and diversity in urban centers. Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began to address the externalities, the negative impacts caused by induced demand from larger highway systems in western countries such as in

7600-481: The interests of residents, businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning. Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work, and play in a given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas . Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning

7700-460: The landscape of existing districts. Conversely, transforming existing streets that are part of a grid plan into permeable, linked cul-de-sacs, as was done in Berkeley, California , and Vancouver, British Columbia , is physically and administratively easy due to the public ownership of the street right-of-way. However, residents on adjacent through roads may resent the potential traffic increase and delay

7800-402: The length of car trips by the circuitous geometry of the dendrite network structure of which it is a part. Research studies examined the influence of several variables on the amount of car travel that residents of several types of districts recorded. Results vary considerably among them, but there is general agreement on a number of key correlations: a) the wealthier and the larger the family is,

7900-533: The more cars they own, and the more they drive, b) the farther away a family lives from the city centre, and the fewer the jobs in the vicinity, plus a slow bus service, the more they drive, and c) street patterns may add a 10% length to local trips, but the total VKTs are affected more by the "macro" urban than the "micro" neighbourhood structure. Cul-de-sacs, especially those that also limit pedestrian routes instead of only road-traffic routes, have also been criticised for negative effects on safety because they decrease

8000-594: The open grid street pattern. Cul-de-sacs reduce perceived danger from traffic, thereby encouraging more outdoor play. Similar studies in Europe and Australia found that children's outdoor play is significantly reduced on through roads where traffic is, or perceived by parents to be, a risk. In addition, they confirmed the results of the seminal Donald Appleyard 1982 study, which showed the negative correlation between amount of traffic and social networks. The inverse correlation between amounts of traffic and sociability of streets

8100-416: The outcome as, for example, in cities that are landlocked or that have low average incomes. Another concern is often voiced by emergency services, which can have difficulty locating streets when a community consists of a large number of similarly named cul-de-sacs; also, large fire response vehicles, in particular, can have great difficulty with turning around in a cul-de-sac. However, confusing street naming

8200-402: The outcome of an energy imbalance. Many contemporary lifestyle trends, some inevitable (sedentary work) and some avoidable (frequent energy-rich food consumption or the watching of television [four hours per day]), contribute to the imbalance and must be considered in understanding and combating obesity . The impermeability deficiency of the typical cul-de-sac street can be addressed by applying

8300-879: The plans requires a thorough understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning. Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning projects include the large-scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield projects as well as small-scale interventions and refurbishments of existing structures, buildings and public spaces. Pierre Charles L'Enfant in Washington, D.C., Daniel Burnham in Chicago, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Georges-Eugene Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch, and Robert Moses and Le Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas of urban planning. There

8400-694: The power of lending development funds. In Canada , a variation of Stein's Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents (loops) instead of cul-de-sacs was built in 1947: Wildwood Park, Winnipeg , designed by Hubert Bird. In 1954, the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation published its own guidelines in which the cul-de-sac was strongly recommended for local streets and, as the FHA in the US, used its lending power to see its inclusion in development plans. Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary , Alberta , also used

8500-476: The prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life of citizens by extending their potential lifespan. Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address anthropogenic (human caused) climate change . London began to charge a congestion charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city. Cities nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such policies. Planning theory

8600-455: The process. In Berkeley, the barriers used were permeable to both pedestrian and bicycle traffic and became the backbone of the bicycle boulevard system in that region. Increases in pedestrian and bicycle permeability may result in a displacement of local car trips for short-distance destinations and consequently a reduction in neighbourhood vehicle emissions. The impermeable cul-de-sac not only discourages walking and biking but also increases

8700-652: The radical approach, and the humanist or phenomenological approach. Some other conceptual planning theories include Ebenezer Howard 's The Three Magnets theory that he envisioned for the future of British settlement, also his Garden Cities , the Concentric Model Zone also called the Burgess Model by sociologist Ernest Burgess , the Radburn Superblock that encourages pedestrian movement, the Sector Model and

