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70-403: The Grassroot Institute has published commentary on a variety of political issues, from a legal minimum wage to Hawaiian sovereignty. The Grassroot Institute conducts research and analysis of various issues from a free market perspective. Academic works are inspired by the writings of scholars such as Frederic Bastiat , Murray Rothbard , Milton Friedman , F.A. Hayek , and Adam Smith . Generally,

140-579: A free market and influenced the Austrian School . He is best known for his book The Law , where he argued that law must protect rights such as private property, not "plunder" others' property. Bastiat was born on 29 June 1801 in Bayonne , Aquitaine , a port town in the south of France on the Bay of Biscay . His father, Pierre Bastiat, was a prominent businessman in the town. His mother died in 1808 when Frédéric

210-542: A motion of no confidence , the Address of the 221 , against the king and Polignac 's ministry. The following day, Charles dissolved parliament, and alarmed the opposition by delaying elections for two months. During this time, the liberals championed the "221" as popular heroes, while the government struggled to gain support across the country, as prefects were shuffled around the departments of France . The elections that followed , taking place between 5 and 19 July 1830, returned

280-511: A crime" in which he includes the tax support of "protective tariffs, subsidies, guaranteed profits, guaranteed jobs, relief and welfare schemes, public education, progressive taxation, free credit, and public works". According to Bastiat, legal plunder can be committed in "an infinite number of ways. Thus, we have an infinite number of plans for organizing it: tariffs, protection, benefits, subsidies, encouragements, progressive taxation, public schools, guaranteed jobs, guaranteed profits, minimum wages,

350-625: A debate between 1849 and 1850 with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon about the legitimacy of interest. As Robert Leroux argued, Bastiat had the conviction that Proudhon's anti-interest doctrine "was the complete antithesis of any serious approach". Proudhon famously lost his temper and resorted to ad hominem attacks: "Your intelligence is asleep, or rather it has never been awake. You are a man for whom logic does not exist. You do not hear anything, you do not understand anything. You are without philosophy, without science, without humanity. Your ability to reason, like your ability to pay attention and make comparisons

420-464: A duty... It is for France to judge how far its own resistance ought to extend. Despite public anger over the police raid, Jean-Henri-Claude Magin, the Paris Préfet de police , wrote that evening: "the most perfect tranquility continues to reign in all parts of the capital. No event worthy of attention is recorded in the reports that have come through to me." Throughout the day, Paris grew quiet as

490-409: A law forbidding the usage of everyone's right hand, based on a presumption by some of his contemporaries that more difficulty means more work and more work means more wealth. Bastiat's most famous work is The Law , originally published as a pamphlet in 1850. It defines a just system of laws and then demonstrates how such law facilitates a free society. In The Law , Bastiat wrote that everyone has

560-653: A narrow majority for Polignac and his Ultra-royalists , but many Chamber members were nevertheless hostile to the king. On Sunday, 25 July 1830, the king, with the agreement of Polignac, set out to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. His decrees, known as the July Ordinances , dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, suspended the liberty of the press, excluded the commercial middle class from future elections, and called for new elections. On Monday 26 July, these decrees were published in

630-488: A petition in which they asked for the ordonnances to be withdrawn. The petition was critical "not of the King, but his ministers", thereby countering the conviction of Charles X that his liberal opponents were enemies of his dynasty. After signing the petition, committee members went directly to Marmont to beg for an end to the bloodshed, and to plead with him to become a mediator between Saint-Cloud and Paris. Marmont acknowledged

700-433: A result of this, every time we object to a thing being done by government, the socialists conclude that we object to its being done at all. We disapprove of state education. Then the socialists say that we are opposed to any education. We object to a state religion. Then the socialists say that we want no religion at all. We object to a state-enforced equality. Then they say that we are against equality. And so on, and so on. It

770-430: A right to protect "his person, his liberty, and his property". The state should be only a "substitution of a common force for individual forces" to defend this right. According to Bastiat, justice (meaning defense of one's life, liberty and property ) has precise limits, but if government power extends further into philanthropic endeavors, then government becomes so limitless that it can grow endlessly. The resulting statism

