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98-512: The company started as a manufacturer of photographic films , which it still produces. Fujifilm products include document solutions, medical imaging and diagnostics equipment, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs , regenerative medicine , stem cells , biologics manufacturing , magnetic tape data storage , optical films for flat-panel displays , optical devices , photocopiers, printers, digital cameras, color films , color paper, photofinishing and graphic arts equipment and materials. Fujifilm

196-517: A hard disk drive , which provides direct access storage. A disk drive can move to any position on the disk in a few milliseconds, but a tape drive must physically wind tape between reels to read any one particular piece of data. As a result, tape drives have very large average access times . However, tape drives can stream data very quickly off a tape when the required position has been reached. For example, as of 2017 Linear Tape-Open (LTO) supports continuous data transfer rates of up to 360 MB/s,

294-428: A PET (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic film base. Films with a triacetate base can suffer from vinegar syndrome , a decomposition process accelerated by warm and humid conditions, that releases acetic acid which is the characteristic component of vinegar, imparting the film a strong vinegar smell, accelerating damage within the film and possibly even damaging surrounding metal and films. Films are usually spliced using

392-419: A US$ 928 million investment to a Denmark -based biologics production facility, which it acquired from Biogen a year earlier for around US$ 890 million, to double the manufacturing capacity. A tape cartridge using strontium ferrite that could store up to 400 TB was showcased by Fujifilm in the late same month. Fuji Xerox was a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. After

490-447: A certain filter, assume ISO 25 under daylight and ISO 64 under tungsten lighting"). This allows a light meter to be used to estimate an exposure. The focal point for IR is slightly farther away from the camera than visible light, and UV slightly closer; this must be compensated for when focusing. Apochromatic lenses are sometimes recommended due to their improved focusing across the spectrum. Film optimized for detecting X-ray radiation

588-419: A color film, the by-products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development. Following development,

686-408: A complex development process, with multiple dyeing steps as each color layer was processed separately. 1936 also saw the launch of Agfa Color Neu, the first subtractive three-color reversal film for movie and still camera use to incorporate color dye couplers, which could be processed at the same time by a single color developer. The film had some 278 patents. The incorporation of color couplers formed

784-537: A computer with SCSI , Fibre Channel , SATA , USB , FireWire , FICON , or other interfaces. Tape drives are used with autoloaders and tape libraries which automatically load, unload, and store multiple tapes, increasing the volume of data that can be stored without manual intervention. In the early days of home computing , floppy and hard disk drives were very expensive. Many computers had an interface to store data via an audio tape recorder , typically on Compact Cassettes . Simple dedicated tape drives, such as

882-424: A faster film. A film with a particular ISO rating can be push-processed , or "pushed", to behave like a film with a higher ISO, by developing for a longer amount of time or at a higher temperature than usual. More rarely, a film can be "pulled" to behave like a "slower" film. Pushing generally coarsens grain and increases contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the detriment of overall quality. Nevertheless, it can be

980-435: A feature that was eventually adapted by all camera and film manufacturers. DX encoding provides information on both the film cassette and on the film regarding the type of film, number of exposures, speed (ISO/ASA rating) of the film. It consists of three types of identification. First is a barcode near the film opening of the cassette, identifying the manufacturer, film type and processing method ( see image below left ). This

1078-465: A few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was completed for X-ray films in 1933, but although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm films until it was finally discontinued in 1951. Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on

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1176-521: A linear response through the effective exposure range). The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&;D curve to the left or right ( see figure ). If parts of the image are exposed heavily enough to approach the maximum density possible for a print film, then they will begin losing the ability to show tonal variations in

1274-462: A number of disadvantages as a scientific detector: it is difficult to calibrate for photometry , it is not re-usable, it requires careful handling (including temperature and humidity control) for best calibration, and the film must physically be returned to the laboratory and processed. Against this, photographic film can be made with a higher spatial resolution than any other type of imaging detector, and, because of its logarithmic response to light, has

1372-451: A rate comparable to hard disk drives. Magnetic-tape drives with capacities of less than one megabyte were first used for data storage on mainframe computers in the 1950s. As of 2018 , capacities of 20 terabytes or higher of uncompressed data per cartridge were available. In early computer systems, magnetic tape served as the main storage medium because although the drives were expensive, the tapes were inexpensive. Some computer systems ran

