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88-586: According to Speer himself, it was inspired not by the Circus Maximus in Rome but by the Panathenaic Stadium of Athens , which had impressed him greatly when he had visited it in 1935. Speer's stadium was a gigantic inflation of its Greco-Roman model, from which he borrowed the horseshoe configuration and the propylaeum , now transformed into a raised, pillared, temple-like structure ( Säulenvorhof ) attached to

176-750: A religious vow , such as the games in celebration of a triumph . In Roman tradition, the earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia . Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator fights. Some included public executions. The greater ludi (meaning sport or game in Latin ) at

264-481: A basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the Aventine side; the emperor Tiberius compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In AD 64 , during Nero 's reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design. By

352-520: A comment he does not elucidate. When Speer remarked on the staggering cost of the building, Hitler, who laid its cornerstone on September 9, 1937, merely retorted that it would cost less than two battleships of the Bismarck class . Wolfgang Lotz , writing about the stadium in 1937, commented that it would contain twice the number of spectators originally accommodated by the Circus Maximus. Inevitably for

440-486: A dividing barrier. The games' sponsor (Latin editor) usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand ( pulvinar ) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the Republican era ) the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants were granted rights to a curule chair at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for

528-472: A few weeks. Long-term, low-level exposure may result in fatigue , loss of appetite, headaches , irritability, poor memory, and dizziness . Chronic exposure to low level H 2 S (around 2 ppm ) has been implicated in increased miscarriage and reproductive health issues among Russian and Finnish wood pulp workers, but the reports have not (as of 1995) been replicated. Short-term, high-level exposure can induce immediate collapse, with loss of breathing and

616-493: A further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in Diocletian 's reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people. The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess Murcia , an obscure deity associated with Venus ,

704-421: A god of grain storage and patron of the Circus. After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried six meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was "replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy." In

792-857: A high probability of death. If death does not occur, high exposure to hydrogen sulfide can lead to cortical pseudolaminar necrosis , degeneration of the basal ganglia and cerebral edema . Although respiratory paralysis may be immediate, it can also be delayed up to 72 hours. Inhalation of H 2 S resulted in about 7 workplace deaths per year in the U.S. (2011–2017 data), second only to carbon monoxide (17 deaths per year) for workplace chemical inhalation deaths. Treatment involves immediate inhalation of amyl nitrite , injections of sodium nitrite , or administration of 4-dimethylaminophenol in combination with inhalation of pure oxygen, administration of bronchodilators to overcome eventual bronchospasm , and in some cases hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). HBOT has clinical and anecdotal support. Hydrogen sulfide

880-598: A mountain of waste continued to grow until the dump was closed in 1962. The landfill, which contains 5,53 million m³ waste, was covered with a layer of earth and trees were planted on it. The new mountain was named "Silberbuck". Since the dump has no containment and is permeated by ground water, dangerous material is constantly leaking into the Silbersee. The lower layers of water in the lake contain extremely high amounts of hydrogen sulfide , which makes humans unconscious when breathed in. Approximately 50 people have already died in

968-484: A new Egyptian Province. The pulvinar was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple ( aedes ) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as "one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome", with "entrances and ascents for

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1056-447: A presence of a catalyst under atmospheric pressure around 1200 °C into hydrogen and sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with metal ions to form metal sulfides, which are insoluble, often dark colored solids. Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect hydrogen sulfide because it readily converts to lead(II) sulfide , which is black. Treating metal sulfides with strong acid or electrolysis often liberates hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide

1144-400: A result of the action of sulfate-reducing bacteria . Hydrogen sulfide is produced by the human body in small quantities through bacterial breakdown in the intestinal tract of proteins containing sulfur; it therefore contributes to the characteristic odor of flatulence. It is also produced in the mouth ( halitosis ). A portion of global H 2 S emissions are due to human activity. By far

1232-411: A series of arches 65 metres high resting on a podium of dark red granite. The arcade and podium again suggests a Roman, not a Greek, circus or stadium, which did not traditionally rest on a substructure. In order to deliver such a vast number of spectators to their seats quickly, express lifts were to be installed to take spectators 100 at a time to seats on the top three tiers. The short transverse axis of

