101-525: Gilbert Reaney (11 January 1924 – 22 March 2008) was an English musicologist who specialized in medieval and Renaissance music , theory and literature. Described as "one of the most prolific and influential musicologists of the past century", Reaney made significant contributions to his fields of expertise, particularly on the life and works of Guillaume de Machaut , as well as medieval music theory . Born in Sheffield , Reaney studied French and music at
202-774: A Bachelor of Arts (1948) and a Bachelor of Music (1951) from the University of Sheffield. Also in 1951, he took a Master of Arts , with a dissertation on the formes fixes ( rondeaus , virelais and ballades ) of Guillaume de Machaut . His studies brought him to the Sorbonne in Paris, where—on a grant from the French government—he studied the Roman de Fauvel manuscript, the main source of ars nova medieval music, literature and art. The music historian Tess Knighton notes that Reaney did not write
303-570: A doctoral dissertation ; this is standard to be promoted as a Professor of Music in the 21st-century, but was not at the time. Returning to England, Reaney was research fellow at the University of Reading (from 1953 to 1956) and then the University of Birmingham (1956 to 1959). While at Reading and Birmingham, Reaney founded and regularly directed the London Medieval Group, an early music ensemble which he regularly joined on tour in both
404-426: A "characteristic objectivity, clarity of argument, a concise style and thorough knowledge of widely varying subjects". His research spanned a variety of topics in medieval and Renaissance music , theory and literature. His most important contributions, however, are on the life and works of Machaut, as well as medieval music theory . Beginning with his 1952 dissertation, Reaney published a variety of scholarship on
505-467: A book-length treatment of the subject for the Oxford Studies of Composers series. A prominent scholar on medieval music theory, by 1966 Reaney was the general editor for AIM's Corpus scriptorum de musica (CSM), which involved research on at least ten modern editions of medieval manuscripts, including new publications of music theory works by Franco of Cologne and Philippe de Vitry . In particular,
606-465: A brief explanation of the mensural notation in general, see the article Renaissance music ). Many scholars, citing a lack of positive attributory evidence, now consider "Vitry's" treatise to be anonymous, but this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation. However, this makes the first definitely identifiable scholar to accept and explain the mensural system to be de Muris, who can be said to have done for it what Garlandia did for
707-476: A church service), by the end of the thirteenth century the genre had expanded to include secular topics, such as political satire and courtly love , and French as well as Latin texts. They also included from one to three upper voices, each with its own text. In Italy, the secular genre of the Madrigal became popular. Similar to the polyphonic character of the motet, madrigals featured greater fluidity and motion in
808-745: A compiler; Alfonso is known to regularly invited musicians and poets to court whom were undoubtedly involved in the Cantigas production. It is one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the Middle Ages and is characterized by the mention of the Virgin Mary in every song, while every tenth song is a hymn. The manuscripts have survived in four codices: two at El Escorial , one at Madrid 's National Library , and one in Florence , Italy. Some have colored miniatures showing pairs of musicians playing
909-453: A letter C as an abbreviation for "common time", as popularly believed). While many of these innovations are ascribed to Vitry, and somewhat present in the Ars Nova treatise, it was a contemporary—and personal acquaintance—of de Vitry, named Johannes de Muris (or Jehan des Mars ) who offered the most comprehensive and systematic treatment of the new mensural innovations of the Ars Nova (for
1010-402: A massive impact on the subsequent history of European music. Most of the surviving notated music of the 13th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined by Garlandia. The step in the evolution of rhythm came after the turn of the 13th century with the development of the Ars Nova style. The theorist who is most well recognized in regard to this new style is Philippe de Vitry , famous for writing
1111-475: A melodic line, there was generally little deviation from that mode, although rhythmic adjustments could be indicated by changes in the expected pattern of ligatures, even to the extent of changing to another rhythmic mode. The next step forward concerning rhythm came from the German theorist Franco of Cologne . In his treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis ("The Art of Mensurable Music"), written around 1280, he describes
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#17328584080731212-448: A preexisting liturgical chant line in the original Latin, while the text of the one, two, or even three voices above, called the voces organales , provided commentary on the liturgical subject either in Latin or in the vernacular French. The rhythmic values of the voces organales decreased as the parts multiplied, with the duplum (the part above the tenor) having smaller rhythmic values than
1313-430: A procession of some sort; and tropes , which were additions of new words and sometimes new music to sections of older chant. All of these genres save one were based upon chant; that is, one of the voices, (usually three, though sometimes four) nearly always the lowest (the tenor at this point) sang a chant melody, though with freely composed note-lengths, over which the other voices sang organum. The exception to this method
