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50-430: Goldsmiths must be skilled in forming metal through filing , soldering , sawing , forging , casting , and polishing . The trade has very often included jewelry -making skills, as well as the very similar skills of the silversmith . Traditionally, these skills had been passed along through apprenticeships ; more recently jewelry arts schools, specializing in teaching goldsmithing and a multitude of skills falling under

100-422: A cross-cut or double-cut file has a second set of cuts forming diamond shaped cutting surfaces. In Swiss-pattern files the teeth are cut at a shallower angle, and are graded by number, with a number 1 file being coarser than a number 2, etc. Most files have teeth on all faces, but some specialty flat files have teeth on only one face or one edge, so that the user can come right up to another edge without damaging

150-495: A geographical sense, via trade , they were not widespread in the cultural sense of the word—that is, most people, and even many smiths , did not have them. For example, in the 13th century, ornamental iron work at Paris was done skillfully with the aid of files, but the process was a secret known only to a master craftsman. The Disston authors state, "It was not until the fourteenth century, however, that those who practiced art in ironwork began to use other tools, besides heat and

200-452: A goldsmith's style. He produced a series of eleven engravings for the Ars moriendi ( The Art of Dying ), a very popular devotional work. These were no doubt intended to be inserted into a manuscript copy of the book. The very controversial question of whether these were copies of woodcut versions of the same compositions in blockbooks was effectively solved in 1942, when Fritz Saxl published

250-641: A single village of geniuses in isolation. (Considering the Disston authors' mention of the blacksmith guilds of 13th-century Florence and 15th-century England, coupled with their mention of Nuremberg , Sheffield , and Remscheid , the region that sweeps from Florence through Nuremberg, the Rhine-Ruhr, the Netherlands, and up to Sheffield, can be compared to the modern economics notation of the Blue Banana .) Most files of

300-518: A standard steel file is ineffective. Diamond files are also the only type that may be used with a back-and-forth motion without damaging the file. These may also be called diamond laps , as the "teeth" are not regular projections, as in a file, but particles, usually shaped and located randomly and held in place by a softer (any other) material. The image to the left shows a selection of needle files in an assortment of cross sectional shapes. Needle files are small files that are used in applications where

350-580: Is "blunt" if its sides and width are both parallel throughout its length. It is "tapered" if there is a reduction in its dimensions from its heel toward its point. A file may taper in width, in thickness, or both. A " tang " is a protrusion at the heel, tapered, parallel sided, or conical, for gripping, inserting in a handle, or mounting in a chuck. The cut of the file refers to how fine its teeth are. They are defined as (from roughest to smoothest): rough, middle, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. A single-cut file has one set of parallel teeth while

400-407: Is a term mostly reserved for a person who deals in jewellery (buys and sells) and not to be confused with a goldsmith, silversmith, gemologist, diamond cutter, and diamond setters. A 'jobbing jeweller' is the term for a jeweller who undertakes a small basic amount of jewellery repair and alteration. File (tool) A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It

450-765: Is common in woodworking , metalworking , and other similar trade and hobby tasks. Most are hand tools , made of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one end, to which a handle may be fitted. A rasp is a form of file with distinct, individually cut teeth used for coarsely removing large amounts of material. Files have also been developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural or synthetic diamond grains or silicon carbide , allowing removal of material that would dull or resist steel files, such as ceramic . Early filing or rasping has prehistoric roots and grew naturally out of

500-430: Is fairly easy to "pressure weld", wherein, similarly to clay, two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal —because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing. Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and

550-504: Is much higher than generally assumed, but the components of such hand-fit assemblies are decidedly not interchangeable with those from another assembly. Locks , clocks , and firearms (flintlocks and earlier) were manufactured in this way for centuries before the Industrial Revolution . Machining in the mid-19th century was heavily dependent on filing, because milling practice was slowly evolving out of its infancy. As late as

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600-535: Is used for unidentified artists who operated independently. He was probably the first printmaker to place his initials on his work. Remaining signed works by E. S. indicate that he was active in printmaking from 1450 to 1467, the latest date to appear on one of his prints. After this date, he is presumed to have died. He was the most distinguished German engraver before Martin Schongauer . Master E. S. probably came from southwestern Germany or Switzerland , as did

