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137-512: The original tract of land was sold to Lewis by William Penn in 1682. The land was purchased by Captain John Wilcox in 1750, and quickly sold to Charles Cruikshank in 1761. The main house, built in c. 1750 and expanded several times through the 1850s, was, for the most part, built in additions by Cruikshank and his family, who added the various terraces, gardens, and most of the residence facing Cobbs Creek . Cruikshank's son-in-law, John Ross, coined

274-533: A brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston , which was then besieged by the militia. In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Sir Henry Clinton . On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill ,

411-557: A close friend of George Fox , the founder of the Quakers, whose movement started in the 1650s during the tumult of the Cromwellian revolution. The times sprouted many new sects besides Quakers, including Seekers , Ranters , Antinomians , Seventh Day Baptists , Soul sleepers , Adamites , Diggers , Levellers , Behmenists , Muggletonians , and others, as the Puritans were more tolerant than

548-517: A copy of the charges laid against him and the laws he had supposedly broken, but the Recorder of London , Sir John Howel, on the bench as chief judge, refused, although this was a right guaranteed by law. Furthermore, the Recorder directed the jury to come to a verdict without hearing the defense. Despite heavy pressure from Howel to convict Penn, the jury returned a verdict of "not guilty". When invited by

685-768: A customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair , then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company , which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies . Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose

822-647: A four-year engagement filled with frequent separations. Penn remained close to home but continued writing his tracts, espousing religious tolerance and railing against discriminatory laws. A minor split developed in the Quaker community between those who favored Penn's analytical formulations and those who preferred Fox's simple precepts. But the persecution of Quakers had accelerated and the differences were overridden; Penn again resumed missionary work in Holland and Germany. Seeing conditions deteriorating, Penn appealed directly to

959-542: A frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London for a larger army, but instead was replaced as commander by Howe. On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army . On June 16, Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of

1096-486: A gathering in the street, which Penn deliberately provoked to test the validity of the 1664 Conventicle Act, just renewed in 1670 , which denied the right of assembly to "more than five persons in addition to members of the family, for any religious purpose not according to the rules of the Church of England". Penn was assisted by his solicitor, Thomas Rudyard , an eminent London Quaker lawyer, and pleaded for his right to see

1233-546: A great friend of William Morris, a leading Quaker figure in Cork , and often stayed with Morris at Castle Salem near Rosscarbery . Between 1671 and 1677, Penn visited Germany on behalf of the Quaker faith, resulting in a German settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania that was symbolic in two ways: It was a German -speaking congregation, and it included religious dissenters. During

1370-575: A large piece of his North American land holdings along the North Atlantic Ocean coast to Penn to offset debts he owed Penn's father, the admiral and politician Sir William Penn . The land included the present-day states of Pennsylvania and Delaware . The following year, in 1682, Penn left England for what was then British America , sailing up Delaware Bay and the Delaware River past earlier Swedish and Dutch riverfront colonies in what

1507-560: A life sentence, Penn was accused of denying the Trinity , though this was a misinterpretation Penn himself refuted in the essay Innocency with her open face, presented by way of Apology for the book entitled The Sandy Foundation Shaken , where he sought to prove the Godhead of Christ. Penn said the rumour had been "maliciously insinuated" by detractors who wanted to create a bad reputation to Quakers. Penn later said that what he really denied were

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1644-448: A liking to. When theologian John Owen was fired from his deanery, Penn and other open-minded students rallied to his side and attended seminars at the dean's house, where intellectual discussions covered the gamut of new thought. Penn learned the valuable skills of forming ideas into theory, discussing theory through reasoned debate, and testing the theories in the real world. At this time he also faced his first moral dilemma. After Owen

1781-450: A logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved in numerous clashes with small bands of Patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton . By Christmas they were tired, while a heavy snowstorm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall , to assume no significant attack would occur. At daybreak on

