The Gallatin Range is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains , located in the U.S. states of Montana and Wyoming . It includes more than 10 mountains over 10,000 feet (3,000 m). The highest peak in the range is Electric Peak at 10,969 feet (3,343 m).
147-581: The Gallatin Range was named after Albert Gallatin , the longest-serving US Secretary of the Treasury . The range extends 75 miles (121 km) north to south and averages 20 miles (32 km) in width. The southernmost peaks of the range are in the northwestern section of Yellowstone National Park . However, the majority of the range is in Gallatin National Forest . The Yellowstone River flows north on
294-411: A "conspiracy of this sort is difficult to document". Whether by design or not, large distillers recognized the advantage that the excise gave them and they supported it. Other aspects of the excise law also caused concern. The law required all stills to be registered, and those cited for failure to pay the tax had to appear in distant federal courts, rather than local courts. The only federal courthouse
441-701: A $ 20 million federal infrastructure program. Among his proposals were canals through Cape Cod , the Delmarva Peninsula , and the Great Dismal Swamp , a road stretching from Maine to Georgia, a series of canals connecting the Hudson River with the Great Lakes , and various other canals to connect seaports like Charleston with interior regions. Resistance from many congressional Democratic-Republicans regarding cost, as well as hostilities with Britain, prevented
588-555: A $ 20 million federal loan program to support fledgling manufacturers. He was also unable to convince Congress to renew the charter of the First Bank of the United States (commonly known as the national bank ). Although the national bank had been established as part of Hamilton's economic program, and Jefferson believed that it was "one of the most deadly hostility existing against the principles and form of our Constitution," Gallatin saw
735-520: A committee to meet with the peace commissioners who had been sent west by President Washington. There, Gallatin presented an eloquent speech in favor of peace and against proposals from Bradford to further revolt. President Washington was confronted with what appeared to be an armed insurrection in western Pennsylvania, and he proceeded cautiously while determined to maintain governmental authority. He did not want to alienate public opinion, so he asked his cabinet for written opinions about how to deal with
882-416: A considerably larger proportion of their product's value than larger Eastern distillers. Less-educated farmers, who in this era were often illiterate , also feared they would be cheated by corrupt tax collectors . Small-scale distillers believed that Hamilton deliberately designed the tax to ruin them and promote big business, a view endorsed by some historians. However, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that
1029-431: A faculty, when discussion grows too warm, of turning off its edge by a joke, which I envy him more than all his other talents; and he has in his character one of the most extraordinary combinations of stubbornness and of flexibility that I ever met with in man. His greatest fault I think to be an ingenuity sometimes trenching upon ingenuousness. After the end of the war, Gallatin negotiated a commercial treaty providing for
1176-587: A final time at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo . Gallatin's patience and skill in dealing with not only the British but also his fellow members of the American commission, including Clay and Adams, made the treaty "the special and peculiar triumph of Mr. Gallatin." John Quincy Adams , head of the American negotiating team, described Gallatin: [H]e seldom yields to an ebullition of temper, and recovers from it immediately. He has
1323-413: A financial system that would promote American prosperity and national unity. In his Report on Public Credit , he urged Congress to consolidate the state and national debts into a single debt that would be funded by the federal government. Congress approved these measures in June and July 1790. A source of government revenue was needed to pay the respectable amount due to the previous bondholders to whom
1470-434: A higher tax per gallon (9 cents), which made them less competitive. The regressive nature of the tax was further compounded by an additional factor: whiskey sold for considerably less on the cash-poor Western frontier than in the wealthier and more populous East. This meant that, even if all distillers had been required to pay the same amount of tax per gallon, the small-scale frontier distillers would still have to remit
1617-559: A letter to Madison, asking for permission to resign and criticizing the president for various actions, including his failure to take a strong stance on the national bank. Shortly afterwards, Madison replaced Secretary of State Smith with James Monroe, and Gallatin withdrew his resignation request. Following the repeal of the Embargo Act of 1807, Gallatin was charged with enforcing the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 , which lifted parts of
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#17328445561041764-451: A military assembly to meet at Braddock's Field , about 8 mi (13 km) east of Pittsburgh. On August 1, about 7,000 people gathered at Braddock's Field. The crowd consisted primarily of poor people who owned no land, and most did not own whiskey stills. The furor over the whiskey excise had unleashed anger about other economic grievances. By this time, the victims of violence were often wealthy property owners who had no connection to
1911-474: A popular referendum must be held to determine if the local people supported the decision. Those who agreed to these terms would be given amnesty from further prosecution. The committee was divided between radicals and moderates, and narrowly passed a resolution agreeing to submit to the government's terms. The popular referendum was held on September 11 and also produced mixed results. Some townships overwhelmingly supported submitting to U.S. law, but opposition to
2058-499: A result, many western counties never had a resident federal tax official. In addition to the whiskey tax, westerners had a number of other grievances with the national government, chief among which was the perception that the government was not adequately protecting the residents living in the western frontier. The Northwest Indian War was going badly for the United States, with major losses in 1791. Furthermore, westerners were prohibited by Spain (which then owned Louisiana) from using
2205-404: A resumption of trade between the United States and Britain. Though the war with Britain had at best been a stalemate, Gallatin was pleased that it resulted in the consolidation of U.S. control over western territories, as the British withdrew their support from dissident Native Americans who had sought to create an independent state in the Great Lakes region . He also noted that "the war has laid
2352-697: A speech advocating against normalizing relations with self-liberated slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue , arguing that if "they were left to govern themselves, they might become more troublesome to us, in our commerce to the West Indies , than the Algerines ever were in the Mediterranean ; they might also become dangerous neighbors to the Southern States , and an asylum for renegades from those parts." In
2499-461: A strain of radical republican thought that originated in England a century earlier, convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils—corruption, legislative impotence, executive tyranny, social inequality, financial speculation, and personal indolence. Not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible, he argued, but Congress would have to ensure against
2646-466: A veteran of the Revolutionary War. Neville had also received reinforcements: 10 U.S. Army soldiers from Pittsburgh under the command of Major Abraham Kirkpatrick, Neville's brother-in-law. Before the rebel force arrived, Kirkpatrick had Neville leave the house and hide in a nearby ravine. David Lenox and General Neville's son Presley Neville also returned to the area, though they could not get into