1414-411: A rhythmic pattern in beats (or tempora ) within a common unit of three tempora (a perfectio ) that is repeated again and again. Furthermore, notation without text is based on chains of ligature s (the characteristic notations by which groups of notes are bound to one another). The rhythmic mode can generally be determined by the patterns of ligatures used. Once a rhythmic mode had been assigned to
1515-411: A rough indication of the size of a given interval as well as the direction. This quickly led to one or two lines, each representing a particular note, being placed on the music with all of the neumes relating to the earlier ones. At first, these lines had no particular meaning and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. However, the lines indicating middle C and
1616-454: A second line sung in parallel intervals to the original chant (often a perfect fifth or perfect fourth away from the main melody). The principles of this kind of organum date back at least to an anonymous 9th century tract, the Musica enchiriadis , which describes the tradition of duplicating a preexisting plainchant in parallel motion at the interval of an octave, a fifth or a fourth. Some of
1717-410: A similar fashion, the semibreve's division (termed prolation ) could be divided into three minima ( prolatio perfectus or major prolation) or two minima ( prolatio imperfectus or minor prolation) and, at the higher level, the longs division (called modus ) could be three or two breves ( modus perfectus or perfect mode, or modus imperfectus or imperfect mode respectively). Vitry took this
1818-431: A song and learn it "by ear." The first step to fix this problem came with the introduction of various signs written above the chant texts to indicate direction of pitch movement, called neumes . The origin of neumes is unclear and subject to some debate; however, most scholars agree that their closest ancestors are the classic Greek and Roman grammatical signs that indicated important points of declamation by recording
1919-417: A step further by indicating the proper division of a given piece at the beginning through the use of a "mensuration sign", equivalent to our modern "time signature". Tempus perfectum was indicated by a circle, while tempus imperfectum was denoted by a half-circle (the current symbol [REDACTED] , used as an alternative for the 4 time signature, is actually a holdover of this symbol, not
2020-439: A system of notation in which differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values. This is a striking change from the earlier system of de Garlandia. Whereas before the length of the individual note could only be gathered from the mode itself, this new inverted relationship made the mode dependent upon—and determined by—the individual notes or figurae that have incontrovertible durational values, an innovation which had
2121-416: A type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe ). The hurdy-gurdy was (and still is) a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes like the jew's harp were also popular. Early versions of the pipe organ , fiddle (or vielle ), and a precursor to the modern trombone (called the sackbut ) were used. During
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#17328584080732222-579: A variety of subjects for The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and the subsequent Grove Music Online . Gilbert Reaney was born in Sheffield , England on 11 January 1924; his father was an amateur musician. In 1942 he began studying music and French at the University of Sheffield . He halted his studies after only a year, enlisting in the British army and often performing at "camp concerts" with pieces such as Richard Addinsell 's Warsaw Concerto . Resuming his education in 1946, he received both
2323-415: A voice in parallel motion , singing mostly in perfect fourths or fifths above the original tune (see interval ). This development is called organum and represents the beginnings of counterpoint and, ultimately, harmony . Over the next several centuries, organum developed in several ways. The most significant of these developments was the creation of "florid organum" around 1100, sometimes known as
2424-414: A wide variety of instruments . The music of the troubadours and trouvères was a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular song, probably accompanied by instruments, sung by professional, occasionally itinerant, musicians who were as skilled as poets as they were singers and instrumentalists. The language of the troubadours was Occitan (also known as the langue d'oc , or Provençal); the language of
2525-597: Is a monophonic sacred (single, unaccompanied melody) form which represents the earliest known music of the Christian church. Chant developed separately in several European centres. Although the most important were Rome , Hispania , Gaul , Milan, and Ireland, there were others as well. These styles were all developed to support the regional liturgies used when celebrating the Mass there. Each area developed its own chant and rules for celebration. In Spain and Portugal , Mozarabic chant
2626-535: Is a musical ensemble that specializes in performing early music of the European classical tradition from the Baroque era and earlier – broadly, music produced before about 1750. Most, but not all, of these groups are advocates of historically informed performance , and attempt to re-create the music as it might have sounded at the time it was written, using period instruments and modifying playing techniques according to