1918-530: A mature, sophisticated, well-mannered, modish gentleman, though Samuel Pepys noted young Penn's "vanity of the French". Penn had developed a taste for fine clothes, and for the rest of his life would pay somewhat more attention to his dress than most Quakers. The Admiral had great hopes that his son then had the practical sense and the ambition necessary to succeed as an aristocrat. He had young Penn enroll in law school but soon his studies were interrupted. With war with

2055-526: A profitable venture for himself and his family. But he proclaimed that he would not exploit either the natives or the immigrants, "I would not abuse His love, nor act unworthy of His providence, and so defile what came to me clean." To that end, Penn's land purchase from the Lenape included the latter party's retained right to traverse the sold lands for purposes of hunting, fishing, and gathering. Though thoroughly oppressed, getting Quakers to leave England and make

2192-553: A rearguard. Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference , but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged

2329-434: A reclusive scholar. During this time, Penn developed his individuality and philosophy of life. He found that he was not sympathetic with either his father's martial view of the world or his mother's society-oriented sensibilities. "I had no relations that inclined to so solitary and spiritual way; I was a child alone. A child was given to musing, occasionally feeling the divine presence," he later said. Penn returned home for

2466-842: A riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre . The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry , which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax

2603-643: A second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge ; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick

2740-475: A struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent. Others calculate

2877-654: A threat to liberty in general. This led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in the British Parliament, and in the London press. Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, variously called congresses, conventions, and conferences, effectively replacing royal control. With

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3014-437: A year. The undogmatic Christian humanist talked of a tolerant, adapting view of religion which appealed to Penn, who later stated, "I never had any other religion in my life than what I felt." By adapting his mentor's belief in free will, Penn felt unburdened of Puritanical guilt and rigid beliefs and was inspired to search out his own religious path. Upon returning to England after two years abroad, he presented to his parents

3151-425: Is a clear and just thing, and my God who has given it to me through many difficulties, will, I believe, bless and make it the seed of a nation." Penn then traveled to America and while there, he negotiated Pennsylvania's first land-purchase survey with the tribe of the Lenape people. Penn purchased the first tract of land under a white oak tree at Graystones on 15 July 1682. Penn drafted a charter of liberties for

3288-401: Is also one of the first times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies . On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4. At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in

3425-452: Is now Delaware, and in addition to this, the land was claimed for half a century by the neighboring Province of Maryland 's proprietor family, the Calverts. In 1704, the three southernmost counties of provincial Pennsylvania were granted permission to form a new, semi-autonomous Delaware Colony . As one of the earlier supporters of colonial unification, Penn wrote and urged for a union of all

3562-468: Is present-day New Castle, Delaware . On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new proprietor , and the first Pennsylvania General Assembly was held. Penn then journeyed further north up the Delaware River and founded Philadelphia on the river's western bank. Penn's Quaker government was not viewed favorably by the previous Dutch , Swedish and English settlers in what

3699-461: The Anglican Church . Children from poorer families had to have a wealthy sponsor to get an education. Penn's education heavily leaned on the classical authors and "no novelties or conceited modern writers" were allowed, including Shakespeare . Running was Penn's favorite sport, and he often ran more than three miles (5 km) from his home to the school, which was cast in an Anglican model and

3836-673: The Appalachian Mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida , with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts , were rescinded despite

3973-472: The Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown . Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea,

4110-506: The Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, but it failed. A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against the Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there. On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu . Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau . Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and

4247-677: The British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries . The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord , which began the Revolutionary War. After

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4384-817: The Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign . Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge . A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in

4521-964: The Continental Army and commanded by George Washington defeated the British Army . The conflict was fought in North America , the Caribbean , and the Atlantic Ocean . The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783) , which resulted in Great Britain ultimately recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the United States. After the British Empire gained dominance in North America with victory over

4658-612: The Continental Association ; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, the association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by

4795-506: The Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton . In the summer of 1777, as Howe was poised to capture Philadelphia , the Continental Congress fled to Baltimore . In October 1777, a separate northern British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States