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840-455: A right to relief, a right to the tools of labor, free credit, and so on, and so on. All these plans as a whole — with their common aim of legal plunder — constitute socialism". Bastiat also made the following humorous point: "If the natural tendencies of mankind are so bad that it is not safe to permit people to be free, how is it that the tendencies of these organizers are always good? Do not the legislators and their appointed agents also belong to

910-500: A sweltering, unemployed mob angrily shouting, " À bas les Bourbons! " ("Down with the Bourbons!") and " Vive la Charte! " ("Long live the Charter!"). Armand Carrel , a journalist, wrote in the next day's edition of Le National : France... falls back into revolution by the act of the government itself... the legal regime is now interrupted, that of force has begun... in the situation in which we are now placed obedience has ceased to be

980-524: A time all is silent again so for a time one could believe that everything in the city was normal. But all the shops are shut; the Pont Neuf is almost completely dark, the stupefaction visible on every face reminds us all too much of the crisis we face.... In 1828, the city of Paris had installed some 2,000 street lamps . These lanterns were hung on ropes looped-on-looped from one pole to another, as opposed to being secured on posts. The rioting lasted well into

1050-407: A transfer of property via mutually agreed contracts without using fraud or violent threats against the other party, which Bastiat considered a legitimate transfer of property). In The Law , Bastiat explains that if the privileged classes or socialists use the government for legalized plunder, this will encourage the other socioeconomic class to also use legal plunder and that the correct response to

1120-458: A voluntary group of citizens formerly considered a reliable conduit between the monarchy and the people. Cooler heads were appalled: "[I] would rather have my head cut off", wrote a nobleman from the Rhineland upon hearing the news, "than have counseled such an act: the only further measure needed to cause a revolution is censorship." On 17 March 1830, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies passed

1190-566: Is Economic Sophisms , a series of essays (originally published in the Journal des économistes ) which contain a defence of free trade . Bastiat wrote the work while living in England to advise the shapers of the French Republic on perils to avoid. Economic Sophisms was translated and adapted for an American readership in 1867 by the economist and historian of money Alexander del Mar , writing under

1260-399: Is "based on this triple hypothesis: the total inertness of mankind, the omnipotence of the law, and the infallibility of the legislator". The public then becomes socially engineered by the legislator and must bend to the legislators' will "like the clay to the potter", saying: Socialism, like the ancient ideas from which it springs, confuses the distinction between government and society. As

1330-438: Is as if the socialists were to accuse us of not wanting persons to eat because we do not want the state to raise grain. I do not dispute their right to invent social combinations, to advertise them, to advocate them, and to try them upon themselves, at their own expense and risk. But I do dispute their right to impose these plans upon us by law – by force – and to compel us to pay for them with our taxes. Bastiat posits that

1400-553: Is zero. Scientifically, Mr. Bastiat, you are a dead man." Bastiat asserted that the sole purpose of government is to protect the right of an individual to life, liberty and property and that it is dangerous and morally wrong for government to interfere with an individual's other personal matters. From this, Bastiat concluded that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes legal or legalized plunder which he defined as using government force and laws to take something from one individual and give it to others (as opposed to

1470-466: The Journal des débats , Le Moniteur , and Le Constitutionnel had already ceased publication in compliance with the new law, nearly 50 journalists from a dozen city newspapers met in the offices of Le National . There they signed a collective protest, and vowed their newspapers would continue to run. That evening, when police raided a news press and seized contraband newspapers, they were greeted by

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1540-580: The Austrian School , with Thornton positing that through taking this position on the motivations of human action he demonstrates a pronounced "Austrian flavor." Bastiat died in Rome and is buried at San Luigi dei Francesi in the center of that city. July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830 , also known as the July Revolution ( French : révolution de Juillet ), Second French Revolution , or Trois Glorieuses ("Three Glorious [Days]"),

1610-516: The French liberal school . A member of the French National Assembly , Bastiat developed the economic concept of opportunity cost and introduced the parable of the broken window . He was described as "the most brilliant economic journalist who ever lived" by economic theorist Joseph Schumpeter . As an advocate of classical economics and the economics of Adam Smith , his views favored

