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130-470: The institute's founders bought what was then a Capuchin monastery set for destruction, to make way for a proposed large-scale real estate development. The site was formerly known as Glenclyffe, when it was the 19th century estate of New York Governor and U.S. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish , and it has changed little since it was solely inhabited by the Wappinger Nation of Native Americans. In 2001,

260-613: A Founding Father and the nation's first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury under George Washington . Nicholas Fish (1758–1833) was a leading Federalist politician and notable figure of the American Revolutionary War . Colonel Fish was active in the Yorktown Campaign , which featured the final battles of the American Revolutionary War and led to the surrender of Lord Cornwallis and American independence. Peter Stuyvesant

390-586: A Santo Domingo annexation treaty. In April 1869, Fish gave Grant's private secretary Orville Babcock "special agent" status to search the island. Babcock, a military aide, who had served with merit in the Civil War, was a proponent of annexation, and racially open to annexing a Latin American mixed race country, by the United States. In September 1869, Babcock made a preliminary treaty that would annex Santo Domingo to

520-514: A Senate resolution that would have recognized Cuban belligerency. Working behind the scenes Fish counseled Sherman that Cuban recognition would ultimately lead to war with Spain. The resolution went to the House of Representatives and was ready to pass, however, Fish worked out an agreement with President Grant to send a special message to Congress that urged not to acknowledge the Cuban rebels. On June 13, 1870,

650-537: A Whig candidate in 1834. After marrying, he returned to politics and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843. Fish ran for New York's lieutenant governor in 1846, falling to a Democratic Anti-Rent Party contender. When the office was vacated in 1847, Fish ran and was elected to the position. In 1848, he ran and was elected governor of New York, serving one term. In 1851, he was elected U.S. Senator for New York, serving one term. Fish gained valuable experience serving on Committee on Foreign Relations . Fish

780-601: A Whig, was going to nominate Fish to the Treasury Department in a cabinet shakeup. However Taylor died in office before he could nominate Fish. Despite his national popularity Fish was not renominated for Governor. After Fish retired from office as governor, he did not openly seek the nomination to be elected U.S. Senator . However, Fish's supporters, the William H. Seward - Thurlow Weed Whigs, in January 1851 nominated him as

910-522: A candidate for U.S. Senator. A deadlock ensued over his nomination because one New York legislature Whig Senator was upset about Fish not publicly supporting the Compromise of 1850 . Before the election Fish had only stated government should enforce the laws. Although Fish did not favor the spread of slavery he was hesitant to support the free soil movement. Finally, when two Democratic Senators who were against Fish's nomination were conspicuously absent,

1040-554: A colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico, and installed a new government in Havana. But with half the country out of its control and the other half in arms, the colonial government was powerless and these changes were rejected by the rebels. The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years. Some newspapers had agitated for U.S. intervention, especially because of its large financial investment, and featured sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against

1170-581: A committee to collect and publish the Colonial Laws of New York. None of the bills that Governor Fish vetoed were overturned by the New York legislature. In his annual messages Fish spoke out against the extension of slavery from land acquired from the Mexican–American War , including California and New Mexico. His anti-slavery messages gave Fish national attention and President Zachary Taylor , also

1300-547: A full-scale war with Spain. Fish found out that the registration was falsified under American ownership, however, the executions of Americans demanded action. Fish coolly handled the situation, calling upon Spanish minister, Admiral José Polo de Bernabé in Washington D.C., and holding a conference. A settlement was made where Spain relinquished the severely damaged Virginius to the U.S. Navy, while survivors were released that included 13 Americans. The Spanish Captain who ordered

1430-616: A halt. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city which eventually surrendered on July 16, after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Thus, Oriente was under control of Americans, but U.S. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards. Thus, Cuban General Calixto García , head of

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1560-557: A horrid thing war is." In 1861–1862, Fish participated in the Union Defense Committee of the State of New York, which cooperated with New York City in raising and equipping Union Army troops, and disbursed more than $ 1 million for the relief of New York volunteers and their families. The committee included chairman John A. Dix, William M. Evarts , William E. Dodge , A.T. Stewart , John Jacob Astor , and other New York men. Fish

1690-458: A locally enlisted force that took care of most of the "guard and police" duties on the island. Wealthy landowners would "volunteer" some of their slaves to serve in this force, which was under local control as militia and not under official military command. By December, Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island, and the colonial government increased the Volunteer Corps to 63,000 men. By

1820-507: A minimum of three years and the countries would allow commercial trade with neutral countries. In 1871, Korea was known as the "Hermit Kingdom", a country determined to remain isolated from other nations, specifically from commerce and trade from Western nations, including the United States. In 1866, U.S. relations with Korea were troubled when Christian missionaries were beheaded by the Korean Daewongun , regent to King Kojong , and

1950-603: A non-belligerency statement not to get involved with the Cuban rebellion against Spain. Charles Sumner , chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , was against the treaty, believing that Santo Domingo needed to remain independent, and that racism against U.S. black citizens in the South needed to be dealt with in the continental United States. Sumner believed that blacks on Santo Domingo did not share Anglo-American values. On January 10, 1870, Grant submitted

2080-623: A privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente, where the Spanish controlled only a few cities. Spanish Liberal leader Práxedes Mateo Sagasta admitted in May 1897: "After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood, we don't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on". The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters, such as the La Reforma Campaign , and forcing

2210-545: A protocol of Peace, in which Spain agreed to relinquish all claims of sovereignty over Cuba. On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris , which demanded the formal recognition of Cuban independence on part of Spain. Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the United States prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and