4932-498: The Dutch imminent, young Penn decided to shadow his father at work and join him at sea. Penn functioned as an emissary between his father and the King, then returned to his law studies. Worrying about his father in battle he wrote, "I never knew what a father was till I had wisdom enough to prize him... I pray God... that you come home secure." The Admiral returned triumphantly, but London was in

5069-592: The Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Admiral Penn took part in the restoration of King Charles II and was eventually knighted and served in the Royal Navy . At the time of his son's birth, then-Captain Penn was twenty-three and an ambitious naval officer in charge of blockading ports held by Confederate forces. Penn grew up during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in leading a Puritan rebellion against King Charles I ;

5206-628: The Iroquois for their support, while US envoys urged them to remain neutral. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. After the defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776. A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. British pursuit

5343-726: The Mississippi River , south of the Great Lakes , and north of the Floridas to the United States . [REDACTED]   Great Britain Combatants The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence , was an armed conflict that was part of the broader American Revolution , in which American Patriot forces organized as

5480-700: The Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five : Thomas Jefferson , John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston . The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson. Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III . This

5617-732: The Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry , which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act . However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768,

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5754-717: The Treaty of Aranjuez , though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans. Howe's replacement Henry Clinton intended to take the war against the Americans into the Southern Colonies . Despite some initial success, British general Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but fighting largely ceased in North America. In

5891-435: The colonial era , Pennsylvania remained the heartland for various branches of Anabaptists , including Old Order Mennonites , Ephrata Cloister , Brethren , and Amish . Pennsylvania quickly emerged as the home for many Lutheran refugees from Catholic provinces, such as Salzburg , and for German Catholics , who were facing discrimination in their home country. In Philadelphia , Francis Daniel Pastorius negotiated

6028-520: The colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. Although directly administered by the Crown , acting through a local governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with

6165-407: The 17th century. They refused to bow or take off their hats to social superiors, believing all men were equal under God, a belief antithetical to an absolute monarchy that believed the monarch was divinely appointed by God. As a result, Quakers were treated as heretics because of their principles and their failure to pay tithes. They also refused to swear oaths of loyalty to the King believing that this

6302-445: The 26th, the American Patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, while 900 prisoners, German cannons and supplies were captured. The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause, and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries". A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2; during

6439-402: The American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore , where it remained until February 27, 1777. Loyalist activity surged in

6576-526: The Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point , and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains , and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with

6713-407: The Canadians. In Virginia, Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promised freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown. British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Lord Dunmore ordered

6850-425: The Catholic interpretations of this theological topic, and the use of unbiblical concepts to explain it. Penn expressly confessed he believed in the Holy Three and the divinity of Christ . In 1668, in a letter to the anti-Quaker minister Jonathan Clapham, Penn wrote: "Thou must not, reader, from my querying thus, conclude we do deny (as he hath falsely charged us) those glorious Three, which bear record in heaven,

6987-584: The Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany , leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for

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7124-541: The Culper Spy Ring substantially increased the effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Throughout the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence . Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights , but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through

7261-488: The English colonies in what, following the American Revolutionary War , later became the United States. The democratic principles that he included in the West Jersey Concessions and set forth in the Pennsylvania Frame of Government inspired delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia to frame the U.S. Constitution , which was ratified by the delegates in 1787. A man of deep religious conviction, Penn authored numerous works, exhorting believers to adhere to

7398-506: The Father, Word, and Spirit; neither the infinity, eternity and divinity of Jesus Christ; for that we know he is the mighty God." Given writing materials in the hope that he would put on paper his retraction, Penn wrote another inflammatory treatise, No Cross, No Crown . In it, Penn exhorted believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity . This work was remarkable for its historical analysis and citation of 68 authors whose quotations and commentary he had committed to memory and

7535-410: The French in the Seven Years' War in 1763, tensions and disputes arose between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies over a variety of issues, including the Stamp and Townshend Acts . The resulting British military occupation led to the Boston Massacre in 1770. Among further tensions, the British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts in mid-1774. A British attempt to disarm the Americans and

7672-605: The Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to "model companies" in each Continental Army regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended

7809-412: The King and the Duke, proposing a mass emigration of English Quakers . Some Quakers had already moved to North America, but the New England Puritans , especially, were as hostile towards Quakers as Anglicans in England were, and some of the Quakers had been banished to the Caribbean . In 1677, a group of prominent Quakers that included Penn purchased the colonial province of West Jersey , comprising

7946-399: The North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with

8083-411: The Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere and refused to present

8220-434: The Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy , commanded by John Hazelwood . An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;

8357-439: The Quaker region. Whether from personal sympathy or political expediency, to Penn's surprise, the King granted an extraordinarily generous charter which made Penn the world's largest private non-royal landowner, with over 45,000 square miles (120,000 km ). Penn became the sole proprietor of a huge tract of land west of New Jersey and north of the Province of Maryland belonging to Lord Baltimore , and gained sovereign rule of

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8494-480: The Quakers had no political agenda (unlike the Puritans) they should not be subject to laws that restricted political action by minority religions and other groups. Sprung from jail because of his family's rank rather than his argument, Penn was immediately recalled to London by his father. The Admiral was severely distressed by his son's actions and took the conversion as a personal affront. His father's hopes that Penn's charisma and intelligence would win him favor at

8631-444: The Recorder to reconsider their verdict and to select a new foreman, they refused and were sent to a cell over several nights to mull over their decision. The Lord Mayor of London , Sir Samuel Starling, also on the bench, then told the jury, "You shall go together and bring in another verdict, or you shall starve", and not only had Penn sent to jail in Newgate Prison (on a charge of contempt of court for refusing to remove his hat), but

8768-477: The Thirteen Colonies—the Northern Theater and the Southern Theater —and a smaller but strategically important third one west of the Appalachian Mountains . On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage , Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor of Massachusetts , received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts , and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams , who were considered

8905-470: The Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, Great Britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Great Britain's conflicts with France and Spain and forced Great Britain to cede Tobago , Senegal , and small territories in India to France, and Menorca , West Florida and East Florida to Spain. The French and Indian War, part of

9042-400: The Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved

9179-487: The administration imposed stricter religious requirements including daily chapel attendance and required dress. Penn rebelled against enforced worship and was expelled. His father, in a rage, attacked young Penn with a cane and forced him from their home. Penn's mother made peace in the family, which allowed her son to return home but she quickly concluded that both her social standing and her husband's career were being threatened by their son's behavior. So at age 18, young Penn

9316-634: The area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix ; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around

9453-475: The army of the United Colonies." He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga . Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated

9590-504: The base for American naval operations. After regrouping at Halifax in Nova Scotia, Howe set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton

9727-562: The camp to a "squalid hell" and supplies were dangerously low. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at

9864-428: The character of George Fox, in his introduction to the autobiographical Journal of George Fox . In effect, Penn became the first theologian, theorist, and legal defender of Quakerism, providing its written doctrine and helping to establish its public standing. In 1669, Penn traveled to Ireland to deal with his father's estates. While there, he attended many meetings and stayed with leading Quaker families. He became

10001-520: The city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia , while Washington moved south to New York City. Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John , Charlottetown , and Yarmouth . In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with

10138-430: The civilian inhabitants that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance; they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17. A month later, after a brief skirmish with HMS  Glasgow , they returned to New London, Connecticut ,

10275-509: The colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense , which was published on January 10, 1776, and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. To draft the Declaration of Independence ,

10412-569: The colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. In April 1772, colonialists staged the first American tax revolt in Weare , New Hampshire against the British royal authority later referred to as the Pine Tree Riot . This occurrence would later inspire the design of the Pine Tree Flag . Tensions escalated following the destruction of

10549-595: The committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane , sent to France to recruit military engineers, were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. The Revolutionary War included two principal campaign theaters within

10686-569: The conditions for the founding of Pennsylvania, the Admiral wrote to the Duke of York , the heir to the throne. The Duke and the King, in return for the Admiral's lifetime of service to the Crown, promised to protect young Penn and make him a royal counselor. Penn inherited a large fortune, but found himself in jail again for six months. In April 1672, after being released, he married Gulielma Springett following

