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88-484: An important related concept that overlaps with Giant Global Graph without fully encompassing it is that of the Semantic Web . Social networking services are one of the earliest and best-known examples of this distinction. In a Social Network, the information about relationships between people, and the kinds of data objects those people share, is at least as important as the data objects themselves. Plus, participants in

176-559: A Social Network create new kinds of data that did not exist on the web before, such as their Likes for other people's comments and content. Currently, these new kinds of data are primarily structured and mediated by the proprietary systems of companies like Facebook . In the ideal future of the decentralized Giant Global Graph or Semantic Web, such information would be structured in such a way that it could be readable by many different systems and dynamically organized into many different user-readable formats. The GGG concept also relates to

264-510: A better vowel?" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases. Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by

352-488: A category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category. This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not. This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as "is /i/ or /o/

440-635: A certain degree semantic. In particular, such has been used for structuring scientific research i.a. by research topics and scientific fields by the projects OpenAlex , Wikidata and Scholia which are under development and provide APIs , Web-pages, feeds and graphs for various semantic queries . Tim Berners-Lee has described the Semantic Web as a component of Web 3.0. People keep asking what Web 3.0 is. I think maybe when you've got an overlay of scalable vector graphics – everything rippling and folding and looking misty – on Web 2.0 and access to

528-420: A concept of a tree. In cognitive linguistics , abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending ). A common class of blends are metaphors . This theory contrasts with

616-412: A concept's ontology, etc. There are two main views of the ontology of concepts: (1) Concepts are abstract objects, and (2) concepts are mental representations. Within the framework of the representational theory of mind , the structural position of concepts can be understood as follows: Concepts serve as the building blocks of what are called mental representations (colloquially understood as ideas in

704-428: A corporation, there is a closed group of users and the management is able to enforce company guidelines like the adoption of specific ontologies and use of semantic annotation . Compared to the public Semantic Web there are lesser requirements on scalability and the information circulating within a company can be more trusted in general; privacy is less of an issue outside of handling of customer data. Critics question

792-437: A definitional structure. Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition. Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of

880-453: A discrete item, distinct from other items perhaps listed on the page. Semantic HTML refers to the traditional HTML practice of markup following intention, rather than specifying layout details directly. For example, the use of <em> denoting "emphasis" rather than <i> , which specifies italics . Layout details are left up to the browser, in combination with Cascading Style Sheets . But this practice falls short of specifying

968-431: A dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like 'vegetable' or 'furniture' as more or less typical of that class. It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item's membership of

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1056-410: A few of the triples from the documents that result from dereferencing https://schema.org/Person (green edge) and https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731 (blue edges). Additionally to the edges given in the involved documents explicitly, edges can be automatically inferred: the triple from the original RDFa fragment and the triple from the document at https://schema.org/Person (green edge in

1144-682: A fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people's theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people's theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, "theory" means an individual's mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as

1232-404: A fraction of the relevant phenomena related to semantics. Concept A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts , and beliefs . Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition . As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in

1320-594: A limited and defined domain, and where sharing data is a common necessity, such as scientific research or data exchange among businesses. In addition, other technologies with similar goals have emerged, such as microformats . Many files on a typical computer can also be loosely divided into human-readable documents and machine-readable data. Documents like mail messages, reports, and brochures are read by humans. Data, such as calendars, address books, playlists, and spreadsheets are presented using an application program that lets them be viewed, searched, and combined. Currently,

1408-403: A particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as

1496-541: A posteriori concept is a general representation ( Vorstellung ) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic §1, Note 1) A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are: In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of

1584-464: A posteriori concepts, but also pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories , in the sense of the word that means predicate , attribute, characteristic, or quality . But these pure categories are predicates of things in general , not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are twelve categories that constitute

1672-436: A qualitatively different one than that which existed before the development of these technologies. As of 2017, anticipated progress toward a pervasive semantic web has been side-tracked by the widespread application of machine learning technologies to process existing, unstructured data and content, and that it is no longer clear whether a Web 3.0 epoch will materialize as originally envisioned. The term Giant Global Graph