2340-424: A result of the assassination attempt on Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo on 8 August 1897 and due to media criticism, the Spanish government decided to change its policy towards Cuba and dismiss General Valeriano Weyler from his position as governor of the island. Ramón Blanco - a strong opponent of the reconcentration policy - took over the function at the end of 1897. Madrit decided also to drew up

2470-591: A second term in the House. Fish was the Whig candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1846, but was defeated by Democrat Addison Gardiner who had been endorsed by the Anti-Rent Party . Leasing farmers in New York refused to pay rent to large land tract owners and sometimes resorted to violence and intimidation. Fish had opposed the Anti-Rent Party for the use of illegal tactics not to pay rent. Gardiner

2600-554: A sister of Col. John Kean , both descendants of William Livingston , a New Yorker who went on to become New Jersey's first governor . The couple's lengthy married life was described as happy and Mrs. Fish was known for her "sagacity and judgement." The couple had three sons and five daughters. For eight years after his defeat as a Representative in the New York State Assembly, Fish was reluctant to run for office. However, Whig party leaders in 1842 convinced him to run for

2730-459: Is notable for what wasn't changed. The Institute celebrated its beginning with newly appointed spiritual advisors—Gelek Rimpoche, Rabbi Zalman Schachter-Shalomi and Father Thomas Keating. The opening ceremonies included music by Pete Seeger, Philip Glass and Christine McCall. The Dalai Lama visited the Institute in the fall of 2003 and blessed it. Since 2003, over 60,000 people have participated in

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2860-553: The Alabama Claims under Prime Minister William Gladstone . Fish, who was determined to improve relations with Britain, along with President Grant and Senate supporters, had Charles Sumner removed by vote from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and the door was open for renewed negotiations with Britain. On January 9, 1871, Fish met with British representative Sir John Rose in Washington and an agreement

2990-629: The Alabama Claims with the Johnson-Clarendon convention and treaty. The Alabama Claims had arisen out of the American Civil War, when Confederate raiding ships built in British ports (most notably the C.S.S. Alabama ) had sunk a significant number of Union merchant ships. Sumner also stated the Civil War would have ended by 1863 if the British weren't complicit in allowing its blockade runners to smuggle hundreds of thousands of weapons through

3120-593: The Alabama Claims. Grant believed that Sumner had in January 1870 stated his support for the Santo Domingo treaty. Sumner was then deprived of his chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1871 by Grant's allies in the Senate. President Grant and Secretary Fish were interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal through Panama . Secretary Fish organized a treaty signing on January 26, 1870, in Bogota between

3250-644: The Alabama Claims , Fish told Grant he would resign on August 1, 1871. Grant, however, needed Fish's professional advice and pleaded with Fish to remain in office. Grant told Fish he could not replace him. Fish remained in office, 13 years Grant's senior, even under ill health. When Fish assumed office he immediately began a series of reforms in the Department of State . After appropriations were given to his office by Congress, Fish cataloged and organized 700 volumes of miscellaneous State Department documents and created

3380-521: The Asiatic Squadron , voyaged to Korea with five warships, 85 guns, and 1,230 sailors and marines. On May 16, the naval squadron reached Nagasaki Bay , and a week later lowered anchor near the mouth of the Han River . The Koreans sent unofficial representatives to stall for time and hope the American squadron would leave. In June, the American fleet was performing a nautical survey and was fired upon by

3510-490: The Bureau of Indexes and Archives . Fish introduced indexing of State Department files so subordinates could easily find documents. Fish implemented civil service reform by having State Department applicants be required to pass an entry examination before being appointed consultant. This policy was sometimes hampered, since President Grant could appoint any person to office without the person having to take an examination. However,

3640-765: The Franco-Prussian War . During Reconstruction , Fish was not known to sympathize with Grant's policy to eradicate the Ku Klux Klan , racism in the Southern states, and promote African American equality. Fish complained of being bored at Grant's cabinet meetings when Grant's U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman told of atrocities of the Klan against black citizens. Throughout Fish's tenure during Grant's first term in office, Fish periodically threatened to resign. After Fish's and Grant's high-water mark accomplishment of settling

3770-519: The House of Representatives . In November, Fish was elected to the House of Representatives; having defeated Democrat John McKeon and serving in the 28th Congress from New York's 6th District between 1843 and 1845. The Whigs at this time were in the minority in the House; however, Fish gained valued national experience serving on the Committee of Military Affairs. Fish failed to win a re-election bid for

3900-554: The Hudson River in the Hudson Highlands, across from West Point. The Garrison Institute provides shelter for a diverse array of spiritual teachers, students, organizations, and communities of practice globally. The Institute brings together a mix of constituents: contemplative and spiritual teachers, academic scientists, and those working on new forms of social and environmental engagement. Together, they seek to better understand

4030-703: The Maine sparked a wave of public indignation in the United States. Newspaper owners such as William R. Hearst leaped to the conclusion that Spanish officials in Cuba were to blame, and they widely publicized the conspiracy. Realistically, Spain could have had no interest in drawing the U.S. into the conflict. Yellow journalism fueled American anger by publishing "atrocities" committed by Spain in Cuba. Frederic Remington , hired by Hearst to illustrate for his newspaper, informed Hearst that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities. Hearst, allegedly replied, "You furnish

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4160-619: The Necessary War ( Spanish : Guerra Necesaria ), fought from 1895 to 1898, was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain , the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War , with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico , and

4290-575: The Philippine Islands against Spain . Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians. During the years 1879–1888 of the so-called "Rewarding Truce", lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years' War in 1878, there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society. With

4420-601: The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the Hawaiian Kingdom under the reign of King Kalākaua . Hawaiian sugar was made duty-free, while the importation of manufactured goods and clothing was allowed into the island kingdom. By opening Hawaii to free trade the process for annexation and eventual statehood into the United States had begun. The U.S. settled the Liberian-Grebo War in 1876 when Hamilton Fish dispatched