2793-519: Is also portrayed in the center of the $ 500 denomination set of Greenbacks (series 1862–63) currency issue. Gallatin said "far too much credit has been given me for abilities at the expense of the purity of my motives." Whiskey Rebellion Regular army US Marshals Service The Whiskey Rebellion (also known as the Whiskey Insurrection ) was a violent tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 and ending in 1794 during
2940-468: Is illegal. In addition, visitors should stay on marked and maintained trails. Albert Gallatin Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (January 29, 1761 – August 12, 1849) was a Genevan – American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist . Often described as "America's Swiss Founding Father ", he was a leading figure in the early years of the United States , helping shape
3087-518: The 1808 presidential election . After taking office, Madison sought to appoint Gallatin as Secretary of State, which was generally seen as the most prestigious cabinet position. Opposition from the Senate convinced Madison to retain Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury, and Robert Smith instead received the appointment as Secretary of State. Gallatin was deeply displeased by the appointment of Smith, and he
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#17328445561043234-667: The American Ethnological Society . Gallatin was born in Geneva in present-day Switzerland and spoke French as a first language. Inspired by the ideals of the American Revolution , he immigrated to the United States in the 1780s, settling in western Pennsylvania . He served as a delegate to the 1789 Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention and won election to the Pennsylvania General Assembly . Gallatin
3381-580: The Bureau of Indian Affairs . Gallatin developed a personal relationship with Cherokee tribal leader John Ridge , who provided him with information on the vocabulary and the structure of the Cherokee language . Gallatin's research resulted in two published works: A Table of Indian Languages of the United States (1826) and Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America (1836). His research led him to conclude that
3528-676: The House Ways and Means Committee . He became the chief spokesman on financial matters for the Democratic-Republican Party and led opposition to the Federalist economic program. Gallatin helped Thomas Jefferson prevail in the contentious presidential election of 1800 , and his reputation as a prudent financial manager led to his appointment as Treasury Secretary . Under Jefferson, Gallatin reduced government spending, instituted checks and balances for government expenditures, and financed
3675-646: The Louisiana Purchase . He retained his position through James Madison's administration until February 1814, maintaining much of Hamilton's financial system while presiding over a reduction in the national debt. Gallatin served on the American commission that agreed to the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the War of 1812 . In the aftermath of the war, he helped found the Second Bank of the United States . Declining another term at
3822-688: The Missouri River . The town of Three Forks is in Gallatin County, Montana , and Montana also hosts Gallatin National Forest and Gallatin Range . Gallatin, Tennessee , the seat of Sumner County and Gallatin County, Kentucky are also named for Gallatin. Gallatin's home of Friendship Hill is maintained by the National Park Service . A statue of Gallatin stands at the northern entrance of
3969-500: The Napoleonic Wars . During Jefferson's second term, both the British and French stepped up efforts to prevent American trade with their respective enemy. Particularly offensive to many Americans was the British practice of impressment , in which the British forced captured American sailors to crew British ships. Jefferson sent James Monroe to Britain to negotiate a renewal and revision of the 1795 Jay Treaty , but Jefferson rejected
4116-532: The Newburgh Crisis in 1783, where he conceived of using military force to crush popular resistance to direct taxation in the same vein as the Whiskey Rebellion. Historian S. E. Morison believed that Hamilton, in general, wished to enforce the excise law "more as a measure of social discipline than as a source of revenue". Federal Marshal Lenox delivered most of the writs without incident. On July 15, he
4263-563: The Rush–Bagot Treaty and the Treaty of 1818 , two treaties with Britain that settled several issues left over from the War of 1812 and established joint Anglo-American control over Oregon Country . Upon returning to the United States, Gallatin agreed to serve as William H. Crawford 's running mate in the 1824 presidential election , but later withdrew from the race at Crawford's request. Crawford had originally hoped that Gallatin's presence on
4410-603: The Second Bank of the United States as a replacement for the defunct First Bank of the United States. Gallatin considered going into business with his longtime friend, John Jacob Astor, but ultimately he accepted appointment as ambassador to France . He served in that position from 1816 to 1823. Though he did not approve of the prevailing ideology of the Bourbon Restoration , Gallatin and his family enjoyed living in Paris . While serving as ambassador to France, he helped negotiate
4557-582: The Treasury Building ; a statue of Hamilton stands at the building's southern entrance. The Albert Gallatin Area School District , located in southwestern Fayette County, Pennsylvania, and having contained within Gallatin's home, Friendship Hill, is also named after Gallatin. Businessman Albert Gallatin Edwards (who founded his eponymous brokerage firm in 1887 which folded into Wachovia in 2007)
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4704-757: The United States General Land Office as part of the Department of the Treasury, charging the new office with overseeing public lands. To help develop western lands, Gallatin advocated for internal improvements such as roads and canals, especially those that would connect to territories west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1805, despite his earlier constitutional reservations, Jefferson announced his support for federally financed infrastructure projects. Three years later, Gallatin put forward his Report on Roads and Canals , in which he advocated for
4851-614: The measles before she was eight months old, Sophia and Hannah also died as infants. Gallatin's marriage proved to be politically and economically advantageous, as the Nicholsons enjoyed connections in New York, Georgia, and Maryland. With most of his business ventures unsuccessful, Gallatin sold much of his land, excluding Friendship Hill, to Robert Morris ; he and his wife would instead live in Philadelphia and other coastal cities for most of
4998-462: The presidency of George Washington . The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. The "whiskey tax" became law in 1791, and was intended to generate revenue to pay the war debt incurred during the Revolutionary War. Farmers of the western frontier were accustomed to distilling their surplus rye, barley, wheat, corn, or fermented grain mixtures to make whiskey. These farmers resisted
5145-562: The American Ethnological Society; his studies of Indigenous languages of North America have earned him the moniker "father of American ethnology." Gallatin remained active in public life as an outspoken opponent of slavery and fiscal irresponsibility and an advocate for free trade and individual liberty. Gallatin was born on January 29, 1761, in Geneva , and was until 1785 a citizen of the Republic of Geneva . His parents were
5292-690: The Anglo-American control of Oregon Country, Gallatin returned to the United States in November 1827. Gallatin moved to New York City in 1828 and became president of the National Bank of New York the following year. He attempted to persuade President Jackson to recharter the Second Bank of the United States, but Jackson vetoed a recharter bill and the Second Bank lost its federal charter in 1836. In 1831, Gallatin helped found New York University , and in 1843 he
5439-647: The Democratic-Republican leader in the House of Representatives. During the Quasi-War with France, Gallatin criticized military expenditures and opposed passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts . In the contingent election that decided the outcome of the 1800 presidential election , Gallatin helped Thomas Jefferson secure victory over his ostensible running mate, Aaron Burr . Gallatin's mastery of public finance made him