2727-426: Is allowed) and start on the final, whereas the plagal modes, while still covering about an octave, start a perfect fourth below the authentic. Another interesting aspect of the modal system is the use of " Musica ficta " which allows pitches to be altered (changing B ♮ to B ♭ for example) in certain contexts regardless of the mode. These changes have several uses, but one that seems particularly common
2828-399: Is credited with the innovation of writing more than three semibreves to fit the length of a breve. Coming before the innovation of imperfect tempus, this practice inaugurated the era of what are now called "Petronian" motets. These late 13th-century works are in three to four parts and have multiple texts sung simultaneously. Originally, the tenor line (from the Latin tenere , "to hold") held
2929-672: Is possible, nevertheless, that Gregory's papacy really may have contributed to collecting and codifying the Roman chant of the time which then, in the 9th and 10th centuries, formed – alongside the Gallican chant – one of the two roots of the Gregorian chant. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had superseded all the other Western chant traditions, with the exception of the Ambrosian chant in Milan and
3030-447: Is to avoid melodic difficulties caused by the tritone. These ecclesiastical modes, although they have Greek names, have little relationship to the modes as set out by Greek theorists. Rather, most of the terminology seems to be a misappropriation on the part of the medieval theorists Although the church modes have no relation to the ancient Greek modes, the overabundance of Greek terminology does point to an interesting possible origin in
3131-482: The Ars Nova ("New Art") treatise around 1320. This treatise on music gave its name to the style of this entire era. In some ways the modern system of rhythmic notation began with Vitry, who completely broke free from the older idea of the rhythmic modes. The notational predecessors of modern time meters also originate in the Ars Nova . This new style was clearly built upon the work of Franco of Cologne. In Franco's system,
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3232-479: The Play of Daniel , which has been recently recorded at least ten times). The Goliards were itinerant poet -musicians of Europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century. Most were scholars or ecclesiastics , and they wrote and sang in Latin. Although many of the poems have survived, very little of the music has. They were possibly influential—even decisively so—on the troubadour - trouvère tradition which
3333-596: The Albigensian Crusade , the fierce campaign by Pope Innocent III to eliminate the Cathar heresy (and northern barons' desire to appropriate the wealth of the south). Surviving troubadours went either to Portugal , Spain, northern Italy or northern France (where the trouvère tradition lived on), where their skills and techniques contributed to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places. The trouvères and troubadours shared similar musical styles, but
3434-478: The University of Sheffield , where he received three degrees: a Bachelor of Arts , Bachelor of Music and Master of Arts . For the latter, he wrote a dissertation on the formes fixes of Machaut, inaugurating a life-long scholarly interest in the composer. After stints at the Universities of Reading , Birmingham , and Hamburg he became an associate professor at the University of California, Los Angeles . He
3535-457: The high medieval era , becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. The development of polyphonic forms is often associated with the Ars antiqua style associated with Notre-Dame de Paris , but improvised polyphony around chant lines predated this. Organum , for example, elaborated on a chant melody by creating one or more accompanying lines. The accompanying line could be as simple as
3636-463: The mandore , gittern , citole and psaltery . The dulcimers , similar in structure to the psaltery and zither , were originally plucked, but musicians began to strike the dulcimer with hammers in the 14th century after the arrival of new metal technology that made metal strings possible. The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. Like
3737-416: The neumes were developed as tools to support the practice of oral tradition, rather than to supplant it. However, even though it started as a mere memory aid, the worth of having more specific notation soon became evident. The next development in musical notation was "heighted neumes ", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to give
3838-682: The sacred and secular music of Western Europe during the Middle Ages , from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries. It is the first and longest major era of Western classical music and is followed by the Renaissance music ; the two eras comprise what musicologists generally term as early music , preceding the common practice period . Following the traditional division of the Middle Ages, medieval music can be divided into Early (500–1000) , High (1000–1300) , and Late (1300–1400) medieval music. Medieval music includes liturgical music used for
3939-413: The school of St. Martial (named after a monastery in south-central France, which contains the best-preserved manuscript of this repertory). In "florid organum" the original tune would be sung in long notes while an accompanying voice would sing many notes to each one of the original, often in a highly elaborate fashion, all the while emphasizing the perfect consonances (fourths, fifths and octaves), as in
