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49-692: The Gosbank was one of the three main Soviet economic authorities, the other two being Gosplan (the State Planning Committee) and Gossnab (the State Committee for Material Technical Supply). It closely collaborated with the Soviet Ministry of Finance to prepare the national state budget. The foundation of the bank was part of the implementation of the New Economic Policy (NEP), following

98-399: A settlement risk or counterparty credit risk ( CCR ), is a risk that a counterparty will not pay as obligated on a bond , derivative , insurance policy , or other contract. Financial institutions or other transaction counterparties may hedge or take out credit insurance or, particularly in the context of derivatives, require the posting of collateral. Offsetting counterparty risk

147-432: A bias for so-called "productive" work (i.e., yielding measurable physical output) over "unproductive" work (services, trade, etc.). "Such a wage policy calls into question the modernization of society, its efficiency, its competitiveness." Using this method any changes in the plan to remove mismatches between inputs and outputs would result in hundreds, even thousands, of changes to material balances. This meant that, without

196-481: A centre point for central planning and expanded investment in heavy industry, with Leon Trotsky one of the leading political patrons of the agency. In June 1922 a new decree further expanded Gosplan's purview, with the agency directed to compose both "long-term" and "immediate" plans of production. Gosplan was to be consulted regarding proposed economic and financial decrees submitted to the Council of People's Commissars by

245-598: A frenzied effort to sustain what remained of Russian industry on behalf of the Red Army , locked in a life or death struggle with the anti-Bolshevik White movement , backed by the foreign military intervention of Great Britain, France, Japan, the United States, and other countries. In the countryside food requisitions , often backed by brute force, took place under the nominal auspices of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture . In

294-550: A higher price for higher-risk customers and vice versa. With revolving products such as credit cards and overdrafts, the risk is controlled through the setting of credit limits. Some products also require collateral , usually an asset that is pledged to secure the repayment of the loan. Credit scoring models also form part of the framework used by banks or lending institutions to grant credit to clients. For corporate and commercial borrowers, these models generally have qualitative and quantitative sections outlining various aspects of

343-434: A number of circumstances, for example: To reduce the lender's credit risk, the lender may perform a credit check on the prospective borrower, may require the borrower to take out appropriate insurance, such as mortgage insurance , or seek security over some assets of the borrower or a guarantee from a third party. The lender can also take out insurance against the risk or on-sell the debt to another company. In general,

392-569: A senior official of the State Bank was put on trial for wrecking as part of the 1931 Menshevik Trial . Following aggressive monetary expansion during World War II , the monetary reform of 1947 resulted in another round of devaluation (1 for 10) and related confiscatory measures. In 1959, the consolidation of the specialized long-term credit banks into the Construction Bank of the USSR resulted in

441-463: A significant fraction of the GDP. Not only individuals but state enterprises as well engaged in these practices, often out of necessity, when extra-legal influence or illegal operations appeared to be the only way to fulfill the demands of the plan. Claims of plan fulfillment that were passed up the hierarchy became as impossible to believe as the targets in the next plan. Creditworthiness Credit risk

490-399: A tool to impose centralized control upon industry in general, using bank balances and transaction histories to monitor the activity of individual concerns and their compliance with five-year plans and directives. The State Bank never acted as a commercial bank aiming at profit maximization , but purely as an instrument of government policy. Instead of independently and impartially assessing

539-514: Is an increasing function of debt service ratio, import ratio, the variance of export revenue and domestic money supply growth. The likelihood of rescheduling is a decreasing function of investment ratio due to future economic productivity gains. Debt rescheduling likelihood can increase if the investment ratio rises as the foreign country could become less dependent on its external creditors and so be less concerned about receiving credit from these countries/investors. A counterparty risk, also known as

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588-563: Is not always possible, e.g. because of temporary liquidity issues or longer-term systemic reasons. Further, counterparty risk increases due to positively correlated risk factors; accounting for this correlation between portfolio risk factors and counterparty default in risk management methodology is not trivial. The capital requirement here is calculated using SA-CCR, the standardized approach for counterparty credit risk . This framework replaced both non-internal model approaches - Current Exposure Method (CEM) and Standardised Method (SM). It

637-622: Is the possibility of losing a lender holds due to a risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments. In the first resort, the risk is that of the lender and includes lost principal and interest , disruption to cash flows , and increased collection costs . The loss may be complete or partial. In an efficient market, higher levels of credit risk will be associated with higher borrowing costs. Because of this, measures of borrowing costs such as yield spreads can be used to infer credit risk levels based on assessments by market participants. Losses can arise in