1320-528: A specially built stage. With the advent of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, ludi gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by Totila in 549. The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia ( Vallis Murcia ) , between Rome's Aventine and Palatine Hills . In Rome's early days,

1408-642: A stadium to serve merely as a centre for German athletic sport. The restored Panathenaic Stadium had been used for the 1896 Summer Olympics and the 1906 Intercalated Games , held out of series. In 1936 these games were held in the Reichssportfeld in Berlin , but Hitler insisted that after 1940, when the games were to have been held in Tokyo , all future games were to be held in the Deutsches Stadion . This stadium

1496-478: A temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed "63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier. As Rome's provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By

1584-464: A waste product. Water heaters can aid the conversion of sulfate in water to hydrogen sulfide gas. This is due to providing a warm environment sustainable for sulfur bacteria and maintaining the reaction which interacts between sulfate in the water and the water heater anode, which is usually made from magnesium metal. H 2 S in the body acts as a gaseous signaling molecule with implications for health and in diseases. Hydrogen sulfide

1672-485: Is stinkdamp . Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic and flammable gas ( flammable range : 4.3–46%). It can poison several systems in the body, although the nervous system is most affected. The toxicity of H 2 S is comparable with that of carbon monoxide . It binds with iron in the mitochondrial cytochrome enzymes , thus preventing cellular respiration . Its toxic properties were described in detail in 1843 by Justus von Liebig . Even before hydrogen sulfide

1760-433: Is also known to increase the levels of glutathione, which acts to reduce or disrupt ROS levels in cells. The field of H 2 S biology has advanced from environmental toxicology to investigate the roles of endogenously produced H 2 S in physiological conditions and in various pathophysiological states. H 2 S has been implicated in cancer and Down syndrome and vascular disease. It inhibits Complex IV of

1848-399: Is also responsible for tarnishing on various metals including copper and silver ; the chemical responsible for black toning found on silver coins is silver sulfide ( Ag 2 S ), which is produced when the silver on the surface of the coin reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Coins that have been subject to toning by hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur-containing compounds may have

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1936-457: Is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome , Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire . It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became

2024-405: Is commonly known as anaerobic digestion , which is done by sulfate-reducing microorganisms . It also occurs in volcanic gases , natural gas deposits, and sometimes in well-drawn water. Hydrogen sulfide is slightly denser than air. A mixture of H 2 S and air can be explosive. In general, hydrogen sulfide acts as a reducing agent , as indicated by its ability to reduce sulfur dioxide in

2112-420: Is harmless. Hence, low levels of hydrogen sulfide may be tolerated indefinitely. Exposure to lower concentrations can result in eye irritation, a sore throat and cough , nausea, shortness of breath, and fluid in the lungs . These effects are believed to be due to hydrogen sulfide combining with alkali present in moist surface tissues to form sodium sulfide , a caustic . These symptoms usually subside in

2200-456: Is inhaled or its salts are ingested in high amounts, damage to organs occurs rapidly with symptoms ranging from breathing difficulties to convulsions and death. Despite this, the human body produces small amounts of this sulfide and its mineral salts, and uses it as a signalling molecule . Hydrogen sulfide is often produced from the microbial breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen, such as in swamps and sewers; this process

2288-409: Is involved in vasodilation in animals, as well as in increasing seed germination and stress responses in plants. Hydrogen sulfide signaling is moderated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). H 2 S has been shown to interact with NO resulting in several different cellular effects, as well as the formation of another signal called nitrosothiol. Hydrogen sulfide

2376-418: Is natural gas with a high content of H 2 S . It can also be produced by treating hydrogen with molten elemental sulfur at about 450 °C. Hydrocarbons can serve as a source of hydrogen in this process. The very favorable thermodynamics for the hydrogenation of sulfur implies that the dehydrogenation (or cracking ) of hydrogen sulfide would require very high temperatures. A standard lab preparation