5586-583: The French Reign of Terror . At Braddock's Field, there was talk of declaring independence from the United States and of joining with Spain or Great Britain. Radicals flew a specially designed flag that proclaimed their independence. The flag had six stripes, one for each county represented at the gathering: the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Bedford , Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland, and Virginia's Ohio County . Pittsburgh citizens helped to defuse
5733-547: The Gallatin Range were buried by volcanic lahars . The lahar deposits sometimes have been reworked and redeposited by small streams. These sediments accumulated approximately 50 million year ago. The U.S. Forest Service has a 2-mile (3.2 km) long interpretive trail which details the petrified trees. In regard to these fossil forests and other fossils, collecting of fossils in Yellowstone National Park
5880-531: The Gallatin Range, the Gallatin Petrified Forest is one of the largest petrified forests of the Eocene Epoch. The petrified wood that comprise it consist of the mineralized fossils of a mixture of transported logs and in place ( in situ ) wooden tree trunks rooted. The in place tree trunks are rooted in moderately developed fossil soils, ( paleosols ). The petrified logs, stumps, and trunks found in
6027-677: The Jefferson cabinet and the last surviving senator from the 18th century. Gallatin is commemorated in the naming of a number of counties, roads, and streets, as well as through his association with New York University. The Gallatin River , named by the Lewis and Clark expedition, is one of three rivers (along with the Jefferson River and the Madison River ) that converge near Three Forks, Montana to form
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6174-541: The Mingo Creek Association dominated the convention and issued radical demands. As some of them had done in the American Revolution, they raised liberty poles , formed committees of correspondence , and took control of the local militia. They created an extralegal court and discouraged lawsuits for debt collection and foreclosures. Hamilton regarded the second Pittsburgh convention as a serious threat to
6321-467: The Mingo Creek Association. From this point on, tax collectors were not the only people targeted in Pennsylvania; those who cooperated with federal tax officials also faced harassment. Anonymous notes and newspaper articles signed by "Tom the Tinker " threatened those who complied with the whiskey tax. Those who failed to heed the warnings might have their barns burned or their stills destroyed. Resistance to
6468-518: The Mississippi River for commercial navigation. Until these issues were addressed, westerners felt that the government was ignoring their security and economic welfare. Adding the whiskey excise to these existing grievances only increased tensions on the frontier. Many residents of the western frontier petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, some western Pennsylvanians organized extralegal conventions to advocate repeal of
6615-694: The Senate. Gallatin was one of two senators to vote against the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution . Gallatin had strongly opposed the 1791 establishment of an excise tax on whiskey , as whiskey trade and production constituted an important part of the Western economy. In 1794, after Gallatin had been removed from the Senate and returned to Friendship Hill, the Whiskey Rebellion broke out among disgruntled farmers opposed to
6762-588: The Third Infantry Regiment of New Jersey troops against the Whiskey Rebellion and wrote about his encounter with Washington: October 3d Marched early in the morning for Harrisburgh [ sic ], where we arrived about 12 O'clock. About 1 O'Clock recd. information of the Presidents approach on which, I had the regiment paraded, timely for his reception, & considerably to my satisfaction. Being afterwards invited to his quarters he made enquiry into
6909-478: The Treasury, Gallatin served as Ambassador to France from 1816 to 1823, struggling with scant success to improve relations during the Bourbon Restoration . In the election of 1824 , Gallatin was nominated for Vice President by the Democratic-Republican Congressional caucus , but never wanted the position and ultimately withdrew due to a lack of popular support. In 1826 and 1827, he served as
7056-478: The Union Address, Washington explained his decision to pardon Mitchell and Wigle. Hamilton and John Jay drafted the address, as they had others, before Washington made the final edit:- "The misled have abandoned their errors," he stated. "For though I shall always think it a sacred duty to exercise with firmness and energy the constitutional powers with which I am vested, yet it appears to me no less consistent with
7203-691: The Union." The rebellion collapsed as the army moved near. In the aftermath of the Whiskey Rebellion, Gallatin won election to the United States House of Representatives , taking his seat in March 1795. Upon his return to Congress, Gallatin became the leading financial expert of the Democratic-Republican Party . In 1796, Gallatin published A Sketch on the Finances of the United States , which discussed
7350-597: The United States, but the company proved unable to attract many settlers. In 1789, Gallatin married Sophie Allègre, the daughter of a Richmond boardinghouse owner, but Allègre died just five months into the marriage. He was in mourning for a number of years and seriously considered returning to Geneva. However, on November 1, 1793, he married Hannah Nicholson, daughter of the well-connected Commodore James Nicholson . They had two sons and four daughters: Catherine, Sophia Albertine, Hannah Maria, Frances, James , and Albert Rolaz Gallatin. Catherine died of whooping cough and
7497-643: The United States, convinced Harvard College to employ Gallatin as a French tutor. Gallatin disliked living in New England , instead preferring to become a farmer in the Trans-Appalachian West, which at that point was the frontier of American settlement. He became the interpreter and business partner of a French land speculator, Jean Savary, and traveled throughout various parts of the United States in order to purchase undeveloped Western lands. In 1785, he became an American citizen after he swore allegiance to
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#17328445561047644-408: The Ways and Means Committee earned him a strong reputation as an expert in finance and taxation. Gallatin won election to the United States Senate in early 1793, and he took his seat in December of that year. He quickly emerged as a prominent opponent of Alexander Hamilton 's economic program but was declared ineligible for a seat in the Senate in February 1794 because he had not been a citizen for
7791-472: The accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures. Shortly after taking office, Gallatin worked with House Ways and Means Committee Chairman John Randolph to reduce federal spending and reduce or abolish all internal taxes, including the tax on whiskey. He presided over dramatic reductions in military spending, particularly for the United States Navy . Despite his opposition to debt, Gallatin strongly supported and arranged
7938-411: The ambassador to Britain and negotiated several agreements, such as a ten-year extension of the joint occupation of Oregon Country . He thereafter retired from politics and dedicated the rest of his life to various civic, humanitarian, and academic causes. He became the first president of the New York branch of the National Bank from 1831 to 1839, and in 1842 joined John Russell Bartlett to establish
8085-477: The angry mob to disguise himself as a slave, flee from his home and swim across the river to safety. The subsequent three-day siege of Morgantown by outsiders and townspeople led state authorities to fear that the events would influence other frontier counties to join the anti-tax movement. The resistance came to a climax in 1794. In May of that year, federal district attorney William Rawle issued subpoenas for more than 60 distillers in Pennsylvania who had not paid