1470-571: A result, the relative tonal values in a scene registered roughly as they would appear if viewed through a piece of deep blue glass. Blue skies with interesting cloud formations photographed as a white blank. Any detail visible in masses of green foliage was due mainly to the colorless surface gloss. Bright yellows and reds appeared nearly black. Most skin tones came out unnaturally dark, and uneven or freckled complexions were exaggerated. Photographers sometimes compensated by adding in skies from separate negatives that had been exposed and processed to optimize

1568-433: A single color of light and allow all others to pass through. Because of these colored couplers, the developed film appears orange. Colored couplers mean that corrections through color filters need to be applied to the image before printing. Printing can be carried out by using an optical enlarger, or by scanning the image, correcting it using software and printing it using a digital printer. Kodachrome films have no couplers;

1666-467: A single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and density is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have

1764-430: A special adhesive tape; those with PET layers can be ultrasonically spliced or their ends melted and then spliced. The emulsion layers of films are made by dissolving pure silver in nitric acid to form silver nitrate crystals, which are mixed with other chemicals to form silver halide grains, which are then suspended in gelatin and applied to the film base. The size and hence the light sensitivity of these grains determines

1862-537: A tape with a capacity of 80 GB would be sold as "80/160". The true storage capacity is also known as the native capacity or the raw capacity. The compression ratio actually achievable depends on the data being compressed. Some data has little redundancy; large video files, for example, already use compression and cannot be compressed further. A database with repetitive entries, on the other hand, may allow compression ratios better than 10:1. A disadvantageous effect termed shoe-shining occurs during read/write if

1960-464: A triangle with or without clipped edges; this type of crystal is known as a T-grain crystal or a tabular grain (T-grains). Films using T-grains are more sensitive to light without using more silver halide since they increase the surface area exposed to light by making the crystals flatter and larger in footprint instead of simply increasing their volume. T-grains can also have a hexagonal shape. These grains also have reduced sensitivity to blue light which

2058-702: A type of protection racket bribe, to Yakuza. In retaliation he was murdered in front of his home by Yakuza. In May 1995, Kodak filed a petition with the US Commerce Department under section 301 of the Commerce Act arguing that its poor performance in the Japanese market was a direct result of unfair practices adopted by Fuji. The complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30, 1998,

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2156-870: A useful tradeoff in difficult shooting environments, if the alternative is no usable shot at all. Instant photography, as popularized by Polaroid , uses a special type of camera and film that automates and integrates development, without the need of further equipment or chemicals. This process is carried out immediately after exposure, as opposed to regular film, which is developed afterwards and requires additional chemicals. See instant film . Films can be made to record non- visible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. These films generally require special equipment; for example, most photographic lenses are made of glass and will therefore filter out most ultraviolet light. Instead, expensive lenses made of quartz must be used. Infrared films may be shot in standard cameras using an infrared band- or long-pass filters , although

2254-455: A wider dynamic range than most digital detectors. For example, Agfa 10E56 holographic film has a resolution of over 4,000 lines/mm – equivalent to a pixel size of 0.125 micrometers – and an active dynamic range of over five orders of magnitude in brightness, compared to typical scientific CCDs that might have pixels of about 10 micrometers and a dynamic range of 3–4 orders of magnitude. Special films are used for

2352-522: Is a Fujifilm subsidiary in Mexico that sells Fujifilm products since 1934 and has been recognized as one of The Best Mexican Companies (Las Mejores Empresas Mexicanas) from 2012 to 2015, a recognition promoted by Banamex , Deloitte México and Tecnológico de Monterrey . Fujifilm is active in pharmaceutical products and contract manufacturing through its subsidiaries including Fujifilm Toyama Chemical, Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies , etc. As of July 2020,

2450-543: Is also similar to photographic film. There are several types of photographic film, including: In order to produce a usable image, the film needs to be exposed properly. The amount of exposure variation that a given film can tolerate, while still producing an acceptable level of quality, is called its exposure latitude . Color print film generally has greater exposure latitude than other types of film. Additionally, because print film must be printed to be viewed, after-the-fact corrections for imperfect exposure are possible during

2548-481: Is an advantage since silver halide is most sensitive to blue light than other colors of light. This was traditionally solved by the addition of a blue-blocking filter layer in the film emulsion, but T-grains have allowed this layer to be removed. Also the grains may have a "core" and "shell" where the core, made of silver iodobromide, has higher iodine content than the shell, which improves light sensitivity, these grains are known as Σ-Grains. The exact silver halide used