8800-474: The rear of houses that are now heated by electricity, piped natural gas or oil. The use of cul-de-sacs reduces the amount of car traffic on residential streets within the subdivision, thus reducing noise, air pollution, and the probability of accidents. Ben-Joseph (1995), and Lovegrove and Sayed (2006), indicate a substantially lower collision rate for street networks based on the cul-de-sac street type. Dumbaugh and Rae (2009) suggest that land-use patterns play

8900-399: The research evidence by TRB, however, shows only an association between the built environment and physical activity levels, not causal connections. The evidence also does not identify with certainty which characteristics of the built environment are most closely associated with physical activity behaviour. The study also warns against confusing inadequate physical activity with obesity which is

9000-455: The road network. This design feature reflects the predominance of pedestrian movement for local trips at the turn of the 20th century, and presages the current planning priority for increased pedestrian accessibility. The 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to 500 feet (150 m). Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City , all included cul-de-sacs. In

9100-429: The street, d) cul-de-sacs or grids, and e) the permeability of a residential area. Among its conclusions are, respectively, that a) flats are always safer than houses and the wealth of inhabitants matters, b) density is generally beneficial but more so at ground level, c) local movement is beneficial but larger-scale movement not so, d) relative affluence and the number of neighbours has a greater effect than either being on

9200-504: The traditional "confusing" street networks. Cul-de-sac and loop streets can reduce the size of any given neighbourhood to a single street. Neighbourhoods can be defined by geographic boundaries but more often it is shared ethnic, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics that produce social cohesion irrespective of apparent physical "boundaries". Mehaffy et al. (2010), who propose a model for structuring an urban network, suggest that neighbourhoods cannot be designed into being. "Community"

9300-412: The traffic performance in a 700-acre (2.8 km ; 280 ha) development that was laid out using two approaches, one with and the other without hierarchy or cul-de-sac streets. It concluded that the non-hierarchical, traditional layout generally shows lower peak speed and shorter, more frequent intersection delays than the hierarchical pattern. The traditional pattern is not as conducive to long trips as

9400-602: The urban planner is increasing in the 21st century, as modern society begins to face issues of increased population growth, climate change and unsustainable development. An urban planner could be considered a green collar professional. Some researchers suggest that urban planners, globally, work in different " planning cultures ", adapted to their cities and cultures. However, professionals have identified skills, abilities, and basic knowledge sets that are common to urban planners across regional and national boundaries. The school of neoclassical economics argues that planning

9500-481: The use of looped local roads which do not abruptly stop. Although dead end streets would fit his definition of looped local roads, Alexander suggestions that "cul-de-sacs [sic] are very bad from a social standpoint—they force interaction and they feel claustrophobic, because there is only one entrance". Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine. Originally-unplanned dead ends have been added in city centers that are laid out on

9600-422: Was conducted to find an easy and effective way for transport between the two islands, in order to allow the city of Ketchikan to expand to the developmental land on Gravina Island. In 2002, it was proposed that a for-profit prison corporation, Cornell Corrections , build a prison on the island. To connect the island with Ketchikan, it was originally planned that the federal government spend $ 175 million on building

9700-524: Was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries with

9800-617: Was founded in 1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool in 1909. In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, and lasted until the 1970s. In 1933, Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City, a city that grows up in the form of towers, as a solution to the problem of pollution and over-crowding. But many planners started to believe that

9900-626: Was in the United Kingdom that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with the Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. The proponents of the Act, Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, thus gained permission to introduce cul-de-sacs in their subsequent site plans, and they promoted it as a suitable street type for garden suburbs. Unwin's applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of

10000-819: Was reconfirmed by a newer study that repeated Appleyard's San Francisco analysis in Bristol, UK. It showed that the cul-de-sac street with the lowest traffic of the three streets had the highest level of social interaction. The studies recommend the use of the cul-de-sac or strong traffic calming measures. When cul-de-sacs are interconnected with foot and bike paths, as for example in Vauban, Freiburg and Village Homes in Davis, California , they can increase active modes of mobility among their residents. Real estate developers prefer cul-de-sacs because they allow builders to fit more houses into oddly-shaped tracts of land and facilitate building to

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