8232-494: The army under the command of the Virginia Governor Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee , a hero of the Revolutionary War. Washington returned to Philadelphia; Hamilton remained with the army as civilian adviser. Daniel Morgan , the victor of the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolution, was called up to lead a force to suppress the protest. It was at this time (1794) that Morgan was promoted to Major General. Serving under General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee , Morgan led one wing of
8379-465: The arrests "... as many as 2,000 of [the rebels]...had fled into the mountains, beyond the reach of the militia. It was a great disappointment to Hamilton, who had hoped to bring rebel leaders such as David Bradford to trial in Philadelphia...and possibly see them hanged for treason . Instead, when the militia at last turned back, out of all the suspects they had seized a mere twenty were selected to serve as examples, They were at worst bit players in
8526-416: The attacks on American shipping. In June 1812, Madison signed a declaration of war against Britain, beginning the War of 1812 . Madison ordered an invasion of Canada by relying on mostly state militias, but British forces defeated the invasion. The U.S. experienced some successes at sea, but was unable to break the British blockade. With the abolition of the national bank, the drop in import duties due to
8673-446: The circumstances of the man [an incident between an "Itinerant Person" and "an Old Soldier" mentioned earlier in the journal (p. 3)] & seemed satisfied with the information. Washington met with the western representatives in Bedford, Pennsylvania on October 9 before going to Fort Cumberland in Maryland to review the southern wing of the army. He was convinced that the federalized militia would meet little resistance, and he placed
8820-458: The country, and Washington and Hamilton believed that they were the source of civic unrest. "Historians are not yet agreed on the exact role of the societies" in the Whiskey Rebellion, wrote historian Mark Spencer in 2003, "but there was a degree of overlap between society membership and the Whiskey Rebels". Before troops could be raised, the Militia Act of 1792 required a justice of the United States Supreme Court to certify that law enforcement
8967-447: The crisis. The cabinet recommended the use of force, except for Secretary of State Edmund Randolph who urged reconciliation. Washington did both: he sent commissioners to meet with the rebels while raising a militia army. Washington privately doubted that the commissioners could accomplish anything, and believed that a military expedition would be needed to suppress further violence. For this reason, historians have sometimes charged that
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#17328445561049114-444: The debt was owed. By December 1790, Hamilton believed that import duties, which were the government's primary source of revenue, had been raised as high as feasible. He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically produced distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national government on a domestic product. The transportation costs per gallon were higher for farmers removed from eastern urban centers, so
9261-489: The east. There were two methods of paying the whiskey excise: paying a flat fee (per still) or paying by the gallon. Large distilleries produced whiskey in volume and could afford the flat fee. The more efficient they became, the less tax per gallon they would pay (as low as 6 cents, according to Hamilton). Western farmers who owned small stills did not typically have either enough time nor enough surplus grain to operate them year-round at full capacity, so they ended up paying
9408-437: The eastern flank of the range. The Madison Range parallels the Gallatins to the west. The northern end of the range is near Livingston, Montana and Bozeman Pass separates the Gallatins from the Bridger Mountains to the north. The range is an integral part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and has grizzly bears , wolves and other threatened and endangered species also found in Yellowstone National Park. Within
9555-400: The excise tax continued through 1793 in the frontier counties of Appalachia. Opposition remained especially strident in western Pennsylvania. In June, Neville was burned in effigy by a crowd of about 100 people in Washington County. On the night of November 22, 1793, men broke into the home of tax collector Benjamin Wells in Fayette County. Wells was, like Neville, one of the wealthier men in
9702-475: The excise tax. Under the law then in effect, distillers who received these writs would be obligated to travel to Philadelphia to appear in federal court. For farmers on the western frontier, such a journey was expensive, time-consuming, and beyond their means. At the urging of William Findley, Congress modified this law on June 5, 1794, allowing excise trials to be held in local state courts. But by that time, U.S. marshal David Lenox had already been sent to serve
9849-537: The excise was essentially an income tax that wealthier easterners did not have to pay. Many of the resisters were war veterans who believed that they were fighting for the principles of the American Revolution , in particular against taxation without local representation , while the federal government maintained that the taxes were the legal expression of Congressional taxation powers. Small-scale farmers also protested that Hamilton's excise effectively gave unfair tax breaks to large distillers, most of whom were based in
9996-444: The federal collection of the whiskey tax. Gallatin did not join in the rebellion, but criticized the military response of the President George Washington 's administration as an overreaction. Gallatin helped persuade many of the angered farmers to end the rebellion, urging them to accept that "if any one part of the Union are suffered to oppose by force the determination of the whole, there is an end to government itself and of course to
10143-409: The financing for the Louisiana Purchase , in which the U.S. bought French Louisiana . Both Jefferson and Gallatin regarded control of the port of New Orleans , which was ceded in the purchase, as the key to the development of the Western United States. Jefferson had doubts about the constitutionality of the purchase, but Gallatin helped convince the president that a constitutional amendment authorizing
10290-449: The foundation of permanent taxes and military establishments...under our former system we were becoming too selfish, too much attached exclusively to the acquisition of wealth...[and] too much confined in our political feelings to local and State objects." When Gallatin returned from Europe in September 1815, he declined Madison's request to take up his old post as Secretary of the Treasury. He did, however, help convince Congress to charter
10437-496: The government remained strong in areas where poor and landless people predominated. On September 24, 1794, Washington received a recommendation from the commissioners that in their judgment, "(it was) ... necessary that the civil authority should be aided by a military force in order to secure a due execution of the laws..." On September 25, Washington issued a proclamation summoning the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia militias into service and warned that anyone who aided
10584-449: The hope of future negotiations, Gallatin was replaced as Secretary of the Treasury by George W. Campbell , with the expectation that Gallatin would take up his old post upon his return to the United States. Negotiations with the British finally commenced in Ghent in mid-1814. Negotiations at Ghent lasted for four months. The British could have chosen to shift resources to North America after
10731-420: The house and were captured by the rebels. Following some fruitless negotiations, the women and children were allowed to leave the house, and then both sides began firing. After about an hour, McFarlane called a ceasefire; according to some, a white flag had been waved in the house. As McFarlane stepped into the open, a shot rang out from the house, and he fell mortally wounded. The enraged rebels then set fire to