4040-407: The virga (or "rod") which indicates a higher note and still looked like the acutus from which it came; and the punctum (or "dot") which indicates a lower note and, as the name suggests, reduced the gravis symbol to a point. Thus the acutus and the gravis could be combined to represent graphical vocal inflections on the syllable. This kind of notation seems to have developed no earlier than
4141-497: The 13th century and was based on a series of modes. This rhythmic plan was codified by the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia , author of the De Mensurabili Musica ( c. 1250 ), the treatise which defined and most completely elucidated these rhythmic modes . In his treatise Johannes de Garlandia describes six species of mode, or six different ways in which longs and breves can be arranged. Each mode establishes
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4242-580: The 1974 edition of Franco's influential Ars cantus mensurabilis by Reaney and André Gilles remains the standard critical edition. Also in 1966, Reaney became the editor for the Répertoire International des Sources Musicales 's series of early music manuscripts. The latter series, which Reaney edited until 1969, was characterized by Knighton as "the bible for scholars of medieval music". Other theorists who Reaney published modern editions on include John Hothby . Reaney never married; he claimed, in
4343-502: The 20th century. Of equal importance to the overall history of western music theory were the textural changes that came with the advent of polyphony. This practice shaped western music into the harmonically dominated music that we know today. The first accounts of this textural development were found in two anonymous yet widely circulated treatises on music, the Musica and the Scolica enchiriadis . These texts are dated to sometime within
4444-629: The Empire to teach this new form of chant. This body of chant became known as Gregorian Chant , named after Pope Gregory I . Gregorian chant was said to be collected and codified during his papacy or even composed by himself, inspired by the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove. However, that is only a popular legend that was spread by the Carolingians who wanted to legitimize their liturgy unification efforts. Gregorian chant certainly didn't exist at that time. It
4545-403: The F a fifth below slowly became most common. Having been at first merely scratched on the parchment, the lines now were drawn in two different colored inks: usually red for F, and yellow or green for C. This was the beginning of the musical staff. The completion of the four-line staff is usually credited to Guido d'Arezzo ( c. 1000 –1050), one of the most important musical theorists of
4646-460: The Greek ordinal numbers. Those modes that have d, e, f, and g as their final are put into the groups protus , deuterus , tritus , and tetrardus respectively. These can then be divided further based on whether the mode is "authentic" or "plagal." These distinctions deal with the range of the mode in relation to the final. The authentic modes have a range that is about an octave (one tone above or below
4747-637: The Machaut. This included studies on Machaut's formes fixes , lais , performance, and numerous articles in encyclopedias such as Encyclopédie de la musique and Encyclopaedia Britannica . By way of an interdisciplinary approach of both music and literature, he developed new theories on the performance of how medieval musicians performed Machaut's music, influencing the practices of early music groups such as Gothic Voices led by Christopher Page . Much of his Machaut research culminated in Guillaume de Machaut (1971) ,
4848-540: The Middle Ages. While older sources attribute the development of the staff to Guido, some modern scholars suggest that he acted more as a codifier of a system that was already being developed. Either way, this new notation allowed a singer to learn pieces completely unknown to him in a much shorter amount of time. However, even though chant notation had progressed in many ways, one fundamental problem remained: rhythm. The neumatic notational system, even in its fully developed state, did not clearly define any kind of rhythm for
4949-571: The Mozarabic chant in a few specially designated Spanish chapels. Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) was one of the earliest known female composers. She wrote many monophonic works for the Catholic Church, almost all of them for female voices. Around the end of the 9th century, singers in monasteries such as St. Gall in Switzerland began experimenting with adding another part to the chant, generally
5050-476: The United Kingdom and Continental Europe . At this time he also appeared on various programmes on BBC Radio 3 , giving frequent talks on early music . Following a brief stint as visiting professor at the University of Hamburg (1959–1960), he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), as an associate professor in 1961. By the 1960s, Reany had become an established authority on early music. He
5151-442: The author of the treatises. Organum can further be classified depending on the time period in which it was written. The early organum as described in the enchiriadis can be termed "strict organum " Strict organum can, in turn, be subdivided into two types: diapente (organum at the interval of a fifth) and diatesseron (organum at the interval of a fourth). However, both of these kinds of strict organum had problems with
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#17328584080735252-451: The cathedral) Léonin 's lengthy florid clausulae with substitutes in a discant style. Gradually, there came to be entire books of these substitutes, available to be fitted in and out of the various chants. Since, in fact, there were more than can possibly have been used in context, it is probable that the clausulae came to be performed independently, either in other parts of the mass, or in private devotions. The clausula, thus practised, became