1680-560: The Garde Royale in the Champ de Mars , the king was greeted with icy silence, and many of the spectators refused to remove their hats, the traditional sign of respect for the king. Charles X "later told [his cousin] Orléans that, 'although most people present were not too hostile, some looked at times with terrible expressions'." Because of what Charles X's government perceived to be growing, relentless, and increasingly vitriolic criticism of both

1750-709: The Hôtel de Ville , had been captured. The amount of looting during these three days was surprisingly small ; not only at the Louvre —whose paintings and objets d'art were protected by the crowd—but the Tuileries, the Palais de Justice , the Archbishop's Palace , and other places as well. A few hours later, politicians entered the battered complex and set about establishing a provisional government. Though there would be spots of fighting throughout

1820-868: The July Monarchy ; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch , the House of Orléans ; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by that of popular sovereignty . Supporters of the Bourbons would be called Legitimists , and supporters of Louis Philippe were known as Orléanists . In addition, there continued to be Bonapartists supporting the return of Napoleon's descendants. Revolutionary victory [REDACTED] Revolutionaries Support : [REDACTED] Government of France Support : After Napoleonic France 's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , Continental Europe, and France in particular,

1890-405: The ordonnances vital to the safety and dignity of the throne of France. Thus, the King would not withdraw the ordonnances . At 4 pm, Charles X received Colonel Komierowski, one of Marmont's chief aides. The colonel was carrying a note from Marmont to his Majesty: Sire, it is no longer a riot, it is a revolution. It is urgent for Your Majesty to take measures for pacification. The honour of

1960-466: The socialists is to cease all legal plunder. Bastiat also explains why his opinion is that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes socialist policies. When used to obtain legalized plunder for any group, he says that the law is perverted against the only things (life, liberty and property) it is supposed to defend. Bastiat was a strong supporter of free trade who was inspired by and routinely corresponded with Richard Cobden and

2030-511: The Chamber of Deputies. Such membership was indispensable to those who sought the ultimate in social prestige. In protest, members of the Bourse refused to lend money, and business owners shuttered their factories. Workers were unceremoniously turned out into the street to fend for themselves. Unemployment, which had been growing through early summer, spiked. "Large numbers of... workers therefore had nothing to do but protest." While newspapers such as

2100-504: The Congress. Although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. He suggested that France be restored to her "legitimate" (i.e. pre-Napoleonic) borders and governments—a plan that, with some changes, was accepted by the major powers. France was spared large annexations and returned to its 1791 borders. The House of Bourbon, deposed by

2170-524: The English Anti-Corn Law League and worked with free-trade associations in France. Because of his emphasis on the mutual gains to be had from free exchange, on subjective value, and on the importance of deductive reasoning (as opposed to mathematical models) in deriving economic conclusions, Bastiat has been described by Mark Thornton , Thomas DiLorenzo and other economists as a forerunner of

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2240-517: The Mugron estate. Bastiat accompanied him and cared for him. The next year when Bastiat was 24, his grandfather died, leaving him the family estate, thereby providing him with the means to further his theoretical inquiries. Bastiat developed intellectual interests in several areas including philosophy, history, politics, religion, travel, poetry, political economy and biography. After the middle-class Revolution of 1830 , Bastiat became politically active and

2310-589: The Revolution, was restored to the throne in the person of Louis XVIII . The Congress, however, forced Louis to grant a constitution, the Charter of 1814 . On 16 September 1824, after a lingering illness of several months, the 68-year-old Louis XVIII died. As he was childless, his younger brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. He was known to have more reactionary politics. On 27 September Charles X made his state entry into Paris to popular acclaim. During

2380-897: The Southern Provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , leading to separation and the establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium . There was also a successful revolution in Brunswick . The example of the July Revolution also inspired unsuccessful revolutions in Italy and the November Uprising in Poland. Two years later, Parisian republicans, disillusioned by the outcome and underlying motives of

2450-515: The State of Hawaii's efforts to form and gain federal recognition of a race-based, sovereign nation. The lawsuit, filed in 2015, seeks to block state-funded race-based elections in Hawaii. Frederic Bastiat Claude-Frédéric Bastiat ( / b ɑː s t i ˈ ɑː / ; French: [klod fʁedeʁik bastja] ; 30 June 1801 – 24 December 1850) was a French economist, writer and a prominent member of