10878-440: The house, including the slave quarters, and Kirkpatrick surrendered. The number of casualties at Bower Hill is unclear; McFarlane and one or two other militiamen were killed; one U.S. soldier may have died from wounds received in the fight. The rebels sent the U.S. soldiers away. Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Presley Neville were kept as prisoners, but they later escaped. McFarlane was given a hero's funeral on July 18. His "murder", as
11025-637: The indictment of 24 men for high treason . Most of the accused had eluded capture, so only ten men stood trial for treason in federal court. Of these, only Philip Wigle and John Mitchell were convicted. Wigle had beaten up a tax collector and burned his house; Mitchell was a simpleton who had been convinced by David Bradford to rob the U.S. mail. These, the only two convicted of treason and sentenced to death by hanging, were later pardoned by President Washington . Pennsylvania state courts were more successful in prosecuting lawbreakers, securing numerous convictions for assault and rioting. In his seventh State of
11172-406: The insurgents did so at their own peril. The trend was towards submission, however, and westerners dispatched representatives William Findley and David Redick to meet with Washington and to halt the progress of the oncoming army. Washington and Hamilton declined, arguing that violence was likely to re-emerge if the army turned back. Under the authority of the recently passed federal militia law,
11319-520: The killing so vigorously that he was "put under guard"). President Washington ordered the arrest of the two soldiers and had them turned over to civilian authorities. A state judge determined that the deaths had been accidental, and the soldiers were released. Washington left Philadelphia (which at that time was the capital of the United States) on September 30 to review the progress of the military expedition. According to historian Joseph Ellis , this
11466-681: The languages of the Native Americans, he has been called "the father of American ethnology." The health of both Gallatin and his wife declined in the late 1840s, and Hannah died in May 1849. On Sunday, August 12, Gallatin died in Astoria , now in the Borough of Queens, New York at age 88. He is interred at Trinity Churchyard in New York City. Prior to his death, Gallatin had been the last surviving member of
11613-572: The law. Opposition to the tax was particularly prevalent in four southwestern counties: Allegheny , Fayette , Washington , and Westmoreland . A preliminary meeting held on July 27, 1791, at Redstone Old Fort in Fayette County called for the selection of delegates to a more formal assembly, which convened in Pittsburgh in early September 1791. The Pittsburgh convention was dominated by moderates such as Hugh Henry Brackenridge , who hoped to prevent
11760-480: The least objectionable tax that the government could levy. In this, he had the support of some social reformers, who hoped that a " sin tax " would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. The whiskey excise act , sometimes known as the "Whiskey Act", became law in March 1791. George Washington defined the revenue districts, appointed the revenue supervisors and inspectors, and set their pay in November 1791. The population of Western Pennsylvania
11907-713: The militia army into Western Pennsylvania . The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis . The insurrection collapsed as the federal army marched west into western Pennsylvania in October 1794. The army encountered no resistance. Upon arriving in Western Pennsylvania, Lee prepared to arrest rebel leaders. With little regard for due process, troops carried out raids on
12054-467: The mountains than the more cumbersome grain. A whiskey tax would make western farmers less competitive with eastern grain producers. Additionally, cash, which at this time consisted of specie (gold and silver coins), was always in short supply on the frontier, nevertheless the law explicitly stipulated the tax could only be paid in specie. In lieu of specie, whiskey often served as a medium of exchange , which for poorer people who were paid in whiskey meant
12201-448: The national bank as a key part of the country's financial system. In a letter to Jefferson, Gallatin argued that the bank was indispensable because it served as a place of deposit for government funds, a source of credit, and a regulator of currency. In January 1811, the national bank was effectively abolished after the House and the Senate both defeated bills to recharter the national bank in extremely narrow votes. In response, Gallatin sent
12348-448: The national capital was then located in the same state. On his own initiative, Hamilton drafted a presidential proclamation denouncing resistance to the excise laws and submitted it to Attorney General Randolph, who toned down some of the language. Washington signed the proclamation on September 15, 1792, and it was published as a broadsheet and printed in many newspapers. Federal tax inspector for western Pennsylvania General John Neville
12495-452: The natives of North and South America were linguistically and culturally related and that their common ancestors had migrated from Asia in prehistoric times. Later research efforts included examination of the language of certain native societies in Mexico and Central America. In 1843, he co-founded the American Ethnological Society , serving as the society's first president. Due to his studies of
12642-474: The new administration sought to lower taxation (though not import duties), spending, and the national debt ; debt reduction in particular had long been a key goal of the party and Gallatin himself. When Gallatin took office in 1801, the national debt stood at $ 83 million. By 1812, the U.S. national debt had fallen to $ 45.2 million. One historian said of Gallatin: His own fears of personal dependency and his small-shopkeeper's sense of integrity, both reinforced by
12789-479: The new excise law was still unsatisfactory to many westerners. Appeals to nonviolent resistance were unsuccessful. On September 11, 1791, a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. A man sent by officials to serve court warrants to Johnson's attackers was whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks,
12936-472: The new national government had the will and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws, though the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States , a process already under way. The whiskey tax was repealed in the early 1800s during the Jefferson administration . A new U.S. federal government began operating in 1789, following
13083-431: The new republic's financial system and foreign policy. Gallatin was a prominent member of the Democratic-Republican Party , represented Pennsylvania in both chambers of Congress , and held several influential roles across four presidencies, most notably as the longest serving U.S. Secretary of the Treasury . He is also known for his contributions to academia, namely as the founder of New York University and cofounder of
13230-701: The next day, traveling the intervening thirty miles by horseback. Bored with monotonous Bostonian life, Gallatin and Serre set sail with a Swiss female companion to the settlement of Machias , located on the northeastern tip of the Maine frontier. At Machias, Gallatin operated a bartering venture, in which he dealt with a variety of goods and supplies. He enjoyed the simple life and the natural environment surrounding him. Gallatin and Serre returned to Boston in October 1781 after abandoning their bartering venture in Machias. Friends of Pictet, who had learned that Gallatin had traveled to
13377-515: The night of November 13, breaking into houses and rousing suspects from their beds. No distinction was made between rebels and witnesses. Captives were driven, in their nightclothes and barefoot, over muddy roads and streams, to be held in floorless animal pens and basements. Some had their health ruined, and at least one died. The night was remembered locally as "the Dreadful Night" for years. About 150 persons were arrested. Immediately before
13524-472: The obvious choice as Jefferson 's Secretary of the Treasury ; as Jefferson put it, Gallatin was "the only man in the United States who understands, through all the labyrinths Hamilton involved it, the precise state of the Treasury." Gallatin received a recess appointment in May 1801 and was confirmed by the Senate in January 1802. Along with Secretary of State Madison and Jefferson himself, Gallatin became one of