1760-508: A semantic Web integrated across a huge space of data, you'll have access to an unbelievable data resource … "Semantic Web" is sometimes used as a synonym for "Web 3.0", though the definition of each term varies. The next generation of the Web is often termed Web 4.0, but its definition is not clear. According to some sources, it is a Web that involves artificial intelligence , the internet of things , pervasive computing , ubiquitous computing and

1848-625: A semantic web page might look like this: Tim Berners-Lee calls the resulting network of Linked Data the Giant Global Graph , in contrast to the HTML-based World Wide Web. Berners-Lee posits that if the past was document sharing, the future is data sharing . His answer to the question of "how" provides three points of instruction. One, a URL should point to the data. Two, anyone accessing the URL should get data back. Three, relationships in

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1936-539: A small graph is being described, in RDFa -syntax using a schema.org vocabulary and a Wikidata ID: The example defines the following five triples (shown in Turtle syntax). Each triple represents one edge in the resulting graph: the first element of the triple (the subject ) is the name of the node where the edge starts, the second element (the predicate ) the type of the edge, and the last and third element (the object ) either

2024-467: A sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal. According to

2112-438: A transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from

2200-604: Is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas . Concepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics , psychology , and philosophy , where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics , computer science , databases and artificial intelligence . Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes , schema or categories . In informal use,

2288-832: Is a form of programming based on the declaration of semantic data and requires an understanding of how reasoning algorithms will interpret the authored structures. According to Marshall and Shipman, the tacit and changing nature of much knowledge adds to the knowledge engineering problem, and limits the Semantic Web's applicability to specific domains. A further issue that they point out are domain- or organization-specific ways to express knowledge, which must be solved through community agreement rather than only technical means. As it turns out, specialized communities and organizations for intra-company projects have tended to adopt semantic web technologies greater than peripheral and less-specialized communities. The practical constraints toward adoption have appeared less challenging where domain and scope

2376-462: Is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent a natural object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal, a stone, etc. It may also name an artificial (man-made) object like a chair, computer, house, etc. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness, etc., are also symbolized by concepts. A concept

2464-437: Is an Acme Gizmo with a retail price of €199, or that it is a consumer product. Rather, HTML can only say that the span of text "X586172" is something that should be positioned near "Acme Gizmo" and "€199", etc. There is no way to say "this is a catalog" or even to establish that "Acme Gizmo" is a kind of title or that "€199" is a price. There is also no way to express that these pieces of information are bound together in describing

2552-646: Is from the perspective of human behavior and personal preferences. For example, people may include spurious metadata into Web pages in an attempt to mislead Semantic Web engines that naively assume the metadata's veracity. This phenomenon was well known with metatags that fooled the Altavista ranking algorithm into elevating the ranking of certain Web pages: the Google indexing engine specifically looks for such attempts at manipulation. Peter Gärdenfors and Timo Honkela point out that logic-based semantic web technologies cover only

2640-437: Is itself another word for concept, and "sorting" thus means to organize into concepts.) The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human's mind rather than some mental representations. There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language . However, it is necessary at least to begin by understanding that

2728-429: Is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing. For example, the word "moon" (a concept) is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only represents that celestial object. Concepts are created (named) to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known and understood. Kant maintained the view that human minds possess not only empirical or

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2816-555: Is more limited than that of the general public and the World-Wide Web. Finally, Marshall and Shipman see pragmatic problems in the idea of ( Knowledge Navigator -style) intelligent agents working in the largely manually curated Semantic Web: In situations in which user needs are known and distributed information resources are well described, this approach can be highly effective; in situations that are not foreseen and that bring together an unanticipated array of information resources,

2904-430: Is the "basic" or "middle" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be "chair", with its superordinate, "furniture", and its subordinate, "easy chair". Concepts may be exact or inexact. When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree , it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking . A concept

2992-594: Is their effort to spread their approach to social networking beyond the bounds of the Facebook website, allowing a broader network or "graph" of connections between Facebook users, and between Facebook users and the Internet data objects which interest them. Semantic Web The Semantic Web , sometimes known as Web 3.0 (not to be confused with Web3 ), is an extension of the World Wide Web through standards set by

3080-443: Is usually taken as a definition of time. Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory, it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments summarized as follows: Prototype theory came out of problems with