2646-403: Is blue light). The sensitizing dyes are absorbed at dislocations in the silver halide particles in the emulsion on the film. The sensitizing dyes may be supersensitized with a supersensitizing dye, that assists the function of the sensitizing dye and improves the efficiency of photon capture by silver halide. Each layer has a different type of color dye forming coupler: in the blue sensitive layer,

2744-539: Is commonly used for medical radiography and industrial radiography by placing the subject between the film and a source of X-rays or gamma rays, without a lens, as if a translucent object were imaged by being placed between a light source and standard film. Unlike other types of film, X-ray film has a sensitive emulsion on both sides of the carrier material. This reduces the X-ray exposure for an acceptable image – a desirable feature in medical radiography. The film

2842-414: Is done by making couplers with a ballast group such as a lipophilic group (oil-protected) and applying them in oil droplets to the film, or a hydrophilic group, or in a polymer layer such as a loadable latex layer with oil-protected couplers, in which case they are considered to be polymer-protected. The color couplers may be colorless and be chromogenic or be colored. Colored couplers are used to improve

2940-401: Is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still-unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation density = 1 – ( 1 – k ) , where light is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, k is the probability of

3038-940: Is either silver bromide or silver bromochloroiodide, or a combination of silver bromide, chloride and iodide. Silver iodobromide may be used as a silver halide. Silver halide crystals can be made in several shapes for use in photographic films. For example, AgBrCl hexagonal tabular grains can be used for color negative films, AgBr octahedral grains can be used for instant color photography films, AgBrl cubo-octahedral grains can be used for color reversal films, AgBr hexagonal tabular grains can be used for medical X-ray films, and AgBrCl cubic grains can be used for graphic arts films. In color films, each emulsion layer has silver halide crystals that are sensitized to one particular color (wavelength of light) vía sentizing dyes, to that they will be made sensitive to only one color of light, and not to others, since silver halide particles are intrinsically sensitive only to wavelengths below 450 nm (which

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3136-494: Is part of the Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group financial conglomerate ( keiretsu ). Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. was established in 1934 as a subsidiary of Daicel producing photographic films . In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses and equipment markets. In 1962, Fuji Photo and UK-based Rank Xerox Limited (now Xerox Limited) launched Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd. through a joint venture. From

3234-464: Is used by photofinishing equipment during film processing. The second part is a barcode on the edge of the film ( see image below right ), used also during processing, which indicates the image film type, manufacturer, frame number and synchronizes the position of the frame. The third part of DX coding, known as the DX Camera Auto Sensing (CAS) code, consists of a series of 12 metal contacts on

3332-495: Is usually placed in close contact with phosphor screen(s) and/or thin lead-foil screen(s), the combination having a higher sensitivity to X-rays. Because film is sensitive to x-rays, its contents may be wiped by airport baggage scanners if the film has a speed higher than 800 ISO. This property is exploited in Film badge dosimeters . Film optimized for detecting X-rays and gamma rays is sometimes used for radiation dosimetry . Film has

3430-569: The ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27°. A fourth naming standard is GOST , developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds. Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400, 800 and 1600. Consumer print films are usually in

3528-610: The K-14 process , Kodacolor, Ektachrome , which is often processed using the E-6 process and Fujifilm Superia , which is processed using the C-41 process . The chemicals and the color dye couplers on the film may vary depending on the process used to develop the film. Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO scale, which combines both

3626-528: The Lumière Brothers introduced their Lumière Panchromatic plate, which was made sensitive, although very unequally, to all colors including red. New and improved sensitizing dyes were developed, and in 1902 the much more evenly color-sensitive Perchromo panchromatic plate was being sold by the German manufacturer Perutz . The commercial availability of highly panchromatic black-and-white emulsions also accelerated

3724-447: The infrared (IR) region of the spectrum . In black-and-white photographic film, there is usually one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative . Color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically

3822-482: The light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. They developed H&D curves, which are specific for each film and paper. These curves plot the photographic density against the log of the exposure, to determine sensitivity or speed of the emulsion and enabling correct exposure. Early photographic plates and films were usefully sensitive only to blue, violet and ultraviolet light . As

3920-456: The 57-year-old joint venture, Fuji Xerox. In December 2019, Fujifilm acquired Hitachi 's diagnostic imaging business for US$ 1.63 billion. Amid the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic , one of Fujifilm Toyama Chemical drugs, i.e. favipiravir , an antiviral commercially named Avigan, is being considered as a possible treatment for the virus, after having been approved by China, Russia, and Indonesia authorities by June 2020. In June 2020, Fujifilm announced