2464-437: Is not soluble in water. The sulfide anion S is not formed in aqueous solution. At pressures above 90 GPa ( gigapascal ), hydrogen sulfide becomes a metallic conductor of electricity. When cooled below a critical temperature this high-pressure phase exhibits superconductivity . The critical temperature increases with pressure, ranging from 23 K at 100 GPa to 150 K at 200 GPa. If hydrogen sulfide

2552-423: Is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable, with trace amounts in ambient atmosphere having a characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs . Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele is credited with having discovered the chemical composition of purified hydrogen sulfide in 1777. Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to humans and most other animals by inhibiting cellular respiration in a manner similar to hydrogen cyanide . When it

2640-469: Is pressurized at higher temperatures, then cooled, the critical temperature reaches 203 K (−70 °C), the highest accepted superconducting critical temperature as of 2015. By substituting a small part of sulfur with phosphorus and using even higher pressures, it has been predicted that it may be possible to raise the critical temperature to above 0 °C (273 K) and achieve room-temperature superconductivity . Hydrogen sulfide decomposes without

2728-845: Is to treat ferrous sulfide with a strong acid in a Kipp generator : For use in qualitative inorganic analysis , thioacetamide is used to generate H 2 S : Many metal and nonmetal sulfides, e.g. aluminium sulfide , phosphorus pentasulfide , silicon disulfide liberate hydrogen sulfide upon exposure to water: This gas is also produced by heating sulfur with solid organic compounds and by reducing sulfurated organic compounds with hydrogen. It can also be produced by mixing ammonium thiocyanate to concentrated sulphuric acid and adding water to it. Hydrogen sulfide can be generated in cells via enzymatic or non-enzymatic pathways. Three enzymes catalyze formation of H 2 S : cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), cystathionine β-synthetase (CBS), and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST). CBS and CSE are

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2816-522: Is typically removed by amine gas treating technologies. In such processes, the hydrogen sulfide is first converted to an ammonium salt, whereas the natural gas is unaffected. The bisulfide anion is subsequently regenerated by heating of the amine sulfide solution. Hydrogen sulfide generated in this process is typically converted to elemental sulfur using the Claus Process . The underground mine gas term for foul-smelling hydrogen sulfide-rich gas mixtures

2904-529: Is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000; Pliny the Elder 's estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31 BC, either during or after construction. The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and pulvinar at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed,

2992-641: The Bakken formation crude, possibly due to oil field practices, and presented challenges such as "health and environmental risks, corrosion of wellbore, added expense with regard to materials handling and pipeline equipment, and additional refinement requirements". Besides living near gas and oil drilling operations, ordinary citizens can be exposed to hydrogen sulfide by being near waste water treatment facilities, landfills and farms with manure storage. Exposure occurs through breathing contaminated air or drinking contaminated water. In municipal waste landfill sites ,

3080-597: The Claus process . Hydrogen sulfide burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ) and water : If an excess of oxygen is present, sulfur trioxide ( SO 3 ) is formed, which quickly hydrates to sulfuric acid : It is slightly soluble in water and acts as a weak acid ( p K a  = 6.9 in 0.01–0.1 mol/litre solutions at 18 °C), giving the hydrosulfide ion HS . Hydrogen sulfide and its solutions are colorless. When exposed to air, it slowly oxidizes to form elemental sulfur, which

3168-603: The Consualia festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then abducted the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous Roman myth of the Rape of the Sabine women had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia. In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at

3256-633: The altar of Consus , as one of the Circus' patron deities , was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the spina or euripus ) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as Vallis Murcia . The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance; Castor and Pollux , who were born from an egg , were patrons of horses, horsemen, and

3344-520: The equestrian order (equites) . Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and Neptune , as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian Great Mother as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on

3432-464: The late Republic , ludi were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby Forum Boarium , just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held,

3520-476: The myrtle shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post, where there was an underground shrine to Consus , a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess Ceres and to the underworld . According to Roman tradition, Romulus discovered this shrine shortly after the founding of Rome . He invented

