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68-880: Google Scholar uses a web crawler, or web robot, to identify files for inclusion in the search results. For content to be indexed in Google Scholar, it must meet certain specified criteria. An earlier statistical estimate published in PLOS One using a mark and recapture method estimated approximately 79–90% coverage of all articles published in English with an estimate of 100 million. This estimate also determined how many online documents were available. Google Scholar has been criticized for not vetting journals and for including predatory journals in its index. The University of Michigan Library and other libraries whose collections Google scanned for Google Books and Google Scholar retained copies of

136-450: A rebranding of PLoS as PLOS, the journal changed its name to PLOS One . The number of papers published by PLOS One grew rapidly from inception to 2013 and has since declined somewhat. M By 2010, it was estimated to have become the largest journal in the world, and in 2011, 1 in 60 articles indexed by PubMed were published by PLOS One . By September 2017, PLOS One confirmed they had published over 200,000 articles. By November 2017,

204-506: A university , this includes materials such as monographs , eprints of academic journal articles—both before ( preprints ) and after ( postprints ) undergoing peer review —as well as electronic theses and dissertations ( ETDs ). An institutional repository might also include other digital assets generated by academics, such as datasets, administrative documents, course notes, learning objects , academic posters or conference proceedings . Deposit of material in an institutional repository

272-563: A $ 9 million grant in December 2002 and $ 1 million grant in May 2006 for its financial sustainability and launch of new free-access biomedical journals. Later, PLOS One was launched in December 2006 as a beta version named PLOS One . It launched with commenting and note-making functionality, and added the ability to rate articles in July 2007. In September 2007, the ability to leave " trackbacks " on articles

340-470: A 2014 study estimates that Google Scholar can find almost 90% (approximately 100 million) of all scholarly documents on the Web written in English. Large-scale longitudinal studies have found between 40 and 60 percent of scientific articles are available in full text via Google Scholar links. Google Scholar puts high weight on citation counts in its ranking algorithm and therefore is being criticized for strengthening

408-485: A Google account with a bona fide address usually linked to an academic institution, can now create their own page giving their fields of interest and citations. Google Scholar automatically calculates and displays the individual's total citation count, h -index , and i10-index . According to Google, "three-quarters of Scholar search results pages ... show links to the authors' public profiles" as of August 2014. Through its "Related articles" feature, Google Scholar presents

476-539: A biochemist at Stanford University; and Michael Eisen , a computational biologist at the University of California, Berkeley , and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Submissions are subject to an article processing charge and, according to the journal, papers are not to be excluded on the basis of lack of perceived importance or adherence to a scientific field. All submissions go through

544-478: A citation importing feature was implemented supporting bibliography managers , such as RefWorks , RefMan , EndNote , and BibTeX . In 2007, Acharya announced that Google Scholar had started a program to digitize and host journal articles in agreement with their publishers, an effort separate from Google Books , whose scans of older journals do not include the metadata required for identifying specific articles in specific issues. In 2011, Google removed Scholar from

612-524: A journal they did not wish to name. The rejection letter concerned Ingleby and Head's paper about differences in PhD-to-postdoc transition between male and female scientists. The reviewer argued that the authors should "find one or two male biologists to work with" to ensure the manuscript does not drift into "ideologically biased assumptions", comments which the authors found to be "unprofessional and inappropriate" and veering into sexism . Shortly afterward,

680-407: A large set of SCIgen -produced documents citing each other (effectively an academic link farm ). As of 2010, Google Scholar was not able to shepardize case law, as Lexis could. Unlike other indexes of academic work such as Scopus and Web of Science , Google Scholar does not maintain an Application Programming Interface that may be used to automate data retrieval. Use of web scrapers to obtain

748-494: A list of closely related articles, ranked primarily by how similar these articles are to the original result, but also taking into account the relevance of each paper. Google Scholar's legal database of US cases is extensive. Users can search and read published opinions of US state appellate and supreme court cases since 1950, US federal district, appellate, tax, and bankruptcy courts since 1923 and US Supreme Court cases since 1791. Google Scholar embeds clickable citation links within