686-687: The Bank of Estonia , which opened on 1 January 1990. Latvia and Lithuania followed suit in March 1990, taking over operations of the State Bank on their respective territories. On 13 July 1990, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) similarly established a separate State Bank of the RSFSR. On 2 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia passed legislation that referred to

735-610: The creditworthiness of the borrower, Gosbank would provide loan funds to individuals, groups and industries as directed by the central government. In the 1970s, the State Bank was involved in the creation of Ost-West Handelsbank in Frankfurt (1971), Donau Bank in Vienna (1974), and East-West United Bank in Luxembourg (1974) together with the Foreign Trade Bank of the USSR . In

784-431: The late-2000s global recession . The existence of such risk means that creditors should take a two-stage decision process when deciding to lend to a firm based in a foreign country. Firstly one should consider the sovereign risk quality of the country and then consider the firm's credit quality. Five macroeconomic variables that affect the probability of sovereign debt rescheduling are: The probability of rescheduling

833-452: The ruble , in 1922 (1 for 10,000) and 1923 (1 for 100). Meanwhile, on 11 October 1922 it was granted the right to issue the gold-backed chervonets or gold ruble that brought an end to the early Soviet hyperinflation . In 1923, it took its permanent name as State Bank of the USSR. In 1924 the State Bank produced its first consolidated credit plan , and formed the Committee on Banks to oversee

882-572: The State Bank of the RSFSR as the " Bank of Russia " and granted it attributes of a central banking. The Ukrainian SSR followed suit in early 1991. Despite legislation passed also in December 1990 at the USSR level to organize the relationship between the Soviet Gosbank and the new institutions in some of the republics including Russia, relations between the respective central banks soon became conflict-ridden. Deputy Premier Grigory Yavlinsky advocated

931-453: The State Bank was part of the Ministry of Finance (Narkomfin). It began operations on 16 November 1921. In February 1922, Vladimir Lenin derided the State Bank as "a bureaucratic paper game", comparing it to a Potemkin village in a letter to the bank’s head Aron Sheinman whom he accused of "Communist-mandarin childishness". The State Bank presided over the two successive devaluations of

980-583: The Statistical Directorate was merged into Gosplan, and on 3 February 1931 Gosplan was resubordinated to the Sovnarkom . During May 1955 Gosplan was divided into two commissions: the USSR Council of Ministers State Commission for Advanced Planning and the USSR Council of Ministers Economic Commission on Current Planning. These were, respectively, tasked with predictive and immediate planning. The work of

1029-485: The aid of information technology, Gosplan could only deal with the economy in very general terms. Ideological bias resulted in unrealistic plans that were impossible to execute. Pressure to execute them anyway resulted in widespread falsification of statistics on all levels of reporting. Falsified plan realization feedback further resulted in Gosplan preparing plans even more detached from reality: The second economy engulfed

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1078-539: The assumption of some former operations of Selkhozbank, Tsekombank and municipal banks by the State Bank. The monetary reform of 1961 introduced another round of devaluation (1 for 10). In 1963, the State Bank's control over the system was further strengthened as it took over the State Labor Savings Banks System from the Soviet Ministry of Finance. The Soviet state used the State Bank primarily as

1127-482: The countryside to claim a place in land redistribution and in order to avoid the unemployment, lack of food, and lack of fuel which had become endemic. By 1919 hyperinflation had emerged, further pushing the struggling economic system of Soviet Russia towards total collapse. An ad hoc system remembered to history as military communism emerged. The Soviet government's Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense rushed from economic bottleneck to economic bottleneck in

1176-658: The creation of a "banking union", namely a formal monetary union among the Soviet Republics, in the New Union Treaty , but that attempt rapidly foundered in the second half of 1991. In late November 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Russia authorized the Bank of Russia to assume the assets and liabilities of the Soviet Gosbank by 1 January 1992 and to act as a source of ruble liquidity for the other post-Soviet states ; eventually,

1225-515: The decision-making STO. Gosplan was formally established by a Sovnarkom decree, dated 22 February 1921. Ironically, the decree was passed on the same day that an article by Soviet leader V. I. Lenin was published in Pravda criticizing advocates of a "single economic plan" for their "idle talk" and "boring pedantry" and arguing that the GOELRO plan for national electrification was the "one serious work on