10823-476: The congregation, Fox not only extended the Protestant Reformation more radically, but he helped extend the most important principle of modern political history – the rights of the individual – upon which modern democracies were later founded. Penn traveled frequently with Fox, through Europe and England. He also wrote a comprehensive, detailed explanation of Quakerism along with a testimony to

10960-506: The court were crushed. Though enraged, the Admiral tried his best to reason with his son but to no avail. His father not only feared for his own position but that his son seemed bent on a dangerous confrontation with the Crown. In the end, young Penn was more determined than ever, and the Admiral felt he had no option but to order his son out of the house and to withhold his inheritance. As Penn became homeless, he began to live with Quaker families. Quakers were relatively strict Christians in

11097-990: The dangerous journey to the New World was his first commercial challenge. Some Quaker families had already arrived in Maryland and New Jersey but the numbers were small. To attract settlers in large numbers, he wrote a glowing prospectus, considered honest and well-researched for the time, promising religious freedom as well as material advantage, which he marketed throughout Europe in various languages. Within six months, he parcelled out 300,000 acres (1,200 km ) to over 250 prospective settlers, mostly rich London Quakers. Eventually he attracted other persecuted minorities including Huguenots , Mennonites , Amish , Catholics , Lutherans , and Jews from England, France, Holland, Germany, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, and Wales. American Revolutionary War American and allied victory Great Britain cedes generally, all mainland territories east of

11234-413: The dangers, Penn began to attend Quaker meetings near Cork . A chance re-meeting with Thomas Loe confirmed Penn's rising attraction to Quakerism . Soon Penn was arrested for attending Quaker meetings. Rather than state that he was not a Quaker and thereby avoid any charges, he publicly declared himself a member and finally joined the Quakers at the age of 22 In pleading his case, Penn stated that since

11371-478: The ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The new taxes levied on subjects in the colonies proved highly burdensome in colonies such as North Carolina , particularly for

11508-634: The exception of Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed

11645-513: The exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans. The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy to isolating the north by taking control of the Hudson River , allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to

11782-434: The extraordinary splendor of the King's restoration ceremony and was a guest of honor alongside his father, who received a highly unusual royal salute for his services to The Crown . Penn's father had great hopes for his son's career under the favor of the King. Back at Oxford, Penn considered a medical career and took some dissecting classes. Rational thought began to spread into science, politics, and economics, which he took

11919-491: The face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. On the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River , leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania , to today's Mercer County, New Jersey , in

12056-582: The fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean . The vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and Indians in the west, while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the Proclamation Line. With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands,

12193-561: The family estate in Ireland to contemplate his future. The reign of King Charles had further tightened restrictions against all religious sects other than the Anglican Church, making the penalty for unauthorized worship imprisonment or deportation. The "Five Mile Act" prohibited dissenting teachers and preachers to come within that distance of any borough. The Quakers were especially targeted and their meetings were deemed undesirable. Despite

12330-465: The fever of battle soon wore off after his father discouraged him, "I can say nothing but advise to sobriety...I wish your youthful desires mayn't outrun your discretion." While Penn was abroad, the Great Fire of 1666 consumed central London. As with the plague, the Penn family was spared. But after returning to the city, Penn was depressed by the mood of the city and his ailing father, so he went back to

12467-405: The full jury followed him, and they were additionally fined the equivalent of a year's wages each. The members of the jury, fighting their case from prison in what became known as Bushel's Case , managed to win the right for all English juries to be free from the control of judges. This case was one of the more important trials that shaped the concept of jury nullification and was a victory for

12604-565: The grip of the Great Plague of 1665. Young Penn reflected on the suffering and the deaths, and the way humans reacted to the epidemic. He wrote that the scourge "gave me a deep sense of the vanity of this World, of the Irreligiousness of the Religions in it." Further he observed how Quakers on errands of mercy were arrested by the police and demonized by other religions, even accused of causing