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816-580: A member of the PLOS ONE Editorial Board before publication. This pre-publication peer review will concentrate on technical rather than subjective concerns and may involve discussion with other members of the Editorial Board and/or the solicitation of formal reports from independent referees. If published, papers will be made available for community-based open peer review involving online annotation, discussion, and rating. According to Nature ,

884-473: A pre-publication review by a member of the board of academic editors, who can elect to seek an opinion from an external reviewer. In January 2010, the journal was included in the Journal Citation Reports and received its first impact factor of 4.4. Its 2023 impact factor is 2.9. PLOS One papers are published under Creative Commons licenses . The Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation awarded PLOS

952-400: A result academics should be involved in the implementation and development of an IR project so that they can learn the benefits and purpose of building an IR. An institutional repository has been defined as "a set of services that a university offers to members of its community for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members." For

1020-428: A separate letter apologizing for the failure of peer review to address the issues with the article, PLOS One Editor-in-chief Joerg Heber said, "we have reached the conclusion that the study and resultant data reported in the article represent a valid contribution to the scientific literature. However, we have also determined that the study, including its goals, methodology, and conclusions, were not adequately framed in

1088-449: A social media outrage storm does expedite a retraction. On August 27, 2018, the editors of PLOS One initiated a reevaluation of an article they published two weeks earlier submitted by Brown University School of Public Health assistant professor Lisa Littman. The study described a phenomenon of social contagion, or "cluster outbreaks" in gender dysphoria among young people, which Littman called "rapid-onset gender dysphoria". Data

1156-537: A type of digital library . Institutional repositories perform the main functions of digital libraries by collecting, classifying, cataloging, curating, preserving, and providing access to digital content. Institutional repositories enable researchers to self-archive their research output and can improve the visibility, usage and impact of research conducted at an institution. Other functions of an institutional repository include knowledge management , research assessment, and open access to scholarly research. In 2003,

1224-587: Is a peer-reviewed open access mega journal published by the Public Library of Science (PLOS) since 2006. The journal covers primary research from any discipline within science and medicine . The Public Library of Science began in 2000 with an online petition initiative by Nobel Prize winner Harold Varmus , formerly director of the National Institutes of Health and at that time director of Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center ; Patrick O. Brown ,

1292-511: Is also called "academic search engine optimization" (ASEO) and defined as "the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it". ASEO has been adopted by several organizations, among them Elsevier , OpenScience, Mendeley , and SAGE Publishing , to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives. PLOS One PLOS One (stylized PLOS ONE , and formerly PLoS ONE )

1360-430: Is an archive for collecting, preserving, and disseminating digital copies of the intellectual output of an institution, particularly a research institution. Academics also utilize their IRs for archiving published works to increase their visibility and collaboration with other academics. However, most of these outputs produced by universities are not effectively accessed and shared by researchers and other stakeholders. As

1428-476: Is an international social science full-text server. Content included in an institutional repository can be both digitized and born-digital . Institutional repositories that provide access to research to users outside the institutional community are one of the recommended ways to achieve the open access vision described in the Budapest Open Access Initiative definition of open access. This

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1496-481: Is built on several conceptually different ideas compared to traditional peer-reviewed scientific publishing in that it does not use the perceived importance of a paper as a criterion for acceptance or rejection. The idea is that, instead, PLOS One only verifies whether experiments and data analysis were conducted rigorously, and leaves it to the scientific community to ascertain importance, post publication, through debate and comment. Each submission will be assessed by

1564-406: Is hosted by a third party. The Confederation of Open Access Repositories (COAR) states in its manifesto that "Each individual repository is of limited value for research: the real power of Open Access lies in the possibility of connecting and tying together repositories, which is why we need interoperability. In order to create a seamless layer of content through connected repositories from around