13671-553: The operation of the laws of the federal government. In September 1792, he sent Pennsylvania tax official George Clymer to western Pennsylvania to investigate. Clymer only increased tensions with a clumsy attempt at traveling in disguise and attempting to intimidate local officials. His somewhat exaggerated report greatly influenced the decisions made by the Washington administration. Washington and Hamilton viewed resistance to federal laws in Pennsylvania as particularly embarrassing, since
13818-595: The operations of the Treasury Department and strongly attacked the Federalist Party 's financial program. Some historians and biographers believe that Gallatin founded the House Ways and Means Committee in order to check Hamilton's influence over financial issues, but historian Patrick Furlong argues that Hamilton's Federalist allies were actually responsible for founding the committee. After James Madison declined to seek re-election in 1796, Gallatin emerged as
13965-463: The outbreak of violence. The convention sent a petition for redress of grievances to the Pennsylvania Assembly and the U.S. House of Representatives, both located in Philadelphia . As a result of this and other petitions, the excise law was modified in May 1792. Changes included a 1-cent reduction in the tax that was advocated by William Findley , a congressman from western Pennsylvania, but
14112-627: The passage of a major infrastructure bill, but Gallatin did win funding for the construction of the National Road . The National Road linked the town of Cumberland , on the Potomac River , with the town of Wheeling , which sat on the Ohio River . Many of Gallatin's other proposals were eventually carried out years later by state and local governments, as well as private citizens. Throughout much of Jefferson's presidency, France and Britain engaged in
14259-615: The peace commission was sent only for the sake of appearances, and that the use of force was never in doubt. Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick argued that the military expedition was "itself a part of the reconciliation process", since a show of overwhelming force would make further violence less likely. Meanwhile, Hamilton began publishing essays under the name of "Tully" in Philadelphia newspapers, denouncing mob violence in western Pennsylvania and advocating military action. Democratic-Republican Societies had been formed throughout
14406-420: The per-gallon profit was reduced disproportionately by the per-gallon tax on distillation of domestic alcohol such as whiskey. The tax applied to all distilled spirits, but consumption of American whiskey was rapidly expanding in the late 18th century, so the excise became widely known as a "whiskey tax". Taxes were politically unpopular, and Hamilton believed that the whiskey excise was a luxury tax and would be
14553-607: The physical and the moral world. The democratic spirit of the United States attracted him and he decided to emigrate. In April 1780, Gallatin secretly left Geneva with his classmate Henri Serre. Carrying letters of recommendation from eminent Americans (including Benjamin Franklin ) that the Gallatin family procured, the young men left France in May, sailing on an American ship, "the Kattie". They reached Cape Ann on July 14 and arrived in Boston
14700-448: The public good than it is with my personal feelings to mingle in the operations of Government every degree of moderation and tenderness which the national justice, dignity, and safety may permit." While violent opposition to the whiskey tax ended, opposition to the tax continued. Most distillers in nearby Kentucky were found to be all but impossible to tax—in the next six years, over 175 distillers from Kentucky were convicted of violating
14847-634: The purchase was impractical and unnecessary. Gallatin also championed and helped plan the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore lands west of the Mississippi River . Before and after the Louisiana Purchase, Gallatin presided over a major expansion of public land sales. With the goal of selling land directly to settlers rather than to land speculators, Gallatin increased the number of federal land offices from four to eighteen. In 1812, Congress established
14994-528: The ratification of the United States Constitution. The previous central government under the Articles of Confederation had been unable to levy taxes; it had borrowed money to meet expenses and fund the Revolutionary War, accumulating $ 54 million in debt. The state governments had amassed an additional $ 25 million in debt. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton sought to use this debt to create
15141-429: The rebels saw it, further radicalized the countryside. Moderates such as Brackenridge were hard-pressed to restrain the populace. Radical leaders emerged, such as David Bradford , urging violent resistance. On July 26, a group headed by Bradford robbed the U.S. mail as it left Pittsburgh, hoping to discover who in that town opposed them and finding several letters that condemned the rebels. Bradford and his band called for
15288-541: The rebels, while at the same time calling on governors to send a militia force to enforce the tax. Washington himself rode at the head of an army to suppress the insurgency, with 13,000 militiamen provided by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The leaders of the rebels all fled before the arrival of the army, and there was no confrontation. About 150 men were arrested, but only 20 held for trial in Philadelphia, and only two were convicted (eventually pardoned). The Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated that
15435-511: The region. At gunpoint, the intruders forced him to surrender his commission. President Washington offered a reward for the arrest of the assailants, to no avail. In addition to the unrest in Fayette county, on August 9, 1794, 30 men surrounded the house of William McCleery, the local tax collector in Morgantown, Virginia , as retaliation for the new whiskey taxes. McCleery felt threatened enough by
15582-452: The required nine years prior to election. The dispute itself had important ramifications. At the time, the Senate held closed sessions. However, with the American Revolution only a decade ended, the senators were leery of anything which might hint that they intended to establish an aristocracy, so they opened up their chamber for the first time for the debate over whether to unseat Gallatin. Soon after, open sessions became standard procedure for
15729-588: The rest of their lives. In 1788, Gallatin was elected as a delegate to a state convention to discuss possible revisions to the United States Constitution . In the next two years, he served as a delegate to a state constitutional convention and won election to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . As a public official, he aligned with Anti-Federalists and spent much of his time in the state and national capital of Philadelphia. His service on
15876-633: The scenes of armed draft resistance. In Maryland, Governor Thomas Sim Lee sent 800 men to quash an anti-draft riot in Hagerstown ; about 150 people were arrested. Liberty poles were raised in various places as the militia was recruited, worrying federal officials. A liberty pole was raised in Carlisle, Pennsylvania on September 11, 1794. The federalized militia arrived in that town later that month and rounded up suspected pole-raisers. Two civilians were killed in these operations. On September 29, an unarmed boy
16023-597: The six counties, held at Parkinson's Ferry (now known as Whiskey Point) in present-day Monongahela . The convention considered resolutions that were drafted by Brackenridge, Gallatin, David Bradford, and an eccentric preacher named Herman Husband , a delegate from Bedford County. Husband was a well-known local figure and a radical champion of democracy who had taken part in the Regulator movement in North Carolina 25 years earlier. The Parkinson's Ferry convention also appointed
16170-410: The speech, Gallatin also expressed opposition to miscegenation . Hofstra University professor Alan Singer argued based on this speech that Gallatin "was certainly not an abolitionist " and that "his claims to oppose slavery can also be read as racist attacks on the humanity of Africans, which was not uncommon among Whites during the antebellum era . With Gallatin taking charge of fiscal policy,