2520-405: The arm depots or gunpowder factories. For a time, those precautions seemed premature, but at 7:00 pm, with the coming of twilight, the fighting began. "Parisians, rather than soldiers, were the aggressor. Paving stones, roof tiles, and flowerpots from the upper windows... began to rain down on the soldiers in the streets". At first, soldiers fired warning shots into the air. But before the night

2590-512: The ceremony, while presenting the King the keys to the city, the comte de Chabrol, Prefect of the Seine, declared: "Proud to possess its new king, Paris can aspire to become the queen of cities by its magnificence, as its people aspire to be foremost in its fidelity, its devotion, and its love." Eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king. The causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but

2660-501: The city for the next few days, the revolution, for all intents and purposes, was over. The revolution of July 1830 created a constitutional monarchy. On 2 August, Charles X and his son the Dauphin abdicated their rights to the throne and departed for Great Britain. Although Charles had intended that his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux , would take the throne as Henry V, the politicians who composed

2730-578: The constitution and the Chamber of Deputies with the people of Paris, the king's relationship with the élite—both the Bourbon supporters and Bourbon opposition—had remained solid. This, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the government's proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal "a victory over

2800-495: The crown can still be saved. Tomorrow, perhaps, there will be no more time... I await with impatience Your Majesty's orders. The king asked Polignac for advice, and the advice was to resist. "They (the king and ministers) do not come to Paris", wrote the poet, novelist and playwright Alfred de Vigny , "people are dying for them ... Not one prince has appeared. The poor men of the guard abandoned without orders, without bread for two days, hunted everywhere and fighting." Perhaps for

2870-655: The events in Paris by his ministers, who insisted that the troubles would end as soon as the rioters ran out of ammunition. Marmont's plan was to have the Garde Royale and available line units of the city garrison guard the vital thoroughfares and bridges of the city, as well as protect important buildings such as the Palais Royal , Palais de Justice , and the Hôtel de Ville . This plan was both ill-considered and wildly ambitious; not only were there not enough troops, but there were also nowhere near enough provisions. The Garde Royale

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2940-428: The forces of counter-revolutionaries and reactionism." The popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped. The Coronation of Charles took place at Reims Cathedral on 29 May 1825. In an elaborate ceremony the King swore both to uphold the Charter but also France's ancient "fundamental laws". On 16 April 1827, while reviewing

3010-521: The government and the Church, it introduced a proposal at the Chamber of Deputies for a law to tighten censorship, especially of newspapers. The Chamber, for its part, objected so violently that the humiliated government had no choice but to withdraw its proposals. On 30 April, on the grounds that it had behaved in an offensive manner towards the crown, the king abruptly dissolved the National Guard of Paris,

3080-456: The human race? Or do they believe that they themselves are made of a finer clay than the rest of mankind?" In his 1850 essay "Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas" (" What is seen and what is not seen "), Bastiat introduced through the parable of the broken window the concept of opportunity cost in all but name. This term was not coined until over sixty years after his death by Friedrich von Wieser in 1914. Bastiat also famously engaged in

3150-608: The institute opposes tax increases, such as Hawaii's General Excise Tax . The Grassroot Institute of Hawaii supports reform of the Jones Act that would address its disproportionate shipbuilding and cargo shipping restrictions effect on Hawaii. The Grassroot Institute of Hawaii has been a vocal critic of the Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation's rail project in Honolulu. The Institute hasn't made any public comments on whether

3220-417: The law becomes perverted when it punishes one's right to self-defense (of his life, liberty and property) in favor of another's right to legalized plunder which he defines as "if the law takes from some persons what belongs to them and gives it to other persons to whom it does not belong. See if the law benefits one citizen at the expense of another by doing what the citizen himself cannot do without committing

3290-490: The leading conservative newspaper in Paris, Le Moniteur . On Tuesday 27 July, a revolution began in earnest Les trois journées de juillet , and ultimately ended the Bourbon monarchy. It was a hot, dry summer, pushing those who could afford it to leave Paris for the country. Most businessmen could not, and so were among the first to learn of the Saint-Cloud "Ordinances", which banned them from running as candidates for