5353-457: The centre of activity was at the cathedral of Notre Dame itself. Sometimes the music of this period is called the Parisian school, or Parisian organum, and represents the beginning of what is conventionally known as Ars antiqua . This was the period in which rhythmic notation first appeared in western music, mainly a context-based method of rhythmic notation known as the rhythmic modes . This
5454-510: The church, other sacred music, and secular or non-religious music. Much medieval music is purely vocal music, such as Gregorian chant . Other music used only instruments or both voices and instruments (typically with the instruments accompanying the voices). The medieval period saw the creation and adaptation of systems of music notation which enabled creators to document and transmit musical ideas more easily, although notation coexisted with and complemented oral tradition . Medieval music
5555-495: The dreaded tritone. The final style of organum that developed was known as " melismatic organum ", which was a rather dramatic departure from the rest of the polyphonic music up to this point. This new style was not note against note, but was rather one sustained line accompanied by a florid melismatic line. This final kind of organum was also incorporated by the most famous polyphonic composer of this time— Léonin . He united this style with measured discant passages, which used
5656-451: The earlier organa. Later developments of organum occurred in England, where the interval of the third was particularly favoured, and where organa were likely improvised against an existing chant melody, and at Notre Dame in Paris, which was to be the centre of musical creative activity throughout the thirteenth century. Much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous . Some of
5757-638: The earliest written examples are in a style known as Aquitanian polyphony , but the largest body of surviving organum comes from the Notre-Dame school . This loose collection of repertory is often called the Magnus Liber Organi ( Great Book of Organum ). Related polyphonic genres included the motet and clausula genres, both also often built on an original segment of plainchant or as an elaboration on an organum passage. While most early motets were sacred and may have been liturgical (designed for use in
5858-409: The early medieval period, see Pope Gregory I , St. Godric , Hildegard of Bingen , Hucbald , Notker Balbulus , Odo of Arezzo , Odo of Cluny , and Tutilo . Another musical tradition of Europe originating during the early Middle Ages was the liturgical drama . Liturgical drama developed possibly in the 10th century from the tropes—poetic embellishments of the liturgical texts. One of the tropes,
5959-415: The eighth century, but by the ninth it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. The basic notation of the virga and the punctum remained the symbols for individual notes, but other neumes soon developed which showed several notes joined. These new neumes —called ligatures—are essentially combinations of the two original signs. The first music notation was the use of dots over
6060-430: The flute's predecessors, the pan flute , was popular in medieval times, and is possibly of Hellenic origin. This instrument's pipes were made of wood, and were graduated in length to produce different pitches. Medieval music used many plucked string instruments like the lute , a fretted instrument with a pear-shaped hollow body which is the predecessor to the modern guitar. Other plucked stringed instruments included
6161-454: The highly syncopated works of the Ars subtilior at the end of the 14th century, characterized by extremes of notational and rhythmic complexity. This sub-genera pushed the rhythmic freedom provided by Ars Nova to its limits, with some compositions having different voices written in different mensurations simultaneously. The rhythmic complexity that was realized in this music is comparable to that in
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#17328584080736262-403: The information concerning these modes, as well as the practical application of them, was codified in the 11th century by the theorist Johannes Afflighemensis . In his work he describes three defining elements to each mode: the final (or finalis) , the reciting tone ( tenor or confinalis ), and the range (or ambitus ). The finalis is the tone that serves as the focal point for the mode and, as
6363-442: The institute's founder and editor of Musica Disciplina , Armen Carapetyan , invited Reaney to become the associate editor of the journal. After Carapetyan's death in 1992, Reaney became co-editor of Musica Disciplina with his UCLA colleague Frank A. D'Accone . A prolific, influential and frequently cited scholar, Reaney wrote books, catalogues, articles and editions. Musicologist Ursula Günther characterizes his output as having
6464-417: The instrumental accompaniment of such plays, given that the stage directions, very elaborate and precise in other respects, do not request any participation of instruments. These dramas were performed by monks, nuns and priests. In contrast to secular plays, which were spoken, the liturgical drama was always sung. Many have been preserved sufficiently to allow modern reconstruction and performance (for example
6565-400: The last half of the ninth century. The treatises describe a technique that seemed already to be well established in practice. This early polyphony is based on three simple and three compound intervals. The first group comprises fourths, fifths, and octaves; while the second group has octave-plus-fourths, octave-plus-fifths, and double octaves. This new practice is given the name organum by