16317-556: The state militias were called up by the governors of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The federalized militia force of 12,950 men was a large army by American standards of the time, comparable to Washington's armies during the Revolution. Relatively few men volunteered for militia service, so a draft was used to fill out the ranks. Draft evasion was widespread, and conscription efforts resulted in protests and riots, even in eastern areas. Three counties in eastern Virginia were
16464-539: The state of Virginia , fulfilling the requirements of citizenship as established under Article IV of the Articles of Confederation . Gallatin inherited a significant sum of money the following year, and he used that money to purchase a 400-acre plot of land in Fayette County, Pennsylvania . He built a stone house named Friendship Hill on the new property. Gallatin co-founded a company designed to attract Swiss settlers to
16611-477: The surrender of the federal marshal, whom they believed to be inside. Neville responded by firing a gunshot that mortally wounded Oliver Miller, one of the rebels. The rebels opened fire but were unable to dislodge Neville, who had his slaves' help to defend the house. The rebels retreated to nearby Couch's Fort to gather reinforcements. The next day, the rebels returned to Bower Hill. Their force had swelled to nearly 600 men, now commanded by Major James McFarlane,
16758-522: The tax law. Numerous examples of resistance are recorded in court documents and newspaper accounts. Opponents of internal taxes rallied around the candidacy of Thomas Jefferson and helped him defeat President John Adams in the election of 1800 . By 1802, Congress repealed the distilled spirits excise tax and all other internal Federal taxes. Until the War of 1812 , the Federal government would rely solely on import tariffs for revenue, which quickly grew with
16905-433: The tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution . Supporters of the excise argued that there was a difference between taxation without representation in colonial America, and a tax laid by the elected representatives of the American people. Older accounts of the Whiskey Rebellion portrayed it as being confined to western Pennsylvania, yet there
17052-552: The tax. Throughout western Pennsylvania counties, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the tax. Resistance came to a climax in July 1794, when a US marshal arrived in western Pennsylvania to serve writs to distillers who had not paid the excise. The alarm was raised, and more than 500 armed men attacked the fortified home of tax inspector John Neville . Washington responded by sending peace commissioners to western Pennsylvania to negotiate with
17199-525: The temporary defeat of Napoleon in April 1814, but, as Gallatin learned from Alexander Baring , many in Britain were tired of fighting. In December 1814, the two sides agreed to sign the Treaty of Ghent , which essentially represented a return to the status quo ante bellum . The treaty did not address the issue of impressment, but that issue became a moot point after the British and their allies defeated Napoleon for
17346-414: The threat by banishing three men whose intercepted letters had given offense to the rebels, and by sending a delegation to Braddock's Field that expressed support for the gathering. Brackenridge prevailed upon the crowd to limit the protest to a defiant march through the town. In Pittsburgh, Major Kirkpatrick's barns were burned, but nothing else. A convention was held on August 14, 226 whiskey rebels from
17493-511: The three key officials in the Jefferson administration. As Jefferson and Madison spent the majority of the summer months at their respective estates, Gallatin was frequently left to preside over the operations of the federal government. He also acted as a moderating force on Jefferson's speeches and policies, in one case convincing Jefferson to refrain from calling for the abolition of the General Welfare Clause . In 1799, Gallatin made
17640-410: The ticket would help him win the support of Pennsylvania voters, but the emergence of General Andrew Jackson as a presidential contender caused Crawford to refocus his campaign on other states. Though Gallatin had never wanted the role, he was humiliated when he was forced to withdraw from the race. He was alarmed at the possibility Jackson might win, as he saw Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of
17787-563: The trade embargo but still prevented American ships from engaging in trade with the British and French empires. In 1811, Congress replaced the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 with a law known as Macon's Bill Number 2 , which authorized the president to restore trade with either France or Britain if either promised to respect American neutrality. As with previous embargo policies pursued by the federal government under Jefferson and Madison, Macon's Bill Number 2 proved to be ineffective at halting
17934-426: The treasury secretary had deliberately provoked the uprising by issuing the subpoenas just before the law was made less onerous. In 1963, historian Jacob Cooke, an editor of Hamilton's papers, regarded this charge as "preposterous", calling it a "conspiracy thesis" that overstated Hamilton's control of the federal government. In 1986, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that the outbreak of the insurrection at this moment
18081-464: The treaty that Monroe reached with the British. After the 1807 Chesapeake – Leopard affair , Jefferson proposed, over Gallatin's strong objections, what would become the Embargo Act of 1807 . That act forbade all American ships from engaging in almost all foreign trade, and it remained in place until its repeal in the final days of Jefferson's presidency. Despite Gallatin's objection to the embargo, he
18228-515: The uprising, but they were better than nothing." The captured participants and the Federal militia arrived in Philadelphia on Christmas Day. Some artillery was fired and church bells were heard as "... a huge throng lined Broad Street to cheer the troops and mock the rebels ... [Presley] Neville said he 'could not help feeling sorry for them. The captured rebels were paraded down Broad Street being 'humiliated, bedraggled, [and] half-starved ...' " Other accounts describe
18375-403: The war, and the inability or unwillingness of state banks to furnish credit, Gallatin struggled to fund the war. Reluctantly, he drafted and won passage of several new tax laws, as well as an increase in tariff rates. He also sold U.S. securities to investors, and an infusion of cash from wealthy investors Stephen Girard , John Jacob Astor , and David Parish proved critical to the financing of
18522-594: The war. During the War of 1812, the national debt grew dramatically, going from $ 45 million in early 1812 to $ 127 million in January 1816. In 1813, President James Madison sent Gallatin to St. Petersburg , Russia to serve as a negotiator for a peace agreement to end the War of 1812. He was one of five American commissioners who would negotiate the treaty, serving alongside Henry Clay , James Bayard , Jonathan Russell , and John Quincy Adams . Efforts at starting negotiations in Russia quickly collapsed. While waiting abroad in
18669-507: The wealthy Jean Gallatin and his wife Sophie Albertine Rollaz. Gallatin's family had great influence in the Republic of Geneva, and many family members held distinguished positions in the magistracy and the army. Jean Gallatin, a prosperous merchant, died in 1765, followed by Sophie in April 1770. Now orphaned, Gallatin was taken into the care of Mademoiselle Pictet, a family friend and distant relative of Gallatin's father. In January 1773, Gallatin
18816-479: The west, all of them Pennsylvanians: Attorney General William Bradford , Justice Jasper Yeates of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, and Senator James Ross . Beginning on August 21, the commissioners met with a committee of westerners that included Brackenridge and Gallatin. The government commissioners told the committee that it must unanimously agree to renounce violence and submit to U.S. laws and that