1632-490: Is not a formal mental health diagnosis at this time. This report did not collect data from the adolescents and young adults (AYAs) or clinicians and therefore does not validate the phenomenon. Additional research that includes AYAs, along with consensus among experts in the field, will be needed to determine if what is described here as rapid-onset gender dysphoria (ROGD) will become a formal diagnosis." Repository (academic publishing) An institutional repository ( IR )

1700-510: Is sometimes mandated by an institution. Some of the main objectives for having an institutional repository are to provide open access to institutional research output by self-archiving in an open access repository , to create global visibility for an institution's scholarly research, and to store and preserve other institutional digital assets, including less formally published grey literature such as theses, working papers or technical reports. Institutional repositories can be classified as

1768-463: Is sometimes referred to as the self-archiving or "green" route to open access. Steps in the development of an institutional repository include choosing a platform and defining metadata practices. Designing an IR requires working with faculty to identify the type of content the library needs to support Marketing and promoting the Institutional repository is important to enhance access and increase

1836-412: Is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution License . In the first four years following launch, it made use of over 40,000 external peer reviewers. The journal uses an international board of academic editors with over 6,000 academics handling submissions and publishes approximately 50 % of all submissions, after review by, on average, 2.9 experts. Registered readers can leave comments on articles on

1904-662: The Matthew effect ; as highly cited papers appear in top positions they gain more citations while new papers hardly appear in top positions and therefore get less attention by the users of Google Scholar and hence fewer citations. Google Scholar effect is a phenomenon when some researchers pick and cite works appearing in the top results on Google Scholar regardless of their contribution to the citing publication because they automatically assume these works' credibility and believe that editors, reviewers, and readers expect to see these citations. Google Scholar has problems identifying publications on

1972-733: The arXiv preprint server correctly. Interpunctuation characters in titles produce wrong search results, and authors are assigned to wrong papers, which leads to erroneous additional search results. Some search results are even given without any comprehensible reason. Google Scholar is vulnerable to spam . Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg demonstrated that citation counts on Google Scholar can be manipulated and complete non-sense articles created with SCIgen were indexed within Google Scholar. These researchers concluded that citation counts from Google Scholar should be used with care, especially when used to calculate performance metrics such as

2040-497: The h-index or impact factor , which is in itself a poor predictor of article quality. Google Scholar started computing an h-index in 2012 with the advent of individual Scholar pages. Several downstream packages like Harzing's Publish or Perish also use its data. The practicality of manipulating h-index calculators by spoofing Google Scholar was demonstrated in 2010 by Cyril Labbe from Joseph Fourier University , who managed to rank "Ike Antkare" ahead of Albert Einstein by means of

2108-438: The 2005 version, this feature provided a link to both subscription-access versions of an article and to free full-text versions of articles; for most of 2006, it provided links to only the publishers' versions. Since December 2006, it has provided links to both published versions and major open access repositories , including all those posted on individual faculty web pages and other unstructured sources identified by similarity. On

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2176-482: The MIT Institutional Repository. A disciplinary repository is subject specific. It holds and provides access to scholarly research in a particular discipline. While there can be disciplinary repositories for one institution, disciplinary repositories are frequently not tied to a specific institution. The PsyDok disciplinary repository, for example, holds German-language research in psychology, while SSOAR

2244-560: The Publishing Innovation Award of the Association for Learned and Professional Society Publishers . The award is given in recognition of a "truly innovative approach to any aspect of publication as adjudged from originality and innovative qualities, together with utility, benefit to the community and long-term prospects". In January 2010, it was announced that the journal would be included in the Journal Citation Reports , and

2312-489: The adolescents themselves. On March 19, 2019, PLOS One completed its review. PLOS One psychology academic editor Angelo Brandelli Costa acted as a reviewer criticizing the methods and conclusion of the study in a formal comment, saying, "The level of evidence produced by the Dr. Littman's study cannot generate a new diagnostic criterion relative to the time of presentation of the demands of medical and social gender affirmation." In