6666-548: The leading melody. The madrigal form also gave rise to polyphonic canons (songs in which multiple singers sing the same melody, but starting at different times), especially in Italy where they were called caccie. These were three-part secular pieces, which featured the two higher voices in canon, with an underlying instrumental long-note accompaniment. In the late middle ages, some purely instrumental music also began to be notated, though this remained rare. Dance music makes up most of
6767-681: The liturgical melodies of the Byzantine tradition. This system is called octoechos and is also divided into eight categories, called echoi . For specific medieval music theorists, see also: Isidore of Seville , Aurelian of Réôme , Odo of Cluny , Guido of Arezzo , Hermannus Contractus , Johannes Cotto (Johannes Afflighemensis), Johannes de Muris , Franco of Cologne , Johannes de Garlandia (Johannes Gallicus), Anonymous IV , Marchetto da Padova (Marchettus of Padua), Jacques of Liège , Johannes de Grocheo , Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix), and Philippe de Vitry . Chant (or plainsong )
6868-460: The lyrics to a chant, with some dots being higher or lower, giving the reader a general sense of the direction of the melody. However, this form of notation only served as a memory aid for a singer who already knew the melody. This basic neumatic notation could only specify the number of notes and whether they moved up or down. There was no way to indicate exact pitch, any rhythm, or even the starting note. These limitations are further indication that
6969-634: The medieval period the foundation was laid for the notational and theoretical practices that would shape Western music into the norms that developed during the common practice era . The most obvious of these is the development of a comprehensive music notational system; however the theoretical advances, particularly in regard to rhythm and polyphony, are equally important to the development of Western music. The earliest medieval music did not have any kind of notational system. The tunes were primarily monophonic (a single melody without accompaniment ) and transmitted by oral tradition. As Rome tried to centralize
7070-473: The mid 20th-century many English scholars of early music were closely associated with organizations in the United States, as they were the most prominent and developed in the field. AIM's music journal Musica Disciplina was created in 1945, and in 1952 published two of Reaney's articles on Machaut. He continued contributing articles to the journal throughout the 1950s, chiefly on ars nova topics. In 1955,
7171-516: The modern violin, a performer produced sound by moving a bow with tensioned hair over tensioned strings. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century ( d. 911 ) cited the Byzantine lyra , in his lexicographical discussion of instruments as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably
7272-504: The motet when troped with non-liturgical words, and this further developed into a form of great elaboration, sophistication and subtlety in the fourteenth century, the period of Ars nova . Surviving manuscripts from this era include the Montpellier Codex , Bamberg Codex , and Las Huelgas Codex . Composers of this time include Léonin , Pérotin , W. de Wycombe , Adam de St. Victor , and Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix). Petrus
7373-458: The musical rules of the time. If either of them paralleled an original chant for too long (depending on the mode) a tritone would result. This problem was somewhat overcome with the use of a second type of organum . This second style of organum was called "free organum ". Its distinguishing factor is that the parts did not have to move only in parallel motion, but could also move in oblique, or contrary motion. This made it much easier to avoid
7474-484: The name suggests, is almost always used as the final tone. The reciting tone is the tone that serves as the primary focal point in the melody (particularly internally). It is generally also the tone most often repeated in the piece, and finally the range delimits the upper and lower tones for a given mode. The eight modes can be further divided into four categories based on their final ( finalis ). Medieval theorists called these pairs maneriae and labeled them according to
7575-610: The names may have been poets and lyric writers, and the tunes for which they wrote words may have been composed by others. Attribution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not always reliable. Surviving manuscripts from this period include the Musica Enchiriadis , Codex Calixtinus of Santiago de Compostela , the Magnus Liber , and the Winchester Troper . For information about specific composers or poets writing during
7676-411: The performer had to cover with the fingers (as with the recorder). The recorder was made of wood during the medieval era, and despite the fact that in the 21st century it may be made of synthetic materials such as plastic, it has more or less retained its past form. The gemshorn is similar to the recorder as it has finger holes on its front, though it is actually a member of the ocarina family. One of
7777-528: The precursors of simple and compound meter. By the time of Ars Nova , the perfect division of the tempus was not the only option as duple divisions became more accepted. For Vitry the breve could be divided, for an entire composition, or section of one, into groups of two or three smaller semibreves. This way, the tempus (the term that came to denote the division of the breve) could be either "perfect" ( tempus perfectum ), with ternary subdivision, or "imperfect" ( tempus imperfectum ), with binary subdivision. In