4018-518: The FCR brand. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan. Fuji increased market share in the US by becoming one of the title sponsors of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics , offering cheaper camera film, and establishing a film factory in the US. In 1994 vice president Juntarō Suzuki announced that the company would halt paying sōkaiya ,

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4116-559: The Fujifilm Group has two operating companies, which encompass more than 300 subsidiaries in total, and three "shared services companies" under the umbrella. The group structure and a list of some Fujifilm subsidiaries are the following: Photographic film Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of

4214-429: The ISO 100 to ISO 800 range. Some films, like Kodak's Technical Pan , are not ISO rated and therefore careful examination of the film's properties must be made by the photographer before exposure and development. ISO 25 film is very "slow", as it requires much more exposure to produce a usable image than "fast" ISO 800 film. Films of ISO 800 and greater are thus better suited to low-light situations and action shots (where

4312-511: The WTO announced a "sweeping rejection of Kodak's complaints" about the film market in Japan. In March 2006, Noritsu and Fuji announced a strategic alliance for Noritsu to manufacture all of Fuji's photofinishing hardware, such as minilabs . Each company produces its own software for the minilabs. On September 19, 2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company , Fujifilm Holdings Corp. Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of

4410-432: The active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve. This effect

4508-472: The amount of light absorbed by each crystal. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible photograph . In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet light, X-rays , gamma rays , and high-energy particles . Unmodified silver halide crystals are sensitive only to the blue part of the visible spectrum, producing unnatural-looking renditions of some colored subjects. This problem

4606-752: The back of the film base in triacetate film bases or in the front in PET film bases, below the emulsion stack. An anticurl layer and a separate antistatic layer may be present in thin high resolution films that have the antihalation layer below the emulsion. PET film bases are often dyed, specially because PET can serve as a light pipe; black and white film bases tend to have a higher level of dying applied to them. The film base needs to be transparent but with some density, perfectly flat, insensitive to light, chemically stable, resistant to tearing and strong enough to be handled manually and by camera mechanisms and film processing equipment, while being chemically resistant to moisture and

4704-439: The back of the film, it also serves to prevent scratching, as an antistatic measure due to its conductive carbon content, and as a lubricant to help transport the film through mechanisms. The antistatic property is necessary to prevent the film from getting fogged under low humidity, and mechanisms to avoid static are present in most if not all films. If applied on the back it is removed during film processing. If applied it may be on

4802-614: The basis of subsequent color film design, with the Agfa process initially adopted by Ferrania, Fuji and Konica and lasting until the late 70s/early 1980s in the West and 1990s in Eastern Europe. The process used dye-forming chemicals that terminated with sulfonic acid groups and had to be coated one layer at a time. It was a further innovation by Kodak, using dye-forming chemicals which terminated in 'fatty' tails which permitted multiple layers to coated at

4900-409: The blue and green sensitive layers and a yellow filter before the red sensitive layer; in this way each layer is made sensitive to only a certain color of light. The couplers need to be made resistant to diffusion (non-diffusible) so that they will not move between the layers of the film and thus cause incorrect color rendition as the couplers are specific to either cyan, magenta or yellow colors. This

4998-399: The blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by a yellow filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next comes a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a red-and-blue sensitive layer, which record the green and red images respectively. During development, the exposed silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. But in

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5096-495: The chemicals used during processing without losing strength, flexibility or changing in size. The subbing layer is essentially an adhesive that allows the subsequent layers to stick to the film base. The film base was initially made of highly flammable cellulose nitrate, which was replaced by cellulose acetate films , often cellulose triacetate film (safety film), which in turn was replaced in many films (such as all print films, most duplication films and some other specialty films) by

5194-479: The color filter mosaic layer absorbed most of the light passing through. The last films of this type were discontinued in the 1950s, but Polachrome "instant" slide film, introduced in 1983, temporarily revived the technology. "Color film" in the modern sense of a subtractive color product with a multi-layered emulsion was born with the introduction of Kodachrome for home movies in 1935 and as lengths of 35 mm film for still cameras in 1936; however, it required

5292-435: The color reproduction of film. The first coupler which is used in the blue layer remains colorless to allow all light to pass through, but the coupler used in the green layer is colored yellow, and the coupler used in the red layer is light pink. Yellow was chosen to block any remaining blue light from exposing the underlying green and red layers (since yellow can be made from green and red). Each layer should only be sensitive to