4550-488: The U.S. House of Representatives , representing New York state . Hamilton Fish II , Fish's son, served one term as U.S. Representative from 1909 to 1911. Fish II also served as assistant to his father at the U.S. State Department . Cuban independence American intervention; independence granted in 1902 [REDACTED] Spanish Empire The Cuban War of Independence ( Spanish : Guerra de Independencia cubana ), also known in Cuba as

4680-564: The USS Alaska , under President Grant's authority, to Liberia . Liberia was in practice an American colony. U.S. envoy James Milton Turner , the first African American ambassador, requested a warship to protect American property in Liberia. Turner, bolstered by U.S. naval presence in harbor and support of the USS Alaska captain, negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and

4810-572: The Union blockade to the Confederacy. As such, Sumner demanded that Britain pay $ 2 billion or simply cede Canada to the United States for the Alabama Claims. The Johnson-Clarendon treaty, presented to Congress by President Ulysses S. Grant, was overwhelmingly defeated by the Senate and the claims remained unresolved. Anglophobia led by Charles Sumner was at an all-time high when Fish became Secretary of State. In late 1870, an opportunity arrived to settle

4940-998: The Virginius incident. Fish implemented the new concept of international arbitration, where disputes between countries were settled by negotiations, rather than military conflicts. Fish was involved in a political feud between U.S. senator Charles Sumner and President Grant in the latter's unsuccessful efforts to annex the Dominican Republic . Fish organized a naval expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to open trade with Korea in 1871. Leaving office and politics in 1877, Fish returned to private life and continued to serve on various historical associations. Fish died quietly of old age in his luxurious New York State home in 1893. Fish has been praised by historians for his calm demeanor under pressure, honesty, loyalty, modesty, and talented statesmanship during his tenure under President Grant, briefly serving under President Hayes. The hallmark of his career

5070-649: The American Civil War. Fish's private secretary was involved in the attempt of the merchant ship Star of the West to bring relief supplies to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. During this period, Fish often met with General Winfield Scott , commander-in-chief of the US Army . Fish was dining with Scott in New York when a telegram reported that Confederates had fired on Star of the West . Fish said that this meant war; Scott replied "Don't utter that word, my friend. You don't know what

5200-523: The Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney , east of Santiago, and established a base. The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season, thus nearby Guantánamo Bay , with its excellent harbor, was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6 ( 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay ). The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, 1898,

5330-526: The Central Board of Artisans in 1879, and many more across the island. After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, José Martí moved to the United States in 1881. There he mobilized the support of the Cuban exile community, especially in Ybor City (Tampa area) and Key West , Florida. His goal was revolution in order to achieve independence from Spain. Martí lobbied against the U.S. annexation of Cuba, which

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5460-531: The Civil War, and was thought to have retired from political life. When Ulysses S. Grant was elected president in 1868, he appointed Fish as U.S. secretary of state in 1869. Fish took on the State Department with vigor, reorganized the office, and established civil service reform . During his tenure, Fish had to contend with Cuban belligerency, the settlement of the Alabama claims, Canada–U.S. border disputes, and

5590-449: The Cuban rebels and President Grant appeared to be on the verge of acknowledging Cuban belligerency. Fish, who desired settlement over the Alabama Claims, did not approve of recognizing the Cuban rebels, since Queen Victoria and her government had recognized Confederate belligerency in 1861. Recognizing Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized settlement and arbitration with Great Britain. In February 1870, Senator John Sherman authored

5720-571: The Cubans had almost absolute control. They cooperated by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U.S. landing in Daiquiri. The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago in order to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago, the Americans had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney . Between June 22 and 24, 1898,

5850-680: The December 1981 American Heritage magazine ranked Fish third on a list of top ten Secretaries of State, noting his settlement of the Alabama Claims in 1871, his settlement of the Virginius Incident, and his role in the Hawaiian treaty ratified by the Senate in 1875. There is a memorial to Fish at the Cathedral of All Saints in Albany, New York . The Hamilton Fish Newburgh-Beacon Bridge , which spans

5980-730: The Garrison Institute's retreats and programs. In 2004, the Institute created the Initiative on Contemplation and Education (ICE), later renamed the Contemplative Teaching and Learning Initiative and now named CARE for Teachers. In 2004, the Hudson River Project was launched to discuss social science and the humanities relating to environmental issues. The Hudson River Project became the Initiative on Transformation Ecology (ITE), now Climate, Mind and Behavior (CMB). In 2005,

6110-724: The Hudson River 50 miles north of New York City between Dutchess and Orange counties, is named after Fish. A street in the Bronx , New York, is named after Fish, as is Hamilton Fish Park in Manhattan . Fish was a long time member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati by right of his father's service as an officer in the Continental Army . Fish succeeded to his father's seat in

6240-487: The Kingdom of Hawai'i, initiating the process which ended in the 1893 overthrow of the House of Kalākaua and statehood. Fish worked with James Milton Turner to settle the Liberia-Grebo War in 1876. Fish came from prominence and wealth. His Dutch American family was long-established in New York City. He attended Columbia College and later passed the New York state bar. Initially working as commissioner of deeds , he ran unsuccessfully for New York State Assembly as

6370-414: The Korean forts on the Han River leading to Seoul . The American fleet fired back, damaging the forts. The Americans demanded an apology on the grounds that the honor of the American flag had been violated. On June 10, a U.S. military expedition was launched after the Koreans failed to apologize for the attack; the objective was to destroy the Korean forts on Ganghwa Island . The U.S.S. Monocacy pounded