7878-421: The reign of Alfonso X The Wise (1221–1284). The manuscript was probably compiled from 1270 to 1280, and is highly decorated, with an illumination every 10 poems. The illuminations often depict musicians making the manuscript a particularly important source of medieval music iconography. Though the Cantigas are often attributed to Alfonso, it remains unclear as to whether he was a composer himself, or perhaps
7979-473: The relationship between a breve and a semibreves (that is, half breves) was equivalent to that between a breve and a long: and, since for him modus was always perfect (grouped in threes), the tempus or beat was also inherently perfect and therefore contained three semibreves. Sometimes the context of the mode would require a group of only two semibreves, however, these two semibreves would always be one of normal length and one of double length, thereby taking
8080-453: The rhythmic modes to create the pinnacle of organum composition. This final stage of organum is sometimes referred to as Notre Dame school of polyphony, since that was where Léonin (and his student Pérotin ) were stationed. Furthermore, this kind of polyphony influenced all subsequent styles, with the later polyphonic genera of motets starting as a trope of existing Notre Dame organums . Another important element of medieval music theory
8181-432: The rhythmic modes. For the duration of the medieval period, most music would be composed primarily in perfect tempus, with special effects created by sections of imperfect tempus; there is a great current controversy among musicologists as to whether such sections were performed with a breve of equal length or whether it changed, and if so, at what proportion. This Ars Nova style remained the primary rhythmical system until
8282-450: The rise and fall of the voice. The two basic signs of the classical grammarians were the acutus , /, indicating a raising of the voice, and the gravis , \, indicating a lowering of the voice. A singer reading a chant text with neume markings would be able to get a general sense of whether the melody line went up in pitch, stayed the same, or went down in pitch. Since trained singers knew the chant repertoire well, written neume markings above
8383-476: The same space of time, and thus preserving the perfect subdivision of the tempus . This ternary division held for all note values. In contrast, the Ars Nova period introduced two important changes: the first was an even smaller subdivision of notes (semibreves, could now be divided into minim ), and the second was the development of "mensuration." Mensurations could be combined in various manners to produce metrical groupings. These groupings of mensurations are
8484-487: The singing of notes. The music theory of the medieval period saw several advances over previous practice both in regard to tonal material, texture, and rhythm. Concerning rhythm , this period had several dramatic changes in both its conception and notation. During the early medieval period there was no method to notate rhythm, and thus the rhythmical practice of this early music is subject to debate among scholars. The first kind of written rhythmic system developed during
8585-593: The so-called Quem Quaeritis, belonging to the liturgy of Easter morning, developed into a short play around the year 950. The oldest surviving written source is the Winchester Troper. Around the year 1000 it was sung widely in Northern Europe. Shortly, a similar Christmas play was developed, musically and textually following the Easter one, and other plays followed. There is a controversy among musicologists as to
8686-532: The surviving instrumental music, and includes types such as the estampie , ductia , and nota. Many instruments used to perform medieval music still exist in the 21st century, but in different and typically more technologically developed forms. The flute was made of wood in the medieval era rather than silver or other metal, and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument. While modern orchestral flutes are usually made of metal and have complex key mechanisms and airtight pads, medieval flutes had holes that
8787-802: The tenor, the triplum (the line above the duplum ) having smaller rhythmic values than the duplum , and so on. As time went by, the texts of the voces organales became increasingly secular in nature and had less and less overt connection to the liturgical text in the tenor line. The increasing rhythmic complexity seen in Petronian motets would be a fundamental characteristic of the 14th century, though music in France, Italy, and England would take quite different paths during that time. The Cantigas de Santa Maria ("Canticles of St. Mary") are 420 poems with musical notation, written in Galician-Portuguese during
8888-436: The text served as a reminder of the melody but did not specify the actual intervals. However, a singer reading a chant text with neume markings would not be able to sight read a song which he or she had never heard sung before; these pieces would not be possible to interpret accurately today without later versions in more precise notation systems. These neumes eventually evolved into the basic symbols for neumatic notation,
8989-452: The trouvères was Old French (also known as langue d'oïl ). The period of the troubadours corresponded to the flowering of cultural life in Provence which lasted through the twelfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth. Typical subjects of troubadour song were war, chivalry and courtly love —the love of an idealized woman from afar. The period of the troubadours wound down after