3360-541: The legislative assembly to which he was elected in 1848 and 1849) and ended his life. In The Law , he wrote: "Until the day of my death, I shall proclaim this principle with all the force of my lungs (which alas! is all too inadequate)". This last line is understood by translators to be a reference to the effects of his tuberculosis. During the autumn of 1850, he was sent to Italy by his doctors, and he first traveled to Pisa, then to Rome. On 24 December 1850, Bastiat called those with him to approach his bed and murmured twice

3430-536: The main two were: Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, and by so doing of violating guarantees of equality of religious belief as specified in the Charter of 1814. The second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. Since the restoration of the monarchy, there had been demands from all groups to settle matters of property ownership in order to reduce, if not eliminate,

3500-706: The milling crowds grew larger. At 4:30 pm commanders of the troops of the First Military division of Paris and the Garde Royale were ordered to concentrate their troops, and guns, on the Place du Carrousel facing the Tuileries , the Place Vendôme , and the Place de la Bastille . In order to maintain order and protect gun shops from looters, military patrols throughout the city were established, strengthened, and expanded. However, no special measures were taken to protect either

3570-519: The night until most of them had been destroyed by 10:00 PM, forcing the crowds to slip away. Fighting in Paris continued throughout the night. One eyewitness wrote: It is hardly a quarter past eight, and already shouts and gun shots can be heard. Business is at a complete standstill.... Crowds rushing through the streets... the sound of cannon and gunfire is becoming ever louder.... Cries of " À bas le roi!', 'À la guillotine!! " can be heard.... Charles X ordered Maréchal Auguste Marmont , Duke of Ragusa,

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3640-403: The on-duty Major-General of the Garde Royale , to repress the disturbances. Marmont was personally liberal, and opposed to the ministry's policy, but was bound tightly to the King because he believed such to be his duty; and possibly because of his unpopularity for his generally perceived and widely criticized desertion of Napoleon in 1814. The king remained at Saint-Cloud, but was kept abreast of

3710-457: The palace cellars." Earlier that day, the Louvre had fallen, even more quickly. Swiss troops of the Royal Army, confronted by the mob and under orders from Marmont not to fire unless fired upon, were withdrawn by their officers who feared a repetition of the massacre of Swiss Guards that had occurred when the Tuileries had been stormed on 10 August 1792 . By mid-afternoon, the greatest prize,

3780-440: The petition, but stated that the people of Paris would have to lay down arms first for a settlement to be reached. Discouraged but not despairing, the party then sought out the king's chief minister, de Polignac – " Jeanne d'Arc en culottes ". From Polignac they received even less satisfaction. He refused to see them, perhaps because he knew that discussions would be a waste of time. Like Marmont, he knew that Charles X considered

3850-409: The presence of mind to call for additional troops from Saint-Denis, Vincennes, Lunéville, or Saint-Omer; neither did he ask for help from reservists or those Parisians still loyal to Charles X. The Bourbon opposition and supporters of the July Revolution swarmed to his headquarters demanding the arrest of Polignac and the other ministers, while supporters of the Bourbon and city leaders demanded he arrest

3920-604: The provisional government instead placed on the throne a distant cousin, Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans , who agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch. This period became known as the July Monarchy . Supporters of the exiled senior line of the Bourbon dynasty became known as Legitimists . The July Column , located on Place de la Bastille , commemorates the events of the Three Glorious Days. This renewed French Revolution sparked an August uprising in Brussels and

3990-621: The pseudonym Emile Walter. Contained within Economic Sophisms is the satirical parable known as the candlemakers' petition in which candlemakers and tallow producers lobby the Chamber of Deputies of the French July Monarchy (1830–1848) to block out the Sun to prevent its unfair competition with their products. Also included in the Sophisms is a facetious petition to the king asking for

4060-516: The rail should stop at Middle Street, which is a popular belief among opponents. The only official position of the Institute is that HART be subject to an independent audit for fraud, waste and abuse. In 2017, the Institute launched the campaign to audit the rail, which eventually gained momentum and resulted in a financial and management audit by Hawaii state auditor Les Kondo in 2018. The Grassroot Institute joined with other groups to file suit against