3608-402: The 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a market garden . During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by Pope Sixtus V , and one of these

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3696-404: The Circus at the time of Catullus (mid-1st century BC) was probably "a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area" frequented by "prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists". Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as obligations of their office and cult . Over

3784-594: The Circus began with a flamboyant parade ( pompa circensis ) , much like the triumphal procession , which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants. During the Roman Republic , the aediles organized the games. The most costly and complex of the ludi offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for higher office . Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, "flute players, scenic artists and dancers" performed on

3872-538: The Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under Caracalla , and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained

3960-536: The Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and Hercules ' Ara Maxima , supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman Neptune 's Greek equivalent, Poseidon , in Greek hippodromes . In later developments,

4048-510: The Kraft process), tanneries and sewerage . H 2 S arises from virtually anywhere where elemental sulfur comes in contact with organic material, especially at high temperatures. Depending on environmental conditions, it is responsible for deterioration of material through the action of some sulfur oxidizing microorganisms. It is called biogenic sulfide corrosion . In 2011 it was reported that increased concentrations of H 2 S were observed in

4136-540: The burial of organic material rapidly leads to the production of anaerobic digestion within the waste mass and, with the humid atmosphere and relatively high temperature that accompanies biodegradation , biogas is produced as soon as the air within the waste mass has been reduced. If there is a source of sulfate bearing material, such as plasterboard or natural gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate), under anaerobic conditions sulfate reducing bacteria converts this to hydrogen sulfide. These bacteria cannot survive in air but

4224-418: The cavernous stadium. After the war, the horseshoe-shaped foundation of the building quickly filled with groundwater and was named "Silbersee" (Silver lake) by locals. The site became a dump for debris of Nuremberg's destroyed buildings and any kind of other waste, including what today is considered hazardous waste . The southern part of the horseshoe was filled up to ground level with waste in 1951. After that

4312-436: The central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot ( biga ); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which

4400-456: The centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the Colosseum had been built for most of the city's gladiator shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed Stadium of Domitian , though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of

4488-590: The corresponding metal sulfides. Oxidic ores are sometimes treated with hydrogen sulfide to give the corresponding metal sulfides which are more readily purified by flotation . Metal parts are sometimes passivated with hydrogen sulfide. Catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization are routinely activated with hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide was a reagent in the qualitative inorganic analysis of metal ions. In these analyses, heavy metal (and nonmetal ) ions (e.g., Pb(II), Cu(II), Hg(II), As(III)) are precipitated from solution upon exposure to H 2 S . The components of

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4576-519: The cysteine catabolic pathway. Dietary amino acids, such as methionine and cysteine serve as the primary substrates for the transulfuration pathways and in the production of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide can also be derived from proteins such as ferredoxins and Rieske proteins . Sulfate-reducing (resp. sulfur-reducing ) bacteria generate usable energy under low-oxygen conditions by using sulfates (resp. elemental sulfur) to oxidize organic compounds or hydrogen; this produces hydrogen sulfide as

4664-569: The dividing barrier. Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of Stoic and solar monism as a theological basis for the Roman Imperial cult . In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred obelisk towered over the arena, set in

4752-431: The earliest historically attested "Roman Games" ( Ludi Romani ) held at the Circus in honour of Jupiter in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes the opening of Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as

4840-479: The first Etruscan king of Rome , Lucius Tarquinius Priscus , built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the equites and patricians ), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson, Tarquinius Superbus , added the first seating for citizen-commoners ( plebs , or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of

4928-603: The lake. The small village of Achtel in Hirschbach, Bavaria is the site of a sports grandstand constructed as a prototype for part of the Deutsches Stadion . It was constructed mostly of wood, which was removed after the war and was used to reconstruct local buildings. Today only the concrete supports remain. 49°25′19.91″N 11°6′50.91″E  /  49.4221972°N 11.1141417°E  / 49.4221972; 11.1141417 Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus ( Latin for "largest circus"; Italian : Circo Massimo )