5390-411: The coupler forms a yellow dye; in the green sensitive layer the coupler forms a magenta dye, and in the red sensitive layer the coupler forms a cyan dye. Color films often have an UV blocking layer. Each emulsion layer in a color film may itself have three layers: a slow, medium and fast layer, to allow the film to capture higher contrast images. The color dye couplers are inside oil droplets dispersed in

5488-442: The crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, and resolution of the film. Film is typically segmented in frames , that give rise to separate photographs . The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to

5586-413: The data transfer rate falls below the minimum threshold at which the tape drive heads were designed to transfer data to or from a continuously running tape. In this situation, the modern fast-running tape drive is unable to stop the tape instantly. Instead, the drive must decelerate and stop the tape, rewind it a short distance, restart it, position back to the point at which streaming stopped and then resume

5684-460: The date, shutter speed and aperture setting are recorded on the negative directly as the film is exposed. The first known version of this process was patented in the United States in 1975, using half-silvered mirrors to direct the readout of a digital clock and mix it with the light rays coming through the main camera lens. Modern SLR cameras use an imprinter fixed to the back of the camera on

5782-451: The dissolution of their partnership in 2019, Fujifilm made it a wholly owned subsidiary. In January 2020, the corporate name change was announced, from Fuji Xerox to Fujifilm Business Innovation Corporation, effective on April 1, 2021. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd., a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, and digital print technologies in March 2005. Fujifilm de México

5880-466: The dyes are instead formed by a long sequence of steps, limiting adoption among smaller film processing companies. Black and white films are very simple by comparison, only consisting of silver halide crystals suspended in a gelatin emulsion which sits on a film base with an antihalation back. Many films contain a top supercoat layer to protect the emulsion layers from damage. Some manufacturers manufacture their films with daylight, tungsten (named after

5978-494: The early 20th century. Although color photographs of good quality were being made by the 1890s, they required special equipment, separate and long exposures through three color filters , complex printing or display procedures, and highly specialized skills, so they were then exceedingly rare. The first practical and commercially successful color "film" was the Lumière Autochrome , a glass plate product introduced in 1907. It

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6076-443: The emulsion around silver halide crystals, forming a silver halide grain. Here the oil droplets act as a surfactant , also protecting the couplers from chemical reactions with the silver halide and from the surrounding gelatin. During development, oxidized developer diffuses into the oil droplets and combines with the dye couplers to form dye clouds; the dye clouds only form around unexposed silver halide crystals. The fixer then removes

6174-432: The film backing plate. It uses a small LED display for illumination and optics to focus the light onto a specific part of the film. The LED display is exposed on the negative at the same time the picture is taken. Digital cameras can often encode all the information in the image file itself. The Exif format is the most commonly used format. In the 1980s, Kodak developed DX Encoding (from Digital indeX), or DX coding ,

6272-428: The film cassette, which beginning with cameras manufactured after 1985 could detect the type of film, number of exposures and ISO of the film, and use that information to automatically adjust the camera settings for the speed of the film. Source: e.g., Kodak "Advantix", different aspect ratios possible, data recorded on magnetic strip, processed film remains in cartridge The earliest practical photographic process

6370-619: The film's sensitivity to light – or speed – the film there will have no appreciable image density, and will appear on the print as a featureless black. Some photographers use their knowledge of these limits to determine the optimum exposure for a photograph; for one example, see the Zone System . Most automatic cameras instead try to achieve a particular average density. Color films can have many layers. The film base can have an antihalation layer applied to it or be dyed. This layer prevents light from reflecting from within

6468-575: The film, increasing image quality. This also can make films exposable on only one side, as it prevents exposure from behind the film. This layer is bleached after development to make it clear, thus making the film transparent. The antihalation layer, besides having a black colloidal silver sol pigment for absorbing light, can also have two UV absorbents to improve lightfastness of the developed image, an oxidized developer scavenger, dyes for compensating for optical density during printing, solvents, gelatin and disodium salt of 3,5- disulfocatechol. If applied to

6566-420: The final print. Usually those areas will be considered overexposed and will appear as featureless white on the print. Some subject matter is tolerant of very heavy exposure. For example, sources of brilliant light, such as a light bulb or the sun, generally appear best as a featureless white on the print. Likewise, if part of an image receives less than the beginning threshold level of exposure, which depends upon