3168-610: The Web of Things among other concepts. According to the European Union, Web 4.0 is "the expected fourth generation of the World Wide Web. Using advanced artificial and ambient intelligence, the internet of things, trusted blockchain transactions, virtual worlds and XR capabilities, digital and real objects and environments are fully integrated and communicate with each other, enabling truly intuitive, immersive experiences, seamlessly blending

3256-715: The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The goal of the Semantic Web is to make Internet data machine-readable . To enable the encoding of semantics with the data, technologies such as Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL) are used. These technologies are used to formally represent metadata . For example, ontology can describe concepts , relationships between entities , and categories of things. These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as reasoning over data and operating with heterogeneous data sources. These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on

3344-497: The hard problem of consciousness . Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception. There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols. The term "concept"

3432-439: The meaning is machine-readable . While its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in library and information science , industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven the validity of the original concept. Berners-Lee originally expressed his vision of the Semantic Web in 1999 as follows: I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all

3520-522: The "Giant Global Graph". "GGG" has been used several times by Berners-Lee and by others in other blogs. GGG may be described as the content plus pointers of the WWW transitioning to content plus pointers plus relationships plus descriptions. Significantly, the Giant Global Graph concept seems to have been a significant input in Facebook's concept and name for their " Open Graph " project and protocol, which

3608-570: The Decentralization of Internet Information, whereby properly-formatted semantic web data objects can be organized and their relationships discerned by any computer on the Internet, rather than solely being organized by large centralized systems such as Facebook and Google . For instance, people using the FOAF protocol to organize information on websites or other Internet nodes can define and interact with their social networks without necessarily requiring

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3696-596: The Google approach is more robust. Furthermore, the Semantic Web relies on inference chains that are more brittle; a missing element of the chain results in a failure to perform the desired action, while the human can supply missing pieces in a more Google-like approach. [...] cost-benefit tradeoffs can work in favor of specially-created Semantic Web metadata directed at weaving together sensible well-structured domain-specific information resources; close attention to user/customer needs will drive these federations if they are to be successful. Cory Doctorow 's critique (" metacrap ")

3784-503: The Semantic Web. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Incubator Group for Uncertainty Reasoning for the World Wide Web (URW3-XG) final report lumps these problems together under the single heading of "uncertainty". Many of the techniques mentioned here will require extensions to the Web Ontology Language (OWL) for example to annotate conditional probabilities. This is an area of active research. Standardization for Semantic Web in

3872-558: The Web, fundamentally the RDF. According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries." The Semantic Web is therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and information applications and systems. The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data (or data web ) that can be processed by machines —that is, one in which much of

3960-493: The World Wide Web Consortium (" W3C "), which oversees the development of proposed Semantic Web standards. He defines the Semantic Web as "a web of data that can be processed directly and indirectly by machines". Many of the technologies proposed by the W3C already existed before they were positioned under the W3C umbrella. These are used in various contexts, particularly those dealing with information that encompasses

4048-688: The World Wide Web is based mainly on documents written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a markup convention that is used for coding a body of text interspersed with multimedia objects such as images and interactive forms. Metadata tags provide a method by which computers can categorize the content of web pages. In the examples below, the field names "keywords", "description" and "author" are assigned values such as "computing", and "cheap widgets for sale" and "John Doe". Because of this metadata tagging and categorization, other computer systems that want to access and share this data can easily identify

4136-487: The architecture of the Semantic Web. The functions and relationships of the components can be summarized as follows: Well-established standards: Not yet fully realized: The intent is to enhance the usability and usefulness of the Web and its interconnected resources by creating semantic web services , such as: Such services could be useful to public search engines, or could be used for knowledge management within an organization. Business applications include: In

4224-410: The basic feasibility of a complete or even partial fulfillment of the Semantic Web, pointing out both difficulties in setting it up and a lack of general-purpose usefulness that prevents the required effort from being invested. In a 2003 paper, Marshall and Shipman point out the cognitive overhead inherent in formalizing knowledge, compared to the authoring of traditional web hypertext : While learning

4312-512: The basics of HTML is relatively straightforward, learning a knowledge representation language or tool requires the author to learn about the representation's methods of abstraction and their effect on reasoning. For example, understanding the class-instance relationship, or the superclass-subclass relationship, is more than understanding that one concept is a "type of" another concept. [...] These abstractions are taught to computer scientists generally and knowledge engineers specifically but do not match