4130-522: The rioters and their puppet masters. Marmont refused to act on either request, instead awaiting orders from the king. By 1:30 pm, the Tuileries Palace had been sacked. A man wearing a ball dress belonging to the duchesse de Berry , the king's widowed daughter in law and the mother of the heir to the throne, with feathers and flowers in his hair, screamed from a palace window: ' Je reçois! Je reçois! ' ('I receive! I receive!') Others drank wine from

4200-411: The same reason, royalists were nowhere to be found; perhaps another reason was that now the révoltés were well organized and very well armed. In only a day and a night, over 4,000 barricades had been thrown up throughout the city. The tricolor flag of the revolutionaries – the "people's flag" – flew over buildings, an increasing number of them important buildings. Marmont lacked either the initiative or

4270-407: The school Saint-Sever . At age 17, he left school at Sorèze to work for his uncle in his family's export business. It was the same firm where his father had been a partner. Bastiat began to develop an intellectual interest as he no longer wished to work with his uncle and desired to go to Paris for formal studies. This hope was not realized as his grandfather was in poor health and wished to go to

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4340-416: The uncertainties in the real estate market. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists , began a whispering campaign that Charles X was proposing this action in order to shame those opponents who had not left the country. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of the Charter of 1814. Up to this time, thanks to the popularity of

4410-485: The words "the truth" before he died at the age of 49. Bastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argumentation and acerbic wit. Economist Murray Rothbard wrote that "Bastiat was indeed a lucid and superb writer, whose brilliant and witty essays and fables to this day are remarkable and devastating demolitions of protectionism and of all forms of government subsidy and control. He

4480-600: Was a second French Revolution after the first in 1789. It led to the overthrow of King Charles X , the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe , Duke of Orléans. After 18 precarious years on the throne, Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the French Revolution of 1848 . The 1830 Revolution marked a shift from one constitutional monarchy , under the restored House of Bourbon , to another,

4550-422: Was a truly scintillating advocate of an unrestricted free market ". However, Bastiat himself declared that subsidy should be available, albeit limited under extraordinary circumstances, saying the following: "Under extraordinary circumstances, for urgent cases, the State should set aside some resources to assist certain unfortunate people, to help them adjust to changing conditions". Among his better-known works

4620-670: Was elected justice of the peace of Mugron in 1831 and to the Council General (county-level assembly) of Landes in 1832. Bastiat was elected to the national legislative assembly after the French Revolution of 1848 . His public career as an economist began only in 1844, when his first article was published in the Journal des économistes during October of that year and it was ended by his untimely death in 1850. Bastiat contracted tuberculosis , probably during his tours throughout France to promote his ideas and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at

4690-775: Was in a state of disarray. The Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continent's political map. Many European countries attended the Congress, but decision-making was controlled by four major powers: the Austrian Empire , represented by the Chief Minister Prince Metternich ; the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , represented by its Foreign Secretary Viscount Castlereagh ; the Russian Empire , represented by Emperor Alexander I ; and Prussia , represented by King Frederick William III . France's foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , also attended

4760-420: Was mostly loyal for the moment, but the attached line units were wavering: a small but growing number of troops were deserting; some merely slipping away, others leaving, not caring who saw them. In Paris, a committee of the Bourbon opposition, composed of banker-and-kingmaker Jacques Laffitte , Casimir Perier , Generals Étienne Gérard and Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau , among others, had drawn up and signed

4830-437: Was over, twenty-one civilians were killed. Rioters then paraded the corpse of one of their fallen throughout the streets shouting " Mort aux Ministres! À bas les aristocrates! " ("Death to the ministers! Down with the aristocrats!") One witness wrote: [I saw] a crowd of agitated people pass by and disappear, then a troop of cavalry succeed them... In every direction and at intervals... Indistinct noises, gunshots, and then for

4900-574: Was seven years old. His father moved inland to the town of Mugron , with Frédéric following soon afterward. The Bastiat estate in Mugron had been acquired during the French Revolution and had previously belonged to the Marquis of Poyanne. Pierre Bastiat died in 1810, leaving Frédéric an orphan. He was fostered by his paternal grandfather and his unmarried aunt Justine Bastiat. He attended a school in Bayonne, but his aunt thought poorly of it and so enrolled him in

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