9090-466: The trouvères were generally noblemen. The music of the trouvères was similar to that of the troubadours, but was able to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected by the Albigensian Crusade. Most of the more than two thousand surviving trouvère songs include music, and show a sophistication as great as that of the poetry it accompanies. Early music ensemble An early music ensemble
9191-405: The various liturgies and establish the Roman rite as the primary church tradition the need to transmit these chant melodies across vast distances effectively was equally glaring. So long as music could only be taught to people "by ear," it limited the ability of the church to get different regions to sing the same melodies, since each new person would have to spend time with a person who already knew
9292-484: The words of the obituarist John T. Good, "no wife would want a husband so constantly away from home". Good also described him as a fine pianist with a substantial repertoire . He died in Reading, Berkshire at the age of 84 on 22 March 2008. Grove Music Online . Oxford, England: Oxford University Press . 2001 (subscription or UK public library membership required) Medieval music Medieval music encompasses
9393-668: Was a Professor of Music there from 1963 until his retirement in 1997. A long-time associate of the American Institute of Musicology , he was associate editor (1955–1992) of their journal, Musica Disciplina , under Armen Carapetyan , and then co-editor (1992–2008) with Frank A. D'Accone . Among Reaney's notable publications are the book Guillaume de Machaut (1971) for the Oxford Studies of Composers series; new editions on various early music composers; major new editions of works by music theorists Franco of Cologne , Philippe de Vitry and John Hothby ; and at least 34 articles on
9494-588: Was also the period in which concepts of formal structure developed which were attentive to proportion, texture , and architectural effect. Composers of the period alternated florid and discant organum (more note-against-note, as opposed to the succession of many-note melismas against long-held notes found in the florid type), and created several new musical forms: clausulae , which were melismatic sections of organa extracted and fitted with new words and further musical elaboration; conductus , which were songs for one or more voices to be sung rhythmically, most likely in
9595-482: Was created for a number of different uses and contexts, resulting in different music genres . Liturgical as well as more general sacred contexts were important, but secular types emerged as well, including love songs and dances. During the earlier medieval period , liturgical music was monophonic chant; Gregorian chant became the dominant style. Polyphonic genres, in which multiple independent melodic lines are performed simultaneously, began to develop during
9696-464: Was the conductus, a two-voice composition that was freely composed in its entirety. The motet , one of the most important musical forms of the high Middle Ages and Renaissance, developed initially during the Notre Dame period out of the clausula, especially the form using multiple voices as elaborated by Pérotin , who paved the way for this particularly by replacing many of his predecessor (as canon of
9797-529: Was the first recipient of the Dent medal (1961), an annual award for musicology offered by the Royal Musical Association (named for Edward Joseph Dent ). Reany became a Professor of Music at UCLA in 1963 and remained so until his retirement in 1997, at which point he was made an emeritus professor . Reaney was long associated with the American Institute of Musicology (AIM). Knighton noted that during
9898-494: Was the system by which pitches were arranged and understood. During the Middle Ages, this systematic arrangement of a series of whole steps and half steps, what we now call a scale , was known as a mode . The modal system worked like the scales of today, insomuch that it provided the rules and material for melodic writing. The eight church modes are: Dorian , Hypodorian , Phrygian , Hypophrygian , Lydian , Hypolydian , Mixolydian , and Hypomixolydian . Much of
9999-591: Was to follow. Most of their poetry is secular and, while some of the songs celebrate religious ideals, others are frankly profane, dealing with drunkenness, debauchery and lechery. One of the most important extant sources of Goliards chansons is the Carmina Burana . The flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony from around 1150 to 1250 corresponded to the equally impressive achievements in Gothic architecture : indeed
10100-427: Was used and shows the influence of North African music . The Mozarabic liturgy even survived through Muslim rule, though this was an isolated strand and this music was later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire liturgy. In Milan, Ambrosian chant , named after St. Ambrose , was the standard, while Beneventan chant developed around Benevento , another Italian liturgical center. Gallican chant
10201-644: Was used in Gaul, and Celtic chant in Ireland and Great Britain. The reigning Carolingian dynasty wanted to standardize the Mass and chant across its Frankish Empire . At this time, Rome was the religious centre of western Europe, and northern Gaul and Rhineland (most notably the city of Aachen ) was the political centre. The standardization effort consisted mainly of combining the two – Roman and Gallican – regional liturgies. Charlemagne (742–814) sent trained singers throughout
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