12741-499: The home of Lafayette . Ross's house was frequented by several notable historic figures, including George Washington and Lafayette. In 1815, the house was purchased by Manuel Eyre Jr., son of Washington aide Manuel Eyre , who served with Washington during the Revolution. The Eyre family held the estate longer than any other, first from 1815 to 1846, and then, through their Ashhurst cousins, from 1848 to 1911. The last family to occupy

12878-456: The king was beheaded when Penn was four years old. Penn's father was often at sea. Young William caught smallpox , and lost all his hair from the disease; he wore a wig until he left college. Penn's smallpox also prompted his parents to move from the suburbs to an estate in Essex . The country life made a lasting impression on young Penn, and kindled in him a love of horticulture . Their neighbor

13015-475: The logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped

13152-498: The loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island , to secure the Loyalist port. General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt. The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for

13289-563: The mansion did so from 1913 until 1974, when the estate was purchased by Haverford Township in 1974 under the Haverford Historical Society. The mansion is now maintained as a museum and community center. Regular tours are available from April to October and during the December holidays. William Penn William Penn (24 October [ O.S. 14 October] 1644 – 10 August [ O.S. 30 July] 1718)

13426-424: The monarchy had been. Following Oliver Cromwell's death, however, the Crown was re-established and the King responded with harassment and persecution of all religions and sects other than Anglicanism. Fox risked his life, wandering from town to town, and he attracted followers who likewise believed that the "God who made the world did not dwell in temples made with hands." By abolishing the church's authority over

13563-605: The name 'the Grange' for the property. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 as The Grange . The mansion, an example of the Gothic Revival style, is presented in the state it was in at the turn of the 20th century. The grounds also feature Victorian gardens. The house was owned by patriot and Philadelphia merchant John Ross during the late 18th century, who named his country estate after

13700-467: The night of August 28, Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin 's regiments as

13837-440: The night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey , where he remained until May and received Congressional direction to inoculate all Patriot troops against smallpox . With

13974-485: The petition to the king. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion , issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill , it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by

14111-406: The plague. With his father laid low by gout , young Penn was sent to Ireland in 1666 to manage the family landholdings. While there he became a soldier and took part in suppressing a local Irish rebellion. Swelling with pride, he had his portrait painted wearing a suit of armor, his most authentic likeness. His first experience of warfare gave him the sudden idea of pursuing a military career, but

14248-500: The poorer classes, and quickly became a source of much discontent. The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act ; routinely ignored before 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by

14385-557: The principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American Patriots could respond. However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker , commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist. The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world , was

14522-621: The principle of taxation by Parliament. In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor , an event later known as the Boston Tea Party . The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts , aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them

14659-519: The purchase of 15,000 acres (61  km ) from his friend William Penn, the proprietor of the province of Pennsylvania, and laid out the settlement of what is the present-day Germantown section of Philadelphia. In 1764, the German Society of Pennsylvania was established, which still functions to this day from its headquarters in Philadelphia. In 1668, Penn published the first of many pamphlets, Truth Exalted: To Princes, Priests, and People . He

14796-463: The recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops . Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by

14933-504: The resulting Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 ignited the war. In June, the Second Continental Congress formalized Patriot militias into the Continental Army and appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. The British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in August 1775. The stakes of the war were formalized with passage of the Lee Resolution by the Congress in Philadelphia on July 2, 1776, and

15070-476: The settlement creating a political utopia guaranteeing free and fair trial by jury , freedom of religion , freedom from unjust imprisonment and free elections. Having proved himself an influential scholar and theoretician, Penn now had to demonstrate the practical skills of a real estate promoter, city planner, and governor for his " Holy Experiment ", the province of Pennsylvania. Besides achieving his religious goals, Penn had hoped that Pennsylvania would be

15207-452: The spirit of Primitive Christianity . Penn was imprisoned several times in the Tower of London due to his faith, and his book No Cross, No Crown , published in 1669, which he authored from jail, has become a classic of Christian theological literature. Penn was born in 1644 at Tower Hill , London , the son of English naval officer Sir William Penn , and Dutchwoman Margaret Jasper, who