5016-409: The largest industrial source of H 2 S is petroleum refineries : The hydrodesulfurization process liberates sulfur from petroleum by the action of hydrogen. The resulting H 2 S is converted to elemental sulfur by partial combustion via the Claus process , which is a major source of elemental sulfur. Other anthropogenic sources of hydrogen sulfide include coke ovens, paper mills (using

5104-413: The late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and

5192-420: The main proponents of H 2 S biogenesis, which follows the trans-sulfuration pathway. These enzymes have been identified in a breadth of biological cells and tissues, and their activity is induced by a number of disease states. These enzymes are characterized by the transfer of a sulfur atom from methionine to serine to form a cysteine molecule. 3-MST also contributes to hydrogen sulfide production by way of

5280-579: The mitochondrial electron transport chain, which effectively reduces ATP generation and biochemical activity within cells. Hydrogen sulfide is mainly consumed as a precursor to elemental sulfur. This conversion, called the Claus process , involves partial oxidation to sulfur dioxide. The latter reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur. The conversion is catalyzed by alumina. Many fundamental organosulfur compounds are produced using hydrogen sulfide. These include methanethiol , ethanethiol , and thioglycolic acid . Hydrosulfides can be used in

5368-530: The model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park . The Circus was Rome's largest venue for ludi , public games connected to Roman religious festivals . Ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people ( populus Romanus ) and gods . Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the Roman calendar . Others might be given to fulfil

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5456-474: The moist, warm, anaerobic conditions of buried waste that contains a high source of carbon – in inert landfills, paper and glue used in the fabrication of products such as plasterboard can provide a rich source of carbon – is an excellent environment for the formation of hydrogen sulfide. In industrial anaerobic digestion processes, such as waste water treatment or the digestion of organic waste from agriculture , hydrogen sulfide can be formed from

5544-407: The obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from Heliopolis at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a lasting peace and

5632-498: The open end of the stadium by an internally pillared courtyard. Since the stadium was not set like the Panathenaic Stadium structure at the bottom of a gully, but on a flat area of land (24 hectares), its five tiers of seats for 405,000 spectators had to be supported in the usual Roman manner by massive barrel vaults . The external façade of pink granite blocks, which would have risen to a height of about 90 metres, consisted of

5720-421: The period, he also emphasized the community feeling that such a building would engender between competitors and spectators: As in ancient Greece, the elite and most experienced men chosen from the mass of the nation will compete against each other here. An entire nation in sympathetic wonder is seated on the tiers. Spectators and competitors merge in one unity. The idea of staging Pan-Germanic athletic games here

5808-476: The production of thiophenol . Upon combining with alkali metal bases, hydrogen sulfide converts to alkali hydrosulfides such as sodium hydrosulfide and sodium sulfide : Sodium sulfides are used in the paper making industry. Specifically, salts of SH break bonds between lignin and cellulose components of pulp in the Kraft process . As indicated above, many metal ions react with hydrogen sulfide to give

5896-663: The recovery of casualties during races. In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring Titus at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor Domitian built a new, multi-storey palace on the Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination. The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted Trajan 's decision to rebuild

5984-435: The reduction of sulfate and the degradation of amino acids and proteins within organic compounds. Sulfates are relatively non-inhibitory to methane forming bacteria but can be reduced to H 2 S by sulfate reducing bacteria , of which there are several genera. A number of processes have been designed to remove hydrogen sulfide from drinking water . Hydrogen sulfide is commonly found in raw natural gas and biogas. It

6072-724: The resulting solid are then identified by their reactivity. Hydrogen sulfide is used to separate deuterium oxide, or heavy water , from normal water via the Girdler sulfide process . A suspended animation-like state has been induced in rodents with the use of hydrogen sulfide, resulting in hypothermia with a concomitant reduction in metabolic rate. Oxygen demand was also reduced, thereby protecting against hypoxia . In addition, hydrogen sulfide has been shown to reduce inflammation in various situations. Volcanoes and some hot springs (as well as cold springs ) emit some H 2 S . Hydrogen sulfide can be present naturally in well water, often as