1274-465: The economy matched outputs from another part of the economy. Gosplan achieved this using a methodology called the system of ' material balances '. For a plan period (in detail for one year and in lesser detail for a five-year plan) Gosplan drew up a balance sheet in terms of units of material (i.e. money was not used as part of the accounting process). The first step in the process was to assess how much steel, cement, wool cloth, etc. would be available for

1323-579: The economy. If mismatches between supply and demand were identified then, for the one-year plan, utilization plans for a particular input material could be cut or alternatively effort was made to increase supply. For the five-year plan mismatches between supply and demand could be mitigated by modifying long-term plans to increase productive capacity. Wages and pensions were leveled upwards, and skilled and manual work began to exceed much mental and professional work in remuneration. The Italian economic historian Rita Di Leo found "a compression of differentials" and

1372-506: The entire economy. To be sure, the system had its limitations, including the absence of meaningful price and cost information and the difficulty of extending planning to all the special commodities and enterprises in a modern economy. More serious difficulties stemmed from the attitudes and priorities built into the Stalinist planning system. "From the start," write the Soviet economists Nikolai Shmelev and Vladimir Popov, "the administrative system

1421-610: The first half of the 1920s, with Gosplan's desires and actual policy largely disjointed. Tension continued between Narkomfin and Gosplan throughout the NEP period, with Narkomfin advocating for increased grain exports as a means of bolstering the currency by balancing imports and exports while simultaneously bolstering peasant prosperity, while Gosplan emerged as the chief advocate of cheap food and planned development of industry. During 1925 Gosplan started creating annual economic plans, known as "control numbers" ( контрольные цифры ). Its work

1470-567: The higher the risk, the higher will be the interest rate that the debtor will be asked to pay on the debt. Credit risk mainly arises when borrowers are unable or unwilling to pay. A credit risk can be of the following types: Significant resources and sophisticated programs are used to analyze and manage risk. Some companies run a credit risk department whose job is to assess the financial health of their customers, and extend credit (or not) accordingly. They may use in-house programs to advise on avoiding, reducing and transferring risk. They also use

1519-507: The late 1980s, the role of the State Bank evolved as new specialized banks were created, even though they remained within the framework of a single-tier system . The Gosbank started to unravel with the establishment (or, in the Baltic Republics, revival) of autonomous central banks in individual Soviet republics. The Estonian SSR , implementing a plan prepared by a group of economists led by Siim Kallas , decided in late 1989 to re-create

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1568-757: The latter adopted their own respective currencies, starting with the Baltics in mid-1992 and ending with Tajikistan in May 1995. The State Bank of the USSR was dissolved on 20 December 1991, a few days before the USSR itself. The following is a list of the chairmen of the Board of the State Bank. The chairman was appointed by the Premier of the Soviet Union . Gosplan The State Planning Committee , commonly known as Gosplan (Russian: Госплан , IPA: [ɡosˈpɫan] ),

1617-513: The latter was based on the five-year plans delivered by Gosplan, with Gosplan planning 10–15 years ahead. Gosplan was headquartered at the building now occupied by the State Duma, in Moscow. The introduction of the first five-year plan in 1928 led to a re-examination of the roles of Gosplan and VSNKh, the supreme state organization for management of the economy at this time. This re-examination of roles

1666-428: The local branches of other banks were brought under the State Bank or closed, so that Prombank , Tsekombank or Selkhozbank subsequently operated largely through the State Bank's local offices. That phase of reform was completed in 1932, after which the division of labor between the State Bank and the other components of the Soviet banking system remained broadly stable until the late 1980s. In 1931 Boris Berlatsky ,

1715-505: The midst of such chaos the mere idea of long-term economic planning remained a utopian dream during these first years of existence of Soviet Russia. It was not until the Civil War had drawn to a successful conclusion for the Bolsheviks in 1920 that serious attention was paid to the question of systematic planning for the Soviet economy. In March 1920 the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense

1764-687: The monetary dislocation and barter economy during the Russian Civil War . On 3 October 1921, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee passed a resolution for the founding of the State Bank of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , followed by a similar resolution passed by the Council of People's Commissars on 10 October 1921 and a statute passed by the Central Committee on 13 October 1921 which stipulated that

1813-437: The next year. This calculation was based on the following formula: production minus exports plus imports plus or minus changes in stocks. The planning system as such was fairly simple. Gosplan calculated the sum of the country's resources and facilities, established priorities for their use, and handed down output targets and supply allocations to the various economic ministries and through them to every branch and enterprise in