15344-468: The split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776,

15481-459: The territory with all rights and privileges with the exception of the power to declare war. The land of Pennsylvania had belonged to the Duke of York , but he retained the Province of New York and the area around present-day New Castle, Delaware , and the eastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula . In return, one-fifth of all gold and silver mined in the province, which had virtually none,

15618-495: The town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights , forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced

15755-499: The unanimous ratification of the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4, 1776. After a successful siege , Washington's forces drove the British Army out of Boston in March 1776, and British commander in chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign . Howe captured New York City in November. Washington responded by clandestinely crossing

15892-701: The use of the writ of habeas corpus as a means of freeing those unlawfully detained. With his father dying, Penn wanted to see him one more time and patch up their differences. But he urged his father not to pay his fine and free him, "I entreat thee not to purchase my liberty." But the Admiral refused to let the opportunity pass and he paid the fine, releasing his son. His father had gained respect for his son's integrity and courage and told him, "Let nothing in this world tempt you to wrong your conscience." The Admiral also knew that after his death young Penn would become more vulnerable in his pursuit of justice. In an act which not only secured his son's protection but also set

16029-428: The wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state . In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in

16166-522: The western half of present-day New Jersey . The same year, 200 settlers from Chorleywood and Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire , and other towns in nearby Buckinghamshire arrived, and founded the town of Burlington . Fox made a journey to America to verify the potential of further expansion of the early Quaker settlements. In 1682, East Jersey was also purchased by Quakers. With the Province of New Jersey in place, Penn pressed his case to extend

16303-619: The wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War , ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris , which expelled France from their possessions in New France . Acquisition of territories in Atlantic Canada and West Florida , inhabited largely by French and Spanish-speaking Catholics , led British authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with English-speaking settlers. Preventing conflict between settlers and Indian tribes west of

16440-482: The wrongs of the Church and the King. For its part, the Crown continued to confiscate Quaker property and jailed thousands of Quakers. From then on, Penn's religious views effectively exiled him from English society; he was expelled from Christ Church , a college at the University of Oxford, for being a Quaker, and was arrested several times. In 1670, he and William Mead were arrested. Penn was accused of preaching before

16577-460: Was "ashamed to read". In 1668, after writing a follow-up tract, The Sandy Foundation Shaken , Penn was imprisoned in the Tower of London . The Bishop of London ordered that Penn be held indefinitely until he publicly recanted his written statements. The official charge was publication without a licence but the real crime was blasphemy , as signed in a warrant by King Charles II. Placed in solitary confinement in an unheated cell and threatened with

16714-714: Was a critic of all religious groups, except Quakers , which he saw as the only true Christian group at that time in England. He branded the Catholic Church "the Whore of Babylon ", defied the Church of England , and called the Puritans "hypocrites and revelers in God". He lambasted all "false prophets, tithemongers, and opposers of perfection ". Pepys thought it a "ridiculous nonsensical book" that he

16851-573: Was a viable possibility. France signed a commercial agreement with the rebels, followed by a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition undertook a scorched earth campaign against the Iroquois who were largely allied with the British. Indian raids on the American frontier, however, continued to be a problem. Also, in 1779, Spain allied with France against Great Britain in

16988-455: Was a volatile mix of Cavaliers , sober Puritans, and non-conforming Quakers . The new British government's discouragement of religious dissent gave the Cavaliers license to harass the minority groups. Because of his father's high position and social status, young Penn was firmly a Cavalier but his sympathies lay with the persecuted Quakers. To avoid conflict, Penn withdrew from the fray and became

17125-458: Was able to summon without any reference material at hand. Penn petitioned for an audience with the King, which was denied but which led to negotiations on his behalf by one of the royal chaplains. Penn declared, "My prison shall be my grave before I will budge a jot: for I owe my conscience to no mortal man." He was released after eight months of imprisonment. Penn demonstrated no remorse for his aggressive stance and vowed to keep fighting against