2380-507: The article being viewed. It is this feature in particular that provides the citation indexing previously only found in CiteSeer , Scopus , and Web of Science . Google Scholar also provides links so that citations can be either copied in various formats or imported into user-chosen reference managers such as Zotero . "Scholar Citations profiles" are public author profiles that are editable by authors themselves. Individuals, logging on through

2448-840: The articles generating these journal's impact can also be accessed. A metrics feature now supports viewing the impact of whole fields of science and academic journals. Google also included profiles for some posthumous academics, including Albert Einstein and Richard Feynman . For several years, the profile for Isaac Newton indicated he was as a "professor at MIT ", with a "verified email at mit.edu". Google Scholar allows users to search for digital or physical copies of articles, whether online or in libraries. It indexes "full-text journal articles, technical reports, preprints, theses , books, and other documents, including selected Web pages that are deemed to be 'scholarly.'" Because many of Google Scholar's search results link to commercial journal articles, most people will be able to access only an abstract and

2516-399: The arts and humanities has not been investigated empirically and Scholar's utility for disciplines in these fields remains ambiguous. Especially early on, some publishers did not allow Scholar to crawl their journals. Elsevier journals have been included since mid-2007, when Elsevier began to make most of its ScienceDirect content available to Google Scholar and Google's web search. However,

2584-433: The author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the piece has been cited in other scholarly literature". Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on citation counts , as well as words included in a document's title. In searches by author or year, the first search results are often highly cited articles, as the number of citations is highly determinant, whereas in keyword searches

2652-523: The authors' protests, the article was retracted . A less sympathetic explanation for the use of "Creator" was suggested to The Chronicle of Higher Education by Chinese-language experts who noted that the academic editor listed on the paper, Renzhi Han, previously worked at the Chinese Evangelical Church in Iowa City. Sarah Kaplan of The Washington Post presented a detailed analysis of

2720-419: The biomedical field found citation information in Google Scholar to be "sometimes inadequate, and less often updated". The coverage of Google Scholar may vary by discipline compared to other general databases. Google Scholar strives to include as many journals as possible, including predatory journals , which may lack academic rigor. Specialists on predatory journals say that these kinds of journals "have polluted

2788-463: The case and the How Cited tab allows lawyers to research prior case law and the subsequent citations to the court decision. While most academic databases and search engines allow users to select one factor (e.g. relevance, citation counts, or publication date) to rank results, Google Scholar ranks results with a combined ranking algorithm in a "way researchers do, weighing the full text of each article,

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2856-442: The citation details of an article, and have to pay a fee to access the entire article. The most relevant results for the searched keywords will be listed first, in order of the author's ranking, the number of references that are linked to it and their relevance to other scholarly literature, and the ranking of the publication that the journal appears in. Using its "group of" feature, it shows the available links to journal articles. In

2924-555: The contents of search results is also severely restricted by the implementation of CAPTCHAs. Google Scholar does not display or export Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs), a de facto standard implemented by all major academic publishers to uniquely identify and refer to individual pieces of academic work. Search engine optimization (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as Google has been popular for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as Google Scholar. SEO for academic articles

2992-464: The fee for authors who do not have sufficient funds. PLoS had been operating at a loss until 2009 but covered its operational costs for the first time in 2010, largely due to the growth of PLOS One . The success of PLOS One has inspired a series of other open access journals, including some other mega journals having broad scope, low selectivity, and a pay-to-publish model using Creative Commons licenses . In September 2009, PLOS One received

3060-420: The functions of an institutional repository were described by Clifford Lynch in relation to universities. He stated that: "... a university-based institutional repository is a set of services that a university offers to the members of its community for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members. It is most essentially an organizational commitment to

3128-443: The global scientific record with pseudo-science" and "that Google Scholar dutifully and perhaps blindly includes in its central index." Google Scholar does not publish a list of journals crawled or publishers included, and the frequency of its updates is uncertain. Bibliometric evidence suggests Google Scholar's coverage of the sciences and social sciences is competitive with other academic databases; as of 2017, Scholar's coverage of