6500-426: The Latin race would be but the beginnings of years of conflict and anarchy." The divided island nation, run by mulatto leader President Buenaventura Báez , had been troubled with civil strife. Báez had controversially imprisoned an American citizen, Davis Hatch, for speaking out against the Báez government, susceptible to a Haitian military take over. Fish told Grant that the U.S. Senate would not be ready to pass

6630-427: The Mambi forces in the Eastern department, ordered his troops to hold their respective areas. He resigned over being excluded from entering Santiago, writing a letter of protest to General Shafter. After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico, which had also been invaded by the United States, and with no hope of holding on to Cuba, Spain opted for peace on July 17, 1898. On August 12, the United States and Spain signed

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6760-514: The Santo Domingo treaty to the United States Senate. Fish believed senators would vote for annexation only if statehood was withdrawn; however, President Grant refused this option. The Senate took its time deliberating, and finally rejected the treaty on June 30, 1870. Eighteen senators led by Charles Sumner defeated the treaty. Grant, angered at Sumner's refusal to support the treaty, fired Sumner's friend J. Lothrop Motley , Grant's ambassador to England, for disregarding Fish's instructions regarding

6890-475: The Senate took action and voted. On March 19, 1851, Fish was elected a U.S. Senator from New York and he took his seat on December 1, serving alongside future Secretary of State William H. Seward . In the U.S. Senate, he was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations until the end of his term on March 4, 1857. Fish became friends with President Franklin Pierce 's Secretary of State William L. Marcy and Attorney General Caleb Cushing . He

7020-443: The Society in 1834, following his father's death the previous year. In 1848, Fish became the Vice President General of the national society and, in 1854, he became its president general. In 1855, Fish was elected president of the New York Society. Fish served as both president general of the national society and president of the New York Society until his death in 1893. Three of Fish's direct descendants, all named Hamilton, served in

7150-402: The Spanish authorities. The Spanish finally stopped the carnage as a British warship appeared with guns ready to fire on Santiago. The American Navy, at this time, although formidable worldwide, was in decline after the American Civil War. When news reached the United States of the executions, President Grant and Secretary Fish were forced to make an immediate response. Many Americans demanded

7280-402: The U.S. House of Representatives for three generations. Fish was born on August 3, 1808, in what is the present-day Hamilton Fish House in Greenwich Village in New York City , to Nicholas Fish and Elizabeth Stuyvesant, a daughter of Peter Stuyvesant and direct descendant of New Amsterdam 's Director-General Peter Stuyvesant . He was named after his parents' friend Alexander Hamilton ,

7410-440: The U.S. Navy, and four by the Spanish Navy; two were wrecked; one was driven back to port by storm; the fate of another is unknown. Martí was killed soon after landing on May 19, 1895, at Dos Rios , but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on, taking the war to all parts of Oriente. By the end of June, all of Camagüey was at war. Based on new research in Cuban sources, historian John Lawrence Tone showed that Gomez and Maceo were

7540-421: The United States and Colombia that established a Panama route for the inter-oceanic canal. The Colombian Senate, however, amended the treaty so much that the strategic value of the inter-oceanic canal construction became ineffective. As a result, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty. During the previous administration of President Andrew Johnson , Secretary of State Seward attempted to resolve

7670-428: The United States and give it the opportunity to apply for statehood. In October 1869, Fish drew up a formal treaty that included: a $ 1,500,000 payment of the Dominican national debt; Samaná Bay would be leased to the United States for $ 150,000 yearly payment; Santo Domingo would eventually be given statehood. In a private conference with Grant, Fish agreed to support the Santo Domingo annexation if Grant sent Congress

7800-454: The United States in 1871 served as mediator under the direction of Hamilton Fish. Representing Spain was Mauricio Lopez Roberts; Manuel Freyer represented both Peru and Bolivia; Joaquín Godoy represented Chile; and Antonio Flores represented Ecuador. President Grant gave Fish full powers to control negotiations at the détente meeting between the five countries. The signed armistice treaty consisted of seven articles; hostilities were to cease for

7930-407: The United States, led by Fish, met in Washington, D.C., and negotiations over settlement went remarkably well. Also representing Britain was Canadian Prime Minister John A. Macdonald . After 37 meetings, on May 8, 1871, the Treaty of Washington was signed at the State Department and became a "landmark of international conciliation". The Senate ratified the treaty on May 24, 1871. On August 25, 1872,

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8060-404: The Women's Wellness Project was created, a five-year pilot program conducting contemplative-based training for women working to end domestic violence. This was the basis of what became the Initiative on Transforming Trauma (ITT), which is now the institute's Signature Program on Contemplative-Based Resilience (CBR). The Garrison Institute is located an hour north of Manhattan , on the east bank of

8190-415: The abolition of slavery in October 1886, freedmen joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class. The economy could no longer sustain itself with the shift and changes; therefore, many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and joined the urban middle class. The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased: only companies, and the most powerful plantation owners, remained in business followed by

8320-692: The age of 85, suddenly died. His death was attributed to advanced age. On September 11, 1893, Fish was buried in Garrison at St. Philip's Church in the Highlands Cemetery under waving trees on the hills along the Hudson River shoreline. He was buried next to his wife and oldest daughter near the grave of Edwards Pierrepont , President Grant's U.S. Attorney General . Many notable persons attended Fish's funeral, and Bishop Potter conducted services. Julia Grant , widowed wife of Grant, attended Fish's funeral. Charles Francis Adams described Fish as "a quiet and easy-going man; but, when aroused, by being, as he thought, 'put upon', he became very formidable. Neither

8450-595: The armed forces would be removed at the conclusion of the war. The amendment, pushed through at the last minute by anti-imperialists in the Senate, made no mention of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. Congress declared war on April 25 . "It's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal ". Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled "The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press", published in "American Imperialism" in 1898: "In