1862-430: The question of the single economic plan." Other members of Sovnarkom were more optimistic, however, and Lenin sustained a defeat on the establishment of another planning entity, Gosplan. As a compromise measure uniting the mission of the two planning entities, head of GOELRO Gleb Krzhizhanovsky was tapped to head Gosplan. Initially Gosplan had an advisory function, with its entire staff consisting of just 34 people at

1911-546: The risk including, but not limited to, operating experience, management expertise, asset quality, and leverage and liquidity ratios , respectively. Once this information has been fully reviewed by credit officers and credit committees, the lender provides the funds subject to the terms and conditions presented within the contract (as outlined above). Sovereign credit risk is the risk of a government being unwilling or unable to meet its loan obligations, or reneging on loans it guarantees. Many countries have faced sovereign risk in

1960-409: The sectoral banks that had been created under the NEP. In 1925, it took over the previously separate cash holding system of Narkomfin. The subsequent phase of Soviet central planning and phasing-out of the NEP led to the State Bank being granted a monopoly over short-term bank credit in 1927, and over all short-term credit in 1930 after mutual and direct commercial credit was terminated. In 1928-1930,

2009-634: The third party provided intelligence. Nationally recognized statistical rating organizations provide such information for a fee. For large companies with liquidly traded corporate bonds or Credit Default Swaps, bond yield spreads and credit default swap spreads indicate market participants assessments of credit risk and may be used as a reference point to price loans or trigger collateral calls. Most lenders employ their models ( credit scorecards ) to rank potential and existing customers according to risk, and then apply appropriate strategies. With products such as unsecured personal loans or mortgages, lenders charge

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2058-520: The time of its April 1921 launch. These were selected on the basis of academic expertise in specialized aspects of industry; just 7 were members of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) . With the ongoing turn to a market-based system of production as part of the New Economic Policy (NEP), very real constraints existed on the possible extent of central planning during the initial phase of Gosplan's institutional life. Gosplan quickly became

2107-610: The various economic People's Commissariats. An administrative rivalry ensued between Gosplan and the People's Commissariat of Finance (Narkomfin), the latter the agency most in favor of currency stabilization and expansion of the general economy through the regulated market. Gosplan had no power of compulsion in this early interval, but was forced to work through Sovnarkom, STO, or the People's Commissariats to have its suggestions implemented by decree. The agency's economic calculations and policy suggestions remained largely abstract throughout

2156-455: The work of the individual People's Commissariats toward this plan's fulfillment, so that "for the first time the RSFSR had a general planning organ with clearly defined functions," as historian E. H. Carr has observed. The State Committee for Planning, commonly known as "Gosplan," was launched as a permanent advisory subcommittee of STO, assigned with the task of conducting detailed economic investigations and providing expert recommendations to

2205-719: Was coordinated with the USSR Central Statistical Directorate , the People's Commissariat of Finance, and the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy (VSNKh), and later with the State Bank (Gosbank) and State Supply Committee (Gossnab) . With the introduction of five-year plans in 1928, Gosplan became responsible for their creation and supervision according to the objectives declared by the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) . During 1930

2254-445: Was distinguished by economic romanticism, profound economic illiteracy, and incredible exaggeration of the real effect that the 'administrative factor' had on economic processes and on the motivations of the public." The second step was to identify where there were mismatches between levels of outputs of one material that was used as an input in another part of the economy i.e. where there were differences between supply and demand within

2303-547: Was given a new name – the Council of Labor and Defense (STO) – and a broader planning mission. STO was established as a commission of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), to be headed by the leading People's Commissars themselves, a representative of the Russian trade unions, and the chief of the Central Statistical Agency. STO was directed to establish a single economic plan for Soviet Russia and to direct

2352-524: Was required because VSNKh itself also had responsibility for planning through the Industrial Planning Commission (Promplan). Re-examination of roles was also required as the introduction of the first five-year plan meant that Gosplan's role was no longer one of prognosis and drafting of 'control figures' since plans had now become orders to act. In order to ensure the success of the plan it was necessary to ensure that inputs from one part of

2401-765: Was the agency responsible for central economic planning in the Soviet Union . Established in 1921 and remaining in existence until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Gosplan had as its main task the creation and administration of a series of five-year plans governing the economy of the USSR . The time of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War which followed was a period of virtual economic collapse. Production and distribution of necessary commodities were severely tested as factories were shuttered and major cities such as Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg ) were depopulated, with urban residents returning to

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