650-531: Is usually to avoid handwork when possible. Files come in a wide variety of materials, sizes, shapes, cuts, and tooth configurations. The cross-section of a file can be flat, round, half-round, triangular, square, knife edge or of a more specialized shape. Steel files are made from high carbon steel (1.0 to 1.25% carbon) and may be through hardened or case hardened . There is no unitary international standard for file nomenclature; however, there are many generally accepted names for certain kinds of files. A file

700-530: The Baptism of Christ (picture at right), which is in the Louvre, was turned into two engravings by E. S., in doing which he complicated the compositions, filling empty spaces with new detail. Shestack considers that this reveals that his compositional method, here and perhaps commonly, was to begin by copying accurately a painting or other work by someone else. He then, in working on the engraving, introduced extra detail in

750-761: The Iron Age had various kinds of files and rasps. Archaeologists have discovered rasps made from bronze in Egypt, dating back to the years 1200–1000 BC. Archaeologists have also discovered rasps made of iron used by the Assyrians, dating back to the 7th Century BC. During the Middle Ages files were already quite advanced, thanks to the extensive talents of blacksmiths . By the 11th century, there already existed hardened files that would seem quite modern even to today's eyes. But although they existed, and could even have spread widely, in

800-453: The Master of 1466 ) is an unidentified German engraver , goldsmith , and printmaker of the late Gothic period. He was the first major German artist of old master prints and was greatly copied and imitated. The name assigned to him by art historians, Master E. S. , is derived from the monogram, E. S., which appears on eighteen of his prints (variants appear on others). The title, Master ,

850-605: The Middle Ages , goldsmithing normally included silversmithing as well, but the brass workers and workers in other base metals normally were members of a separate guild, since the trades were not allowed to overlap. Many jewelers also were goldsmiths. The Sunar caste is one of the oldest communities in goldsmithing in India, whose superb gold artworks were displayed at The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. In India, ' Daivadnya Brahmins ', Vishwakarma (Viswabrahmins, Acharis) ' Sunar ' are

900-559: The late Middle Ages , the transition was extensive. The Disston authors mention Nuremberg , Sheffield , and Remscheid (they use the Reimscheid spelling) as leading centers of production for files as well as tools in general. The activity in Remscheid reflects the metalworking spirit of the Rhine-Ruhr region in general (including Essen , Düsseldorf , and Cologne ) rather than representing

950-468: The attempts to match documented persons with his initials have met with general acceptance. The term master meant someone who had completed an apprenticeship and ran his own workshop, as E. S. clearly did. Marriage and employing apprentices to learn the skills could sometimes also be requirements. E. S. probably came from a background and training as a goldsmith, rather than as a painter. He sometimes used goldsmith punches in his prints (for example, to make

1000-535: The blending of the twin inspirations of cutting with stone cutting tools (such as hand axes ) and abrading using natural abrasives, such as well-suited types of stone (for example, sandstone ). Relatedly, lapping is also quite ancient, with wood and beach sand offering a natural pair of lap and lapping compound. The Disston authors state, "To abrade, or file, ancient man used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish skin, and gritty woods,—also stone of varying hardness in connection with sand and water." The Bronze Age and

1050-408: The chemical techniques used by ancient artisans have remarked that their findings confirm that "the high level of competence reached by the artists and craftsmen of these ancient periods who produced objects of an artistic quality that could not be bettered in ancient times and has not yet been reached in modern ones." In medieval Europe goldsmiths were organized into guilds and usually were one of

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1100-464: The circles on the borders of the clothes in the Delilah print above) and some works are clearly designs for metalwork. He was the first printmaker to sign his prints with an engraved monogram, which was standard practice on significant pieces of metalwork. He engraved two images of Saint Eligius , the patron-saint of goldsmiths. He liked to fill his engravings with decorative detail, sometimes overloading

1150-481: The clogging of the file teeth with pins , which are material shavings. These pins cause the file to lose its cutting ability and can scratch the workpiece. A file card , which is a brush with metal bristles, is used to clean the file. (The name, "card", is the same as used for the " raising cards " (spiked brushes) used in woolmaking.) Chalk can help prevent pinning. Master E. S. Master E. S. ( c.  1420  – c.  1468 ; previously known as

1200-463: The composition, and only slowly does a sense of volume or recession develop in his work. Since his earliest prints show a practiced use of the burin , he is presumed to have worked as a goldsmith for some years before beginning printmaking. His date of birth is estimated on this basis. His level of production of prints probably means that he worked on these only during his later years. Another important printmaker and goldsmith, Israhel van Meckenem ,