4400-470: The brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe. The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to

4488-460: The classical view of conceptual structure. Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. Wittgenstein , Rosch , Mervis, Brent Berlin , Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances . There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership;

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4576-399: The concept "dog" is philosophically distinct from the things in the world grouped by this concept—or the reference class or extension . Concepts that can be equated to a single word are called "lexical concepts". The study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics , philosophy , psychology , and cognitive science . In the simplest terms, a concept

4664-517: The concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from

4752-455: The content, i.e., to describe the structure of the knowledge we have about that content. In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human deductive reasoning and inference , thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information gathering and research. An example of a tag that would be used in a non-semantic web page: Encoding similar information in

4840-460: The context of Web 3.0 is under the care of W3C. The term "Semantic Web" is often used more specifically to refer to the formats and technologies that enable it. The collection, structuring and recovery of linked data are enabled by technologies that provide a formal description of concepts, terms, and relationships within a given knowledge domain . These technologies are specified as W3C standards and include: The Semantic Web Stack illustrates

4928-543: The data on the Web ;– the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A "Semantic Web", which makes this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The " intelligent agents " people have touted for ages will finally materialize. The 2001 Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, Hendler , and Lassila described an expected evolution of

5016-499: The data should point to additional URLs with data. Tags , including hierarchical categories and tags that are collaboratively added and maintained (e.g. with folksonomies ) can be considered part of, of potential use to or a step towards the semantic Web vision. Unique identifiers , including hierarchical categories and collaboratively added ones, analysis tools (e.g. scite.ai algorithms) and metadata , including tags, can be used to create forms of semantic webs – webs that are to

5104-405: The day's hippocampal events and objects into cortical concepts is often considered to be the computation underlying (some stages of) sleep and dreaming. Many people (beginning with Aristotle) report memories of dreams which appear to mix the day's events with analogous or related historical concepts and memories, and suggest that they were being sorted or organized into more abstract concepts. ("Sort"

5192-401: The denoted class has that feature. A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition. For example, the classic example bachelor is said to be defined by unmarried and man . An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to

5280-486: The existing Web to a Semantic Web. In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that: "This simple idea…remains largely unrealized". In 2013, more than four million Web domains (out of roughly 250 million total) contained Semantic Web markup. In the following example, the text "Paul Schuster was born in Dresden" on a website will be annotated, connecting a person with their place of birth. The following HTML fragment shows how

5368-423: The features in the definition. Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the law of the excluded middle , which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out. The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use

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5456-412: The figure) allow to infer the following triple, given OWL semantics (red dashed line in the second Figure): The concept of the semantic network model was formed in the early 1960s by researchers such as the cognitive scientist Allan M. Collins , linguist Ross Quillian and psychologist Elizabeth F. Loftus as a form to represent semantically structured knowledge. When applied in the context of

5544-446: The function of language, and Labov's experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for "cup" is. Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to

5632-524: The given URI. In this example, all URIs, both for edges and nodes (e.g. http://schema.org/Person , http://schema.org/birthPlace , http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731 ) can be dereferenced and will result in further RDF graphs, describing the URI, e.g. that Dresden is a city in Germany, or that a person, in the sense of that URI, can be fictional. The second graph shows the previous example, but now enriched with

5720-402: The intervention of centralized systems like Facebook. Crucially, where the term Web 3.0 refers to a suite of technologies and to a particular phase in the development of the web, the term Giant Global Graph is intended to refer more generally to the total environment of information that will be generated and sustained through the implementation of these technologies. This environment will be

5808-509: The linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status. According to Carl Benjamin Boyer , in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development , concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as

5896-762: The links between them. RDF, OWL, and XML, by contrast, can describe arbitrary things such as people, meetings, or airplane parts. These technologies are combined in order to provide descriptions that supplement or replace the content of Web documents. Thus, content may manifest itself as descriptive data stored in Web-accessible databases , or as markup within documents (particularly, in Extensible HTML ( XHTML ) interspersed with XML, or, more often, purely in XML, with layout or rendering cues stored separately). The machine-readable descriptions enable content managers to add meaning to

5984-464: The logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science. In contemporary philosophy , three understandings of a concept prevail: Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and lower levels termed "subordinate". Additionally, there