3196-478: The history of the article in Nature on " water memory " that was not retracted either. Jonathan Eisen , chair of the advisory board of a sister journal PLOS Biology and an advocate for open-access , commended PLOS One for their prompt response on social media , which in his words "most journals pretend doesn't even exist". David Knutson issued a statement about the paper processing at PLOS One , which praised

3264-414: The importance of post-publication peer review and described their intention to offer open signed reviews in order to ensure accountability of the process. From March 2 to 9, the research article received a total of 67 post-publication reader comments and 129 responses on PLOS One site. Signe Dean of SBS put #CreatorGate in perspective: it is not the most scandalous retraction in science, yet it shows how

3332-559: The industry-wide averages for biology-related journals. The average acceptance rates for manuscripts submitted in 2020 and 2021 ranges from 47.9 to 49.9%. [1] The founding managing editor was Chris Surridge. He was succeeded by Peter Binfield in March 2008, who was publisher until May 2012. Damian Pattinson then held the chief editorial position until December 2015. Joerg Heber was as editor-in-chief from November 2016 before Emily Chenette took over in that position in March 2021. PLOS One

3400-409: The journal Scientific Reports overtook PLOS One in terms of output. At PLOS One , the median review time has grown from 37 days to 125 days over the first ten years of operation, according to Himmelstein's analysis, done for Nature . The median between acceptance and posting a paper on the site has decreased from 35 to 15 days over the same period. Both numbers for 2016 roughly correspond to

3468-483: The journal received an impact factor of 4.411 in 2010. According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 2.9.. The articles are indexed in: On April 29, 2015, Fiona Ingleby and Megan Head, postdoctoral fellows at the University of Sussex and Australian National University respectively, posted a rejection letter, which they said was sent to them by a peer reviewer for

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3536-415: The journal was reported to be PLOS One . By May 1, PLOS had announced that it was severing ties with the reviewer responsible for the comments and asking the editor who relayed them to step down. PLOS One also issued an apology statement following the incident. On March 3, 2016, the editors of PLOS One initiated a reevaluation of an article about the functioning of the human hand due to outrage among

3604-537: The journal's aim is to "challenge academia 's obsession with journal status and impact factors ". Being an online-only publication allows PLOS One to publish more papers than a print journal. In an effort to facilitate publication of research on topics outside, or between, traditional science categories, it does not restrict itself to a specific scientific area. Papers published in PLOS One can be of any length, contain full color throughout, and contain supplementary materials such as multimedia files. Reuse of articles

3672-540: The journal's readership over a reference to "Creator" inside the paper. The authors, who received grants from the Chinese National Basic Research Program and National Natural Science Foundation of China for this work, responded by saying "Creator" is a poorly-translated idiom ( 造化 ( 者 ); lit.   ' that which creates or transforms ' ) which means "nature" in the Chinese language. Despite

3740-422: The number of citations is probably the factor with the most weight, but other factors also participate. Some searchers found Google Scholar to be of comparable quality and utility to subscription-based databases when looking at citations of articles in some specific journals. The reviews recognize that its "cited by" feature in particular poses serious competition to Scopus and Web of Science . A study looking at

3808-428: The other hand, Google Scholar does not allow to filter explicitly between toll access and open access resources, a feature offered Unpaywall and the tools which embed its data, such as Web of Science , Scopus and Unpaywall Journals , used by libraries to calculate the real costs and value of their collections. Through its "cited by" feature, Google Scholar provides access to abstracts of articles that have cited

3876-449: The problem, which she named #CreatorGate , and concluded that the journal's hasty retraction may have been an even bigger offense than the publication of the paper in the first place. To contrast PLOS One ' s handling of the problem, she used a 12-year history of retraction of the fraudulent paper on vaccine and autism by The Lancet and the lack of a retraction of a debunked study on " arsenic life " by Science . Others added