17262-539: Was an English writer, religious thinker, and influential Quaker who founded the Province of Pennsylvania during the British colonial era . Penn, an advocate of democracy and religious freedom , was known for his amicable relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans who had resided in present-day Pennsylvania prior to European settlements in the state. In 1681, King Charles II granted

17399-445: Was censured again after being fired, students were threatened with punishment for associating with him. However, Penn stood by the dean, thereby gaining a fine and reprimand from the university. The Admiral, despairing of the charges, pulled young Penn away from Oxford, hoping to distract him from the heretical influences of the university. The attempt had no effect and father and son struggled to understand each other. Back at school,

17536-488: Was following the command of Jesus not to swear. The basic ceremony of Quakerism was silent worship in a meeting house, conducted in a group. There was no ritual and no professional clergy, and many Quakers disavowed the concept of original sin . God's communication came to each individual directly, and if so moved, the individual shared his revelations, thoughts, or opinions with the group. Penn found all these tenets to sit well with his conscience and his heart. Penn became

17673-523: Was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga , while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland . These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated

17810-618: Was maligned by both Catholics and Protestants . Loe was admitted to the Penn household, and during his discourses on the Inward Light , young Penn recalled later that "the Lord visited me and gave me divine Impressions of Himself." A year later, Cromwell was dead, the Royalists were resurging, and the Penn family returned to England. The middle class aligned itself with the Royalists and Admiral Penn

17947-513: Was ordered to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers , which included Nathan Hale , became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island , he soon realized that he would need to professionalize military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge , Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring . The efforts of Washington and

18084-667: Was sent on a secret mission to bring back exiled Prince Charles . For his role in restoring the monarchy, Admiral Penn was knighted and gained a powerful position as Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty . Penn was first educated at Chigwell School , then by private tutors in Ireland , and later at Christ Church at the University of Oxford in Oxford . At the time, there were no state schools and nearly all educational institutions were affiliated with

18221-655: Was sent to Paris to get him out of view, improve his manners, and expose him to another culture. In Paris at the court of young Louis XIV , Penn found French manners far more refined than the coarse manners of his countrymen, but he did not like the extravagant display of wealth and privilege he saw in the French. Though impressed by Notre Dame and the Catholic ritual, he felt uncomfortable with it. Instead, he sought out spiritual direction from French Protestant theologian Moise Amyraut , who invited Penn to stay with him in Saumur for

18358-455: Was strict, humorless, and somber. The school's teachers had to be pillars of virtue and provide sterling examples to their pupils. Penn later opposed Anglicanism on religious grounds, but he absorbed many Puritan behaviors, and was known later for his own serious demeanor, strict behavior, and lack of humor. In 1660, Penn arrived at the University of Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman scholar with an assigned servant. The student body

18495-407: Was the diarist Samuel Pepys , who was friendly at first but later secretly hostile to the Admiral, perhaps embittered in part by his failed seductions of both Penn's mother and his sister Peggy. After a failed mission to the Caribbean , Admiral Penn and his family were exiled to his lands in Ireland when Penn was about 15 years old. During this time, Penn met Thomas Loe, a Quaker missionary who

18632-454: Was to be remitted to the King, and the Crown was freed of a debt to the Admiral of £16,000, equal to roughly £3,167,726 in 2008. Penn first called the area "New Wales", then "Sylvania", which is Latin for "forests" or "woods", which King Charles II changed to "Pennsylvania" in honor of the elder Penn. On 4 March 1681, the King signed the charter and the following day Penn jubilantly wrote, "It

18769-882: Was widow of a Dutch sea captain and the daughter of a rich merchant from Rotterdam . Through the Pletjes-Jasper family, Penn is also said to have been a cousin of the Op den Graeff family , who were important Mennonites in Krefeld and Quakers in Pennsylvania. Admiral Penn served in the Commonwealth Navy during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and was rewarded by Oliver Cromwell with estates in Ireland. The lands given to Penn had been confiscated from Irish Confederates who had participated in

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