18963-458: The whiskey tax. Some of the most radical protesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh, which they called " Sodom ", loot the homes of the wealthy, and then burn the town to the ground. Others wanted to attack Fort Fayette . There was praise for the French Revolution and calls for bringing the guillotine to America. David Bradford, it was said, was comparing himself to Robespierre , a leader of
19110-511: The worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, altogether unfit for the office." Ultimately, John Quincy Adams won the 1824 presidential election in a contingent election held in the House of Representatives. Gallatin and his wife returned to Friendship Hill after the presidential election, living there until 1826. That year, Gallatin accepted appointment as ambassador to Britain . After negotiating an extension of
19257-419: The writs summoning delinquent distillers to Philadelphia. Attorney General William Bradford later maintained that the writs were meant to compel compliance with the law, and that the government did not actually intend to hold trials in Philadelphia. The timing of these events later proved to be controversial. Findley was a bitter political foe of Hamilton, and he maintained in his book on the insurrection that
19404-498: Was "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field". Along the way he traveled to Reading, Pennsylvania on his way to meet up with the rest of the militia he ordered mobilized at Carlisle . On the second of October, Washington left Reading, Pennsylvania heading west to Womelsdorf in order to "view the ( Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company ) canal...". Revolutionary war and Siege of Yorktown veteran, Colonel Jonathan Forman (1755–1809) led
19551-499: Was 75,000 in 1790. Among the farmers in the region, the whiskey excise was immediately controversial, with many people on the frontier arguing that it unfairly targeted westerners. Whiskey was a popular drink, and farmers often supplemented their incomes by operating small stills . Farmers living west of the Appalachian Mountains distilled their excess grain into whiskey, which was easier and more profitable to transport over
19698-472: Was beyond the control of local authorities. On August 4, 1794, Justice James Wilson delivered his opinion that western Pennsylvania was in a state of rebellion. On August 7, Washington issued a presidential proclamation announcing, with "the deepest regret", that the militia would be called out to suppress the rebellion. He commanded insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse by September 1. In early August 1794, Washington dispatched three commissioners to
19845-401: Was determined to enforce the excise law. He was a prominent politician and wealthy planter—and also a large-scale distiller. He had initially opposed the whiskey tax, but subsequently changed his mind, a reversal that angered some western Pennsylvanians. In August 1792, Neville rented a room in Pittsburgh for his tax office, but the landlord turned him out after being threatened with violence by
19992-446: Was due to "a string of ironic coincidences", although "the question about motives must always remain". In 2006, William Hogeland, who is generally critical of Hamilton's role in American history, argued that Hamilton, Bradford, and Rawle intentionally pursued a course of action that would provoke "the kind of violence that would justify federal military suppression". Hogeland claimed that Hamilton had been working towards this moment since
20139-695: Was elected president of the New York Historical Society . In the mid-1840s, he opposed President James K. Polk 's expansionist policies and wrote a widely-read pamphlet, Peace with Mexico , that called for an end to the Mexican–American War . Gallatin was deeply interested in Native Americans, and he favored their assimilation into European-American culture as an alternative to forced relocation . He drew upon government contacts to research Native Americans, gathering information through Lewis Cass , explorer William Clark, and Thomas McKenney of
20286-568: Was elected to the United States Senate in 1793, emerging as a leading Anti-Federalist and opponent of Alexander Hamilton 's economic policies. However, he was soon removed from office on a party-line vote due to not meeting requisite citizenship requirements; returning to Pennsylvania, Gallatin helped calm many angry farmers during the Whiskey Rebellion . Gallatin won election to the House of Representatives in 1795, where he helped establish
20433-450: Was frequently criticized by Smith's brother, Senator Samuel Smith , as well as journalist William Duane of the influential Philadelphia Aurora . He considered resigning from government service, but Madison convinced him to stay on as a key cabinet official and adviser. In 1810, Gallatin published Report on the Subject of Manufactures , in which he unsuccessfully urged Congress to create
20580-504: Was in Philadelphia, some 300 miles (480 km) away from the small frontier settlement of Pittsburgh. From the beginning, the federal government had little success in collecting the whiskey tax along the frontier. Many small western distillers simply refused to pay the tax. Federal revenue officers and local residents who assisted them bore the brunt of the protesters' ire. Tax rebels harassed several whiskey tax collectors and threatened or beat those who offered them office space or housing. As
20727-490: Was insufficient evidence to legally justify such a reaction. In August 1792, a second convention was held in Pittsburgh to discuss resistance to the whiskey tax. This meeting was more radical than the first convention; moderates such as Brackenridge and Findley were not in attendance. Future Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was one moderate who did attend, to his later regret. A militant group known as
20874-507: Was joined on his rounds by General Neville, who had offered to act as his guide in Allegheny County. That evening, warning shots were fired at the men at the Miller farm , about 10 mi (16 km) south of Pittsburgh. Neville returned home while Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh. On July 16, at least 30 Mingo Creek militiamen surrounded Neville's fortified home of Bower Hill. They demanded
21021-558: Was named after Gallatin. Gallatin's name is associated with NYU's Gallatin School of Individualized Study . New York University 's internal course enrollment website for matriculating students is named "NYU Albert", after Gallatin. In 1791, Gallatin was elected to the American Philosophical Society . Gallatin is featured on three U.S. stamps, including one issued in 1967 with the unusual denomination of 1¼¢. Gallatin
21168-524: Was opposition to the whiskey tax in the western counties of every other state in Appalachia (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia). The whiskey tax went uncollected throughout the frontier state of Kentucky, where no one could be convinced to enforce the law or prosecute evaders. In 1792, Hamilton advocated military action to suppress violent resistance in western North Carolina, but Attorney General Edmund Randolph argued that there
21315-561: Was sent to study at the elite Academy of Geneva . While attending the academy, Gallatin read deeply the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire , along with the French Physiocrats ; he became dissatisfied with the traditionalism of Geneva. A student of the Enlightenment , he believed in the nobility of human nature and that when freed from social restrictions, it would display admirable qualities and greater results in both
21462-473: Was shot by an officer whose pistol accidentally fired. Two days later, an "Itinerant Person" was "Bayoneted" to death by a soldier while resisting arrest (the man had tried to wrest the rifle from the soldier he confronted; it is possible he had been a member of a 500-strong Irish work crew nearby who were "digging, a canal into the Sculkill" [ sic ]; at least one of that work gang's members protested
21609-457: Was tasked with enforcing it against smugglers, who were able to evade the embargo in various ways. The embargo proved ineffective at accomplishing its intended purpose of punishing Britain and France, and it contributed to growing dissent in New England against the Jefferson administration. Overcoming Jefferson's declining popularity and the resentment at the embargo, Secretary of State Madison won
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