8580-407: The beginning of the revolution reached Marti and Gomez by the end of February. In Oriente , the most important skirmishes took place in Santiago , Guantánamo , Jiguaní , El Cobre , El Caney , and Alto Songo . The uprisings in the central part of the island, such as Ibarra, Jagüey Grande, and Aguada, suffered from poor coordination and failed; the leaders were captured, deported or executed. In

8710-547: The close of his second term, and Secretary Fish, remained interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal treaty. Fish and the State Department negotiated with a special envoy from Nicaragua in February 1877 for an inter-oceanic treaty. Negotiations, however, failed as the status of the neutral zone could not be established. After leaving the Grant Cabinet in 1877 and briefly serving under President Hayes, Fish retired from public office and returned to private life practicing law and managing his real estate in New York City. Fish

8840-458: The coercion of the general public, McKinley feared that non-interference would ruin his political reputation. On April 11, McKinley asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there. On April 19, Congress passed joint resolutions (by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate) supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing

8970-401: The controversial Alabama Claims with the United Kingdom , developing the concept of international arbitration and avoided war with Spain over Cuban independence by coolly handling the volatile Virginius incident . He also organized a peace conference and treaty between South American countries and Spain. In 1875, Fish negotiated a reciprocal trade treaty for sugar production with

9100-426: The crew of the General Sherman , a U.S. trading ship, were massacred. Secretary Seward, under President Johnson, demanded redress for what was perceived as the outrageous actions of the Korean government. U.S. Naval warships were ordered to the Orient , however, when Seward's term ended in 1869, he was unable to organize a naval expedition. When Fish took office, he organized the Korean naval expedition and broadened

9230-544: The designated security zones was considered a rebel and could be killed. Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes and were subjected to appalling and inhumane conditions in the crowded towns and cities. Using a variety of sources, Tone estimates that 155,000 to 170,000 civilians died, nearly 10% of the population. Around this time, Spain also had to fight a growing Philippines independence movement. These two wars burdened Spain's economy. In 1896, Spain turned down secret United States offers to buy Cuba. Maceo

9360-490: The element of surprise, mounting their forces on fast horses, and using machetes against regular troops on the march. They acquired most of their weapons and ammunition in raids on the Spaniards. Between June 11, 1895, and November 30, 1897, of 60 attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country, only one succeeded. Twenty-eight ships were intercepted within U.S. territory; five were intercepted at sea by

9490-519: The end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered. The rebels were often called mambises . The origin of this term is disputed. Some suggest it may have originated in the name of officer Juan Ethninius Mamby who led rebels in the Dominican fight for independence in 1844 . Others, such as Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz , posit it has Bantu origins, particularly from Kikongo from

9620-511: The executions was censured, and Spain paid $ 80,000 reparations to American families whose family members were executed in Santiago. The national honor of both Spain and the United States was preserved and it was chiefly due to the restraint and moderation of Fish and Bernabé that a satisfactory settlement of the Virginius Affair was reached by the United States and Spain. Fish also negotiated

9750-548: The existence of an independent Cuba. "Martí noticed with alarm the movement to annex Hawaii , viewing it as establishing a pattern for Cuba   ..." On December 25, 1894, three ships – the Lagonda , the Almadis and the Baracoa – set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with soldiers and weapons. Two of the ships were seized by American authorities in early January, but

9880-511: The first to force the civilian forces to choose sides. "Either they relocated to the east side of the islands, where the Cubans controlled the mountainous terrain, or they would be accused of supporting the Spanish and be subject to immediate trial and execution." Continuing west, they were joined by 1868 war veterans, such as Polish internationalist General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas, who brought weapons, men and experience to

10010-630: The forts with 9 inch guns while 546 sailors and 105 marines landed on the island and captured and destroyed the Korean forts. The "Citadel" fortress, on a steep 115-foot hillside, put up the stiffest resistance to the American troops, who fought in hand-to-hand combat with the Korean Tiger Hunters. All of the Korean forts taken were destroyed and leveled on June 11. Three hundred fifty Korean Tiger Hunters were killed, compared with only one American officer and two American sailors. Lieut. Hugh W. McKee

10140-604: The island on January 22, 1896, exactly three months after the invasion near Baraguá. Campos was replaced by Gen. Valeriano Weyler . He reacted to the rebels' successes by introducing terror: periodic executions, mass exile of residents, forced concentration of residents in certain cities or areas ( policy of reconcentration ), and destruction of farms and crops. Weyler's terror reached its height on October 21, 1896, when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather within eight days in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops. Anyone who did not report to

10270-603: The law office of Peter A. Jay , served as president of the Philolexian Society , and was admitted to the New York bar in 1830, practicing briefly with William Beach Lawrence . Influenced politically by his father, Fish aligned himself to the Whig Party . He served as commissioner of deeds for the city and county of New York from 1831 through 1833, and was an unsuccessful Whig candidate for New York State Assembly in 1834. On December 15, 1836, Fish married Julia Kean,

10400-571: The liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then Matanzas, outmaneuvering and deceiving the Spanish Army several times. They defeated Spanish Gen. Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón , who had gained victory in the Ten-Year War, and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo. Campos tried the strategy he had used in the Ten Years' War, constructing a broad belt across the island, called the trocha , about 80 km long and 200 m wide. This defense line

10530-432: The lives of Americans living in Havana. In response, the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January. On February 15, 1898, Maine was rocked by an explosion, killing 260 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbor. At the time, a military Board of Investigations decided that Maine had exploded due to the detonation of a mine underneath the hull. However, later investigations decided that it