1250-584: The cutting of files (the chisel would make one strike, swaging a tooth, then automatically advance into position for the next tooth, and strike again). Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of interchangeable parts during the 19th century, filing was much more important in the construction of mechanisms . Component parts were roughly shaped by forging , casting , and by primitive machining operations. These components were then individually hand-fitted for assembly by careful and deliberate filing. The potential precision of such fitting

1300-404: The early 20th century, manufacturing often involved filing parts to precise shape and size. In today's manufacturing environment, milling and grinding have generally replaced this type of work, and filing (when it occurs at all) usually tends to be for deburring only. Skillful filing to shape and size is still a part of diemaking, moldmaking, toolmaking, etc. , but even in those fields, the goal

1350-623: The engraver called the Master of the Playing Cards . This view rests mainly on stylistic comparisons with the contemporary painting of that region. Although evidence indicates that he was most active in the Upper Rhine region, there also is evidence that he visited Mainz , to the south on the Rhine at the confluence of the Main River opposite Wiesbaden , a major economic and cultural centre. None of

1400-429: The file sideways instead of head on, and an extremely fine shaving action is produced. There are also varying strokes that produce a combination of the straight ahead stroke and the drawfiling stroke, and very fine work can be attained in this fashion. Using a combination of strokes, and progressively finer files, a skilled operator can attain a surface that is perfectly flat and near flawless finish. Pinning refers to

1450-488: The finish on it. Some of the common shapes and their uses: Instead of having teeth cut into the file's working surface, diamond files have small particles of industrial diamond embedded in their surface (or into a softer material that is bonded to the underlying surface of the file). The use of diamonds in this manner allows the file to be used effectively against extremely hard materials, such as stone, glass or very hard metals such as hardened steel or carbide against which

1500-491: The goldsmith castes. The printmaking technique of engraving developed among goldsmiths in Germany around 1430, who had long used the technique on their metal pieces. The notable engravers of the fifteenth century were either goldsmiths, such as Master E. S. , or the sons of goldsmiths, such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer . A goldsmith might have a wide array of skills and knowledge at their disposal. Gold , being

1550-438: The hammer, regularly." This statement could mislead in the sense that stoning (with sandstone) and lapping (with wood, sand, and water) have never been rare activities among humans, or especially smiths. But the point is that modern iron or steel files, with teeth and hardening, and the material culture of intricate filing that would lead to locksmithing and gunsmithing , for example, are what took time to become common. But by

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1600-428: The history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa , Asia , Europe , India , North America , Mesoamerica , and South America grace museums and collections throughout the world. The Copper Age Varna culture ( Bulgaria ) from the 5th millennium BC is credited with the earliest found instances of gold metallurgy. The associated Varna Necropolis treasure contains

1650-496: The influence of the Master of the Playing Cards on the work of Master E. S. He adds that "E. S. does not rank high as an artist, but on the technical side he was one of the greatest influences in the progress of the art of engraving." Two very fine drawings , universally accepted as works by E. S., are in Berlin and the Louvre , but there are others which are disputed. The composition of

1700-477: The jewelry arts umbrella, are available. Many universities and junior colleges also offer goldsmithing, silversmithing, and metal arts fabrication as a part of their fine arts curriculum. Compared to other metals, gold is malleable , ductile , rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color . It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other metals such as bronzes , for example. It

1750-424: The metals used to create the alloy, the color can change. The goldsmith will use a variety of tools and machinery, including the rolling mill , the drawplate , and perhaps, swage blocks and other forming tools to make the metal into shapes needed to build the intended piece. Then parts are fabricated through a wide variety of processes and assembled by soldering . It is a testament to the history and evolution of

1800-407: The most malleable metal of all, offers unique opportunities for the worker. In today's world a wide variety of other metals, especially platinum alloys, also may be used frequently. 24 karat is pure gold and historically, was known as fine gold . Because it is so soft, however, 24 karat gold is rarely used. It is usually alloyed to make it stronger and to create different colors. Depending on

1850-426: The most important and wealthiest of the guilds in a city. The guild kept records of members and the marks they used on their products. These records, when they survive, are very useful to historians. Goldsmiths often acted as bankers , since they dealt in gold and had sufficient security for the safe storage of valuable items, though they were usually restrained from lending at interest, which was regarded as usury . In