6072-513: The mind ). Mental representations, in turn, are the building blocks of what are called propositional attitudes (colloquially understood as the stances or perspectives we take towards ideas, be it "believing", "doubting", "wondering", "accepting", etc.). And these propositional attitudes, in turn, are the building blocks of our understanding of thoughts that populate everyday life, as well as folk psychology. In this way, we have an analysis that ties our common everyday understanding of thoughts down to

6160-400: The modern internet, it extends the network of hyperlinked human-readable web pages by inserting machine-readable metadata about pages and how they are related to each other. This enables automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform more tasks on behalf of users. The term "Semantic Web" was coined by Tim Berners-Lee , the inventor of the World Wide Web and director of

6248-471: The name of the node where the edge ends or a literal value (e.g. a text, a number, etc.). The triples result in the graph shown in the given figure . One of the advantages of using Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs) is that they can be dereferenced using the HTTP protocol. According to the so-called Linked Open Data principles, such a dereferenced URI should result in a document that offers further data about

6336-446: The perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation. Platonist views of the mind construe concepts as abstract objects. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of

6424-439: The phenomenological accounts. Gottlob Frege , founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as

6512-423: The physical and digital worlds". Some of the challenges for the Semantic Web include vastness, vagueness, uncertainty, inconsistency, and deceit. Automated reasoning systems will have to deal with all of these issues in order to deliver on the promise of the Semantic Web. This list of challenges is illustrative rather than exhaustive, and it focuses on the challenges to the "unifying logic" and "proof" layers of

6600-406: The process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained. The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle ), and was prominently held until the 1970s. The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have

6688-449: The rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections , in Plato 's term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While

6776-470: The referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member—the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of

6864-472: The relevant values. With HTML and a tool to render it (perhaps web browser software, perhaps another user agent ), one can create and present a page that lists items for sale. The HTML of this catalog page can make simple, document-level assertions such as "this document's title is 'Widget Superstore ' ", but there is no capability within the HTML itself to assert unambiguously that, for example, item number X586172

6952-409: The scientific and philosophical understanding of concepts. In a physicalist theory of mind , a concept is a mental representation, which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world. This is to say that it is literally a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about

7040-527: The semantics of objects such as items for sale or prices. Microformats extend HTML syntax to create machine-readable semantic markup about objects including people, organizations, events and products. Similar initiatives include RDFa , Microdata and Schema.org . The Semantic Web takes the solution further. It involves publishing in languages specifically designed for data: Resource Description Framework (RDF), Web Ontology Language (OWL), and Extensible Markup Language ( XML ). HTML describes documents and

7128-422: The similar natural language meaning of being a "type of" something. Effective use of such a formal representation requires the author to become a skilled knowledge engineer in addition to any other skills required by the domain. [...] Once one has learned a formal representation language, it is still often much more effort to express ideas in that representation than in a less formal representation [...]. Indeed, this

7216-471: The structure of a concept to determine its referent class. In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy — concept analysis . Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept. For example, Shoemaker's classic " Time Without Change " explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change

7304-408: The theory of ideasthesia (or "sensing concepts"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia ) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as

7392-595: The type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives. Concepts do not encompass all mental representations, but are merely a subset of them. The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes such as categorization , memory , decision making , learning , and inference . Concepts are thought to be stored in long term cortical memory, in contrast to episodic memory of the particular objects and events which they abstract, which are stored in hippocampus . Evidence for this separation comes from hippocampal damaged patients such as patient HM . The abstraction from

7480-452: The understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain

7568-555: The understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema . He held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction "a posteriori concepts" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an

7656-409: The word concept can refer to any idea . A central question in the study of concepts is the question of what they are . Philosophers construe this question as one about the ontology of concepts—what kind of things they are. The ontology of concepts determines the answer to other questions, such as how to integrate concepts into a wider theory of the mind, what functions are allowed or disallowed by

7744-422: Was notably used the first time by the inventor of the World Wide Web , Tim Berners-Lee , on his blog. Tim Berners-Lee thinks about the social network itself that is inside and between social-network Web sites such as Facebook . He assumes that people can use the word "Graph" to distinguish these from the "Web". Then he says that, although he called this graph the Semantic Web , maybe it should have been called

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