10660-543: The message written by Fish was sent to Congress by the President and Congress, after much debate, decided not to recognize Cuban belligerency. President Grant continued the policy of Cuban belligerent non recognition for the rest of his two administrations. This policy, however, was tested in 1873 with the Virginius Affair . After President Grant assumed office on March 4, 1869, one of his immediate foreign policy interests

10790-633: The mind and the many systems it inhabits. The Garrison Institute is led by executive director Johnathan Weisner. Teachers and presenters at the Garrison Institute have included Adyashanti , the Dalai Lama , Rajmohan Gandhi , Philip Glass , Daniel Goleman , Mikhail Gorbachev , Paul Hawken , Father Thomas Keating , Sharon Salzberg , Pete Seeger , Roshi Enkyo O’Hara , Peter Senge , Lama Surya Das , Tsoknyi Rinpoche , Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche , and many others. Hamilton Fish Hamilton Fish (August 3, 1808 – September 7, 1893)

10920-534: The native Cuban population, which were exaggerated for propaganda. Such coverage continued after Spain had replaced Weyler and changed its policies. American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening on behalf of the Cubans. In January 1898, a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana. They destroyed the printing presses of four local newspapers that had published articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities. The U.S. Consul-General cabled Washington with fears for

11050-441: The opening of Japan. Korea, however, proved to be more isolated than Japan. In 1881, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt, without using a naval fleet, went to a more conciliatory Korean government and made a commercial treaty. The U.S. was the first Western nation to establish formal trade with Korea. During the 1870s, Cuba was in a state of rebellion against Spain. In the United States, Americans were divided on whether to militarily aid

11180-661: The opinion of the writer, the Spanish–American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation." It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain. Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a contingent of U.S. Navy ships under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente, where

11310-455: The ousting of foreign traders from Liberia. As the 1876 Republican convention approached during the U.S. presidential election, President Grant, unknown to Fish, had written a letter to Republican leaders to nominate Fish for the Presidential ticket. The letter was never read at the convention and Fish was never nominated. President Grant believed that Fish was a good compromise choice between

11440-537: The pictures and I'll furnish the war". President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed , and the business community opposed the growing public demand for war, which was lashed to fury by the yellow journalism. The American cry of the hour became, Remember the Maine, To Hell with Spain! The decisive event was probably the speech of Senator Redfield Proctor , delivered on March 17, 1898, analyzing

11570-512: The policy of testing overall improved the staff at the State Department. Fish's methods of organization included disciplined staff and prompt copying of dispatches. The method of record keeping, however, was cumbersome and had remained unchanged since John Quincy Adams' presidency . Rather than world regions, countries were listed in alphabetical order; the correspondence was embedded in bound diplomatic and consular category archives, rather than by subject matter. Added to countries' information

11700-567: The president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain. This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included the Teller Amendment , named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller, which passed unanimously, stipulating that "the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent". The amendment disclaimed any intention by U.S. to have jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons, and confirmed that

11830-465: The proceedings went ahead. Marti himself did not leave for Montecristi until January 31; it was on this trip that he would meet with General Maximo Gomez to finalize another invasion plan of Cuba. The insurrection began on February 24, 1895, with uprisings all across the island. Marti and Gomez had planned a well-organized uprising that would work to eventually remove Spain from the island nation, though progress would be slow and cost many lives. Word of

11960-539: The property was acquired by the Open Space Institute, which donated it to The Garrison Institute, which renovated the building, and opened its doors to the public in 2003. The Garrison Institute's current building is a renovated version of the 77,000 square foot stone and brick monastery and seminary built by the Capuchin Franciscan Province of St. Mary in 1923. Much of the architectural restoration

12090-908: The province of Havana, the insurrection was discovered before it began, and its leaders were detained. The insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered by rebel leaders to wait. On March 25 Martí presented the Manifesto of Montecristi , which outlined the policy for Cuba's war of independence: On April 1 and 11, 1895, the main rebel leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente: Major General Antonio Maceo along with 22 members near Baracoa , and José Martí , Máximo Gómez and 4 other members in Playitas. Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000, of which 20,000 were regular troops and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteer militia. The latter were

12220-596: The purposes. In April 1871, Fish ordered Frederick F. Low , minister to China, to take the Asiatic Fleet and voyage to Seoul. The purpose of the expedition was to seek retribution for the assaulted sailors and to open up a commercial treaty with the King of Korea. Fish had told the fleet not to use force unless the honor of the U.S. flag was infringed by the Koreans. On May 8, 1871, Low and Rear Admiral John Rodgers , commander of

12350-523: The rebel Cubans. Many jingoists believed the United States needed to fight for the Cuban rebels and pressured the Grant Administration to take action. A privately owned ship, the Virginius , was used to run guns, ammunition, and vital supplies to the Cuban rebels. The captain of the Virginius was Joseph Fry, former officer of the Confederate and Federal Navies. On October 31, 1873, the Virginius

12480-473: The revolutionaries' arsenal. In mid-September, representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú, Camagüey to approve the "Jimaguayú Constitution". They established a central government, which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity named "Government Council", headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó . After some time of consolidation in the three eastern provinces,

12610-465: The rival factions of James G. Blaine and Roscoe Conkling . Cartoonist Thomas Nast drew a caricature of Fish and Rutherford B. Hayes as the Republican Party ticket. Fish, who was ready to retire to private life, did not desire to run for president and was content at returning to private life. Fish found out later that President Grant had written the letter to the convention. President Grant at

12740-740: The settlement for the Alabama claims was made by an international arbitration committee meeting in Geneva and the United States was awarded $ 15,500,000 (~$ 352 million in 2023) in gold only for damage done by the Confederate warships. Under the treaty settlement over disputed Atlantic fisheries and the San Juan Boundary (concerning the Oregon boundary line) was made. The treaty was considered an "unprecedented accomplishment", having solved border disputes, reciprocal trade, and navigation issues. A friendly perpetual relationship between Great Britain and America