6160-407: The scale, depth and waterlogging of the site. The Circus site now functions as a large park area, open to the public and often used for concerts, meetings, and celebrations. [REDACTED] Media related to Circus Maximus at Wikimedia Commons Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical compound with the formula H 2 S . It is a colorless chalcogen-hydride gas , and

6248-638: The sense of smell, creating temporary anosmia , so victims may be unaware of its presence until it is too late. Safe handling procedures are provided by its safety data sheet (SDS) . Since hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally in the body, the environment, and the gut, enzymes exist to metabolize it. At some threshold level, believed to average around 300–350 ppm, the oxidative enzymes become overwhelmed. Many personal safety gas detectors, such as those used by utility, sewage and petrochemical workers, are set to alarm at as low as 5 to 10 ppm and to go into high alarm at 15 ppm. Metabolism causes oxidation to sulfate, which

6336-416: The sky. Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to Ceres and Flora stood close together on the Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to Luna , the moon goddess. Aventine temples to Venus Obsequens , Mercury and Dis (or perhaps Summanus ) stood on

6424-484: The slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to Magna Mater and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god Apollo . Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the Cerealia , the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than

6512-430: The spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience." The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until Claudius made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in

6600-471: The stadium culminated at each of its ends in a raised Ehrentribüne ( Tribune of Honour) for the Führer , special guests and the press. Once more, Roman practice provided the architectural precedent. Speer apparently adopted a horseshoe shape for his building only after rejecting the oval shape of an amphitheatre . The latter plan, he claimed, would have intensified the heat and produced psychological discomfort,

6688-417: The thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190s BC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators. Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots ( Quadrigas ) abreast but when team-racing

6776-460: The toning add to the numismatic value of a coin based on aesthetics, as the toning may produce thin-film interference , resulting in the coin taking on an attractive coloration. Coins can also be intentionally treated with hydrogen sulfide to induce toning, though artificial toning can be distinguished from natural toning, and is generally criticised among collectors. Hydrogen sulfide is most commonly obtained by its separation from sour gas , which

6864-470: The track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside cavea . Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for equites . The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats

6952-418: The track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts ( metae ), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as

7040-467: The valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river Tiber and the stream which divided the valley lengthwise. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, "with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some shrines and sacred spots". In Livy 's History of Rome ,

7128-406: The year were devoted to ludi . Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale and was the most popular venue for large-scale venationes ; in the late 3rd century, the emperor Probus laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on

7216-463: Was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier (euripus) for maximum visibility. Julius Caesar 's development of the Circus, commencing around 50 BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 150 m (490 ft) in breadth. A canal between

7304-462: Was discovered, Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini hypothesized in his 1713 book De Morbis Artificum Diatriba that occupational diseases of sewer-workers and blackening of coins in their clothes may be caused by an unknown invisible volatile acid (moreover, in late 18th century toxic gas emanation from Paris sewers became a problem for the citizens and authorities). Although very pungent at first (it smells like rotten eggs ), it quickly deadens

7392-570: Was in all its dimensions far larger than the 1936 Olympic Stadium in Berlin, which held only 115,000 spectators. Hitler anticipated that after winning the war, the world would have no choice but to send its athletes to Germany every time the Olympic Games were held at which, no doubt, victors would have received their prizes from the Führer, surrounded by the party faithful on the pulvinar on the short axis of

7480-634: Was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by herms that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight, four-horse or two-horse chariots could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174 BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33 BC, an additional system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters

7568-471: Was perhaps suggested by the Panathenaic Games , but Speer's stadium was, despite his own statement, stylistically more Roman than Greek in inspiration and with its huge barrel-vaulted substructures and arcaded exterior façade, more like the Circus Maximus than the Panathenaic Stadium. Nazi building exhibits a mixture of Greek and Roman elements, with Roman predominating. But Hitler did not want such

7656-511: Was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the Great Fire of 64 AD and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of Diana , who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with Sol Indiges , usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to

7744-574: Was re-sited at the Piazza del Popolo . In 1852, a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid-19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by

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