3944-455: The published version, and that these needed to be corrected." The paper was republished with updated Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Discussion, and Conclusion sections, but the Results section was mostly unchanged. In her correction, Littman emphasized that the article was "a study of parental observations which serves to develop hypotheses", saying "Rapid-onset gender dysphoria (ROGD)

4012-512: The scans and have used them to create the HathiTrust Digital Library . Google Scholar arose out of a discussion between Alex Verstak and Anurag Acharya , both of whom were then working on building Google's main web index. Their goal was to "make the world's problem solvers 10% more efficient" by allowing easier and more accurate access to scientific knowledge. This goal is reflected in the Google Scholar's advertising slogan " Stand on

4080-481: The shoulders of giants ", which was taken from an idea attributed to Bernard of Chartres , quoted by Isaac Newton , and is a nod to the scholars who have contributed to their fields over the centuries, providing the foundation for new intellectual achievements. One of the sources for the texts in Google Scholar is the University of Michigan's print collection. Scholars have gained a range of features over time. In 2006,

4148-415: The stewardship of these digital materials, including long-term preservation where appropriate, as well as organization and access or distribution." The content of an institutional repository depends on the focus of the institution. Higher education institutions conduct research across multiple disciplines, thus research from a variety of academic subjects . Examples of such institutional repositories include

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4216-399: The toolbars on its search pages, making it both less easily accessible and less discoverable for users not already aware of its existence. Around this period, sites with similar features such as CiteSeer , Scirus , and Microsoft Windows Live Academic search were developed. Some of these are now defunct; in 2016, Microsoft launched a new competitor, Microsoft Academic . A major enhancement

4284-503: The visibility of the researchers. Libraries will also need to target their marketing efforts to different groups of stakeholders. They may generate faculty interest by describing how an IR can support research or improve future findability of articles Most institutional repository software platforms can use OAI-PMH to harvest metadata. For example, DSpace supports OAI-PMH. A 2014 survey commissioned by Duraspace found that 72% of respondents indicated that their institutional repository

4352-520: The website. As with all journals of the Public Library of Science, open access to PLOS One is financed by an article processing charge , typically paid by the author's institution or by the author. This model allows PLOS journals to make all articles available to the public for free immediately upon publication. As of April 2021, PLOS One charges a publication fee of $ 1,745 to publish an article. Depending on circumstances, it may waive or reduce

4420-759: The world, open access relies on interoperability, the ability for systems to communicate with each other and pass information back and forth in a usable format. Interoperability allows us to exploit today's computational power so that we can aggregate, data mine, create new tools and services, and generate new knowledge from repository content." Interoperability is achieved in the world of institutional repositories by using protocols such as OAI-PMH. This allows search engines and open access aggregators, such as BASE , CORE and Unpaywall , to index repository metadata and content and provide value-added services on top of this content. The Digital Commons Network aggregates by discipline some 500 institutional repositories running on

4488-495: Was added. In August 2008, the journal moved from a weekly to a daily publication schedule, publishing articles as soon as they became ready. PLOS One came out of "beta" in October 2008. In September 2009, as part of its article-level metrics program, PLOS One made its full online usage data, including HTML page views and PDF or XML download statistics, publicly available for every published article. In mid-2012, as part of

4556-529: Was obtained from a survey placed on three websites for concerned parents of children with gender dysphoria, asking for responses from parents whose children had experienced "sudden or rapid development of gender dysphoria beginning between the ages of 10 and 21". The study was criticized by transgender activists like Julia Serano and medical professionals like developmental and clinical psychologist Diane Ehrensaft, as being politicized and having self-selected samples, as well as lacking clinical data or responses from

4624-450: Was rolled out in 2012, with the possibility for individual scholars to create personal "Scholar Citations profiles". A feature introduced in November 2013 allows logged-in users to save search results into the "Google Scholar library", a personal collection which the user can search separately and organize by tags. Via the "metrics" button, it reveals the top journals in a field of interest, and

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