12870-475: The signing of the treaty. The treaty did not set a designated time limit for U.S. occupation, and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba. The treaty officially granted Cuban independence, but U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba. Fidel Castro sought to frame the 26th of July Movement as

13000-424: The situation and concluding that war was the only answer. The business and religious communities switched sides, leaving McKinley and Reed almost alone in their opposition to war. "Faced with a revved up, war-ready population, and all the editorial encouragement the two competitors could muster, the United States jumped at the opportunity to get involved and showcase its new steam-powered Navy". Had he not adhered to

13130-575: The surrender on August 30 of Las Tunas which had been guarded by over 1,000 well-armed and well-supplied men. As stipulated at the Jimaguayü Assembly two years earlier, a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya, Camagüey, on October 10, 1897. The newly adopted constitution provided that military command was to be subordinated to civilian rule. The government was confirmed, naming Bartolomé Masó President and Domingo Méndez Capote Vice President. As

13260-399: The war to the western provinces of Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio, which contained the island's government and wealth. The Ten-Year War had failed because it was confined to the eastern provinces. The revolutionaries mounted a cavalry campaign that overcame the trochas and invaded every province. Surrounding all larger cities and well-fortified towns, they arrived at the westernmost tip of

13390-517: The war. After the war ended, Fish went back to private practice as a lawyer in New York. From 1860 to 1869, Fish was trustee of The Bank for Savings in the City of New-York stepping down from that role when he became US Secretary of State. Fish was appointed Secretary of State by President Ulysses S. Grant and served between March 17, 1869, and March 12, 1877. He was President Grant's longest-serving Cabinet officer. Upon assuming office in 1869, Fish

13520-473: The word 'mbi', which carried negative connotations including 'outlaw'. In any case, the word appears to have first been used as an insult or slur, which the Cuban rebels adopted with pride. From the start of the uprising, the Mambises were hampered by the lack of weapons. Possession of weapons by individuals was forbidden after the Ten Years' War . They compensated by using guerrilla fighting, based on quick raids,

13650-541: Was a Republican for the latter part of his term and was part of a moderately anti-slavery faction. During the 1850s, the Republican Party replaced the Whig Party as the central party against the Democratic Party. By 1856, Fish privately considered himself a Whig although he knew that the Whig Party was no longer viable politically. Fish was a quiet Senator, rather than an orator, who liked to keep to himself. Fish often

13780-427: Was a miscellaneous category filed chronologically. This resulted in a tedious and time-consuming process to make briefings for Congress. Diplomatic ministers, only 23 in 1877, were not kept informed of current world events that took place in other parts of the world. By 1869, Cuban nationals were in open rebellion against their mother country Spain, due to the unpopularity of Spanish rule. American sentiment favored

13910-785: Was a moderate on the question of maintaining or dissolving slavery; he opposed the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery. After traveling to Europe, Fish returned to the United States and supported Abraham Lincoln , the Republican nominee for president in the 1860 U.S. presidential election . During the American Civil War , Fish raised money for the Union war effort and served on Lincoln's presidential commission that made successful arrangements for Union and Confederate troop prisoner exchanges. Fish returned to his law practice after

14040-525: Was a prominent founder of New York, then a Dutch Colony, and his family owned much property in Manhattan. Fish received his primary education at M. Bancel, a private school. In 1827, Fish graduated from Columbia College , having obtained high honors. At Columbia, Fish became fluent in French, a language that would later help him as U.S. Secretary of State. After his graduation, Fish studied law for three years in

14170-532: Was an American politician and statesman who served as the 16th governor of New York from 1849 to 1850, a United States senator from New York from 1851 to 1857, and the 26th U.S. secretary of state from 1869 to 1877. Fish was the most trusted advisor to President Ulysses S. Grant and recognized as the pillar of Grant's presidency . He is considered one of the nation's most effective U.S. secretaries of state by scholars, known for his judiciousness and efforts towards reform and diplomatic moderation. He settled

14300-505: Was appointed chairman of the committee after Dix joined the Union Army. In 1862, President Lincoln appointed Fish and Bishop Edward R. Ames as commissioners to visit Union prisoners in Richmond, Virginia . The Confederate government, however, would not allow them to enter the city. Instead, Fish and Rev. Ames started the prisoner exchange program which continued virtually unchanged throughout

14430-532: Was designed to protect Irish and German immigrants who were dying on merchant ships during oceanic passage to America. The merchants believed that Fish's bill was oppressive to commercial interests over human interests. During his tenure, the nation and Congress were in tremendous political upheaval over slavery, that included violence, disorder, and disturbances of the peace. In 1856, pro-slavery advocates invaded Kansas and used violent tactics against those who were anti-slavery. In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner

14560-542: Was desired by some politicians in both the U.S. and Cuba. After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States, the Antilles and Latin America, "El Partido Revolucionario Cubano" (The Cuban Revolutionary Party) was in a state of pendency and was affected by a growing fear that the U.S. government would try to annex Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain. A new trend of aggressive U.S. "influence"

14690-690: Was elected in May 1847 a judge of the New York Court of Appeals and vacated the office of lieutenant governor. Fish was then in November 1847 elected to fill the vacancy, and was Lieutenant Governor in 1848. Lieut. Gov. Fish had a favorable reputation for being "conciliatory" and for his "firmness" over the New York Senate. In November 1848 , he was elected Governor of New York , defeating John A. Dix and Reuben H. Walworth , and served from January 1, 1849, to December 31, 1850. At 40 years of age, Fish