1900-441: The narrow canals of the interior of the tooth and thus facilitate disinfection of the internal surface. Typically the files are made of stainless steel or nickel titanium (NiTi) and come in a variety of styles. Mechanized files, known as rotary files, are also commonly used. These files attach to the head of a specific oscillating or rotating drill. Files have forward-facing cutting teeth, and cut most effectively when pushed over

1950-426: The number still may have been limited to about sixty or so, before wear on the plate began to show and reworking was necessary for it to be used again. His use of hatching (parallel lines) and cross-hatching to depict shading and volume, steadily grew more sophisticated and his figure-drawing became more confident, sometimes overconfident. Many figures of this period have contorted poses even when at rest. In works from

2000-404: The oldest golden jewellery in the world with an approximate age of over 6,000 years. Some pieces date back thousands of years and were made using many techniques that still are used by modern goldsmiths. Techniques developed by some of those goldsmiths achieved a skill level that was lost and remained beyond the skills of those who followed, even to modern times. Researchers attempting to uncover

2050-467: The order of approximately 100–140 mm (4–5 1 ⁄ 2 in.) in length and 3–5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 16 in.) in width. Best used for fine, delicate work on small pieces or mechanisms (such as escapements ), escapement files are commonly used by clock and watchmakers , as well as in crafting jewelry. During root canal therapy , round files ranging from .06-to-0.8-millimetre (0.0024 to 0.0315 in) diameter files are used to smooth

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2100-401: The period were smithed by hand in a sequence in which the iron was forged (heated and hammered), then the teeth were cut with a chisel (some of this action was just as much upsetting / swaging as it was cutting), and then the piece was hardened (by heating and then quenching ), followed sometimes by tempering . Among the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci is a sketch of a machine tool for

2150-449: The period. Lehrs catalogues three hundred and eighteen engravings by E. S. and of these, ninety-five are unique, and fifty exist in only two impressions (copies). There are a further thirty-eight engravings by his probable assistant, Israhel van Meckenem , which are considered to be copies of engravings by E. S. which have not survived. In total, Shestack estimates, there may have been about five hundred engravings by E. S. Hind notes

2200-403: The surface finish of a cavity die may need to be improved, e.g. in plastic injection moulding or die casting . Files are produced specifically for use in a filing machine , which is similar in appearance to a scroll saw with a vertically reciprocating file mounted in the middle of a table. A workpiece is manipulated around the file's face as the shape requires. A cone point (as pictured in

2250-434: The surface finish takes priority over metal removal rates but they are most suited for smaller work pieces. They are often sold in sets, including different shapes. Riffler files are small to medium-sized files in an assortment of cross sectional shapes and profiles. The varying profiles and shapes enable them to be used in hard to reach, or unusually shaped areas. They are often used as an intermediate step in die making where

2300-403: The third period, his figures are more relaxed and flat surfaces are given prominence in the compositions. Many faces of his subjects have a rather pudding-like appearance, and are overly-large for their bodies, which diminishes the quality of otherwise, fine works . Much of his work still has great charm, and the secular and comic subjects he engraved are rarely found in the surviving painting of

2350-577: The top and bottom files at left) allows a file to center itself in its mount. Files with flat mounting surfaces must be secured with set screws . Filing machines are rarely seen in modern production environments, but may be found in older toolrooms or diemaking shops as an aid in the manufacture of specialist tooling. Escapement files, also known as watchmaker's files, are a classification of short, (very) thin files with bastard-cut (medium coarseness) or embedded diamond surfaces, similar to needle files in form and function but smaller. Typical dimensions are on

2400-399: The trade that those skills have reached an extremely high level of attainment and skill over time. A fine goldsmith can and will work to a tolerance approaching that of precision machinery, but largely using only his eyes and hand tools. Quite often the goldsmith's job involves the making of mountings for gemstones , in which case they often are referred to as jewelers . 'Jeweller', however,

2450-408: The workpiece. A variety of strokes are employed to stabilize the cutting action and produce a varied result. Draw filing is an operation in which the file is grasped at each end, and with an even pressure alternately pulled and pushed perpendicularly over the work. A variation involves laying the file sideways on the work, and carefully pushing or pulling it across the work. This catches the teeth of

2500-431: Was probably his leading assistant at the end of his career and forty-one of his plates passed to him, being reworked by van Meckenem. Shestack divides the engravings of E. S. into three stylistic periods: around 1450, up to 1460, and after 1460. During the second period he made significant technical developments. Firstly, deeper incisions with the burin , which allowed more impressions to be taken from each plate, although

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