14820-466: Was established, with Britain having expressed regret over the Alabama damages. On April 11, 1871, a peace-trade conference, presided over by Hamilton Fish, was held in Washington D.C., between Spain and the South American republics of Peru , Chile , Ecuador , and Bolivia , which resulted in an armistice between the countries. These countries had been in a "technical" state of war since 1866, and

14950-510: Was expressed by Secretary of State James G. Blaine 's suggestion that all of Central and South America would some day fall to the U.S.: "That rich island", Blaine wrote on 1 December 1881, "the key to the Gulf of Mexico, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system   ... If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination". Blaine's vision did not allow

15080-679: Was in disagreement with Senator Sumner, who was firmly opposed to slavery and advocated equality for blacks. His policy was to vote for legislation on the side of "justice, economy, and public virtue." He strongly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise . Fish often voted with the Free Soil faction and was strongly against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill . In February 1855, merchants represented by Moses H. Grinnell , criticized Fish's bill on immigration and maritime commerce. Fish's bill

15210-412: Was initially underrated by some statesmen including former Secretaries of State William H. Seward and John Bigelow . Fish, however, immediately took on the responsibilities of his office with diligence, zeal, and intelligence. Fish's tenure as Secretary of State was lengthy, almost eight years, and he had to contend with many foreign policy issues including the Cuban insurrection, the Alabama Claims, and

15340-470: Was it possible to placate him." Fish's 20th Century biographer, A. Elwood Corning, stated that Fish was free from "petty jealousies and prejudices which so often drag the reputation of statesmen down to the level of politicians" and that Fish "used the language and practiced the manners of a gentleman." As an invaluable member of the Grant Administration, Fish commanded "men's confidence, and respect by his firmness, candor, and justice." A survey of scholars in

15470-408: Was killed December 7, 1896, in Havana province while returning from the west. The major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply. Although weapons and funding were sent by Cuban exiles and supporters in the United States, the supply violated U.S. laws. Of 71 supply missions, only 27 got through; 5 were stopped by the Spanish, and 33 by the U.S. Coast Guard . In 1897, the liberation army maintained

15600-423: Was likely something inside the ship, though the cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day. In an attempt to appease the U.S., the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President William McKinley : it ended forced relocation of residents from their homes and offered negotiations with the independence fighters. But the truce was rejected by the rebels. The sinking of

15730-464: Was made, after much negotiation, to establish a Joint Commission to settle the Alabama Claims to be held in Washington under the direction of Hamilton Fish. At stake was the financing of America's debt with British bankers during the Civil War, and peace with Britain was required. On February 14, 1871, both distinguished High Commissioners representing Britain, led by the Earl of Ripon , George Robinson , and

15860-410: Was one of the youngest governors to be elected in New York history. Fish advocated and signed into law free public education facilities throughout New York state. He also advocated and signed into law the building of an asylum and school for the intellectually disabled . During his tenure the canal system in the state of New York was increased. In 1850, Fish recommended that the state legislature form

15990-601: Was revered in the New York community and enjoyed spending time with his family. Fish resided in Glen Clyffe, his estate near Garrison, New York , in Putnam County, New York , in the Hudson River Valley . His health remained good until around 1884, having suffered from neuralgia . On September 6, 1893, Fish had retired from the evening having played cards with his daughter. The following morning on September 7, Fish, at

16120-496: Was run down in neutral waters by the Spanish warship, the Tornado, off of Morant Bay , Jamaica. After being hit, the Virginius took on water and was forced to surrender to the Spanish authorities. The 103 crew members consisted of Cuban rebel recruits and 52 American and British citizens. The Spanish hauled down and trampled the American flag, and brought the prisoners to Santiago. A total of 53 Virginius crew members were executed by

16250-610: Was the Treaty of Washington, peacefully settling the Alabama Claims. Fish also ably handled the Virginus incident, keeping the United States out of war with Spain. Fish, while Secretary of State, lacked empathy for the plight of African Americans, and opposed annexation of Latin American countries. Fish has been traditionally viewed to be one of America's top ranked Secretaries of State by historians. Fish's male descendants would later serve in

16380-511: Was the annexation of the Caribbean island nation of the Dominican Republic, at that time referred to as Santo Domingo, to the United States. Grant believed the annexation of Santo Domingo would increase the United States' mineral resources and alleviate the effects of racism against African Americans in the South. Hamilton Fish, though loyal to Grant, racially opposed annexation of Latin American countries, saying "the incorporation of those peopled by

16510-508: Was the first U.S. Navy officer to die in battle in Korea. The Asiatic Squadron remained on the Han River for three weeks, but the Koreans would not open negotiations for a commercial treaty. As the American squadron left, the Koreans believed that they had won a great victory over the Americans. The attempt to open Korea up to trade was similar to how Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 had approached

16640-420: Was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish–American War, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (Flota de Ultramar). Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa, All the while, major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on June 24, El Caney and San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898, outside Santiago. after which the American advance ground to

16770-401: Was to confine rebel activities to the eastern provinces. The belt was developed along a railroad from Jucaro in the south to Morón in the north. Campos built fortifications along this railroad at various points, and at intervals, 12 meters of posts and 400 meters of barbed wire. In addition, booby traps were placed at locations most likely to be attacked. The rebels believed they had to take

16900-644: Was viciously attacked by Preston Brooks in the Senate Chamber. At the expiration of his term, he traveled with his family to Europe and remained there until shortly before the opening of the American Civil War , when he returned to begin actively campaigning for the election of Abraham Lincoln . While in France, Fish studied foreign policy with diplomats and distinguished Americans, and gained valuable experience that would eventually benefit his tenure as U.S. Secretary of State . Fish had several important roles during

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