6664-583: The holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales. On January 31, 2018, Fujifilm announced that it would acquire a 50.1% controlling stake in Xerox for US$ 6.1 billion, which will be amalgamated into its existing Fuji Xerox business. The deal was subsequently dropped after intervention by activist investors Carl Icahn and Darwin Deason . In late 2019, Fujifilm announced its acquisition of Xerox's 25% stake in

6762-415: The infrared focal point must be compensated for. Exposure and focusing are difficult when using UV or IR film with a camera and lens designed for visible light. The ISO standard for film speed only applies to visible light, so visual-spectrum light meters are nearly useless. Film manufacturers can supply suggested equivalent film speeds under different conditions, and recommend heavy bracketing (e.g., "with

6860-501: The laboratory, but in 1883 the first commercially dye-sensitized plates appeared on the market. These early products, described as isochromatic or orthochromatic depending on the manufacturer, made possible a more accurate rendering of colored subject matter into a black-and-white image. Because they were still disproportionately sensitive to blue, the use of a yellow filter and a consequently longer exposure time were required to take full advantage of their extended sensitivity. In 1894,

6958-408: The long exposures required by astrophotography. Lith films used in the printing industry. In particular when exposed via a ruled-glass screen or contact-screen, halftone images suitable for printing could be generated. Some film cameras have the ability to read metadata from the film canister or encode metadata on film negatives. Negative imprinting is a feature of some film cameras, in which

7056-519: The mid-1950s, Fuji Photo began establishing overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, the company expanded its production and other operations internationally. During this period, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photography, medical, and printing sectors. This led to the invention of computed radiography (CR), which addressed several problems associated with traditional radiography, including reducing radiation exposure for both technicians and patients. Fujifilm's systems were marketed and sold under

7154-407: The operating system on tape drives such as DECtape . DECtape had fixed-size indexed blocks that could be rewritten without disturbing other blocks, so DECtape could be used like a slow disk drive. Data tape drives may use advanced data integrity techniques such as multilevel forward error correction, shingling, and linear serpentine layout for writing data to tape. Tape drives can be connected to

7252-669: The operation. If the condition repeats, the resulting back-and-forth tape motion resembles that of shining shoes with a cloth . Shoe-shining decreases the attainable data transfer rate, drive and tape life, and tape capacity. In early tape drives, non-continuous data transfer was normal and unavoidable. Computer processing power and available memory were usually insufficient to provide a constant stream, so tape drives were typically designed for start-stop operation. Early drives used very large spools, which necessarily had high inertia and did not start and stop moving easily. To provide high start, stop and seek performance, several feet of loose tape

7350-442: The physics of silver grain activation (which sets a minimum amount of light required to expose a single grain) and by the statistics of random grain activation by photons. The film requires a minimum amount of light before it begins to expose, and then responds by progressive darkening over a wide dynamic range of exposure until all of the grains are exposed, and the film achieves (after development) its maximum optical density. Over

7448-405: The printing process. The concentration of dyes or silver halide crystals remaining on the film after development is referred to as optical density , or simply density ; the optical density is proportional to the logarithm of the optical transmission coefficient of the developed film. A dark image on the negative is of higher density than a more transparent image. Most films are affected by

7546-407: The professional DECtape and the home ZX Microdrive and Rotronics Wafadrive , were also designed for inexpensive data storage. However, the drop in disk drive prices made such alternatives obsolete. As some data can be compressed to a smaller size than the original files, it has become commonplace when marketing tape drives to state the capacity with the assumption of a 2:1 compression ratio; thus

7644-491: The progress of practical color photography, which requires good sensitivity to all the colors of the spectrum for the red, green and blue channels of color information to all be captured with reasonable exposure times. However, all of these were glass-based plate products. Panchromatic emulsions on a film base were not commercially available until the 1910s and did not come into general use until much later. Many photographers who did their own darkroom work preferred to go without

7742-411: The same player. The outer shell, made of plastic, sometimes with metal plates and parts, permits ease of handling of the fragile tape, making it far more convenient and robust than having spools of exposed tape. Simple analog cassette audio tape recorders were commonly used for data storage and distribution on home computers at a time when floppy disk drives were very expensive. The Commodore Datasette

7840-525: The same time in a single pass, reducing production time and cost that later became universally adopted along with the Kodak C-41 process. Tape drive A tape drive is a data storage device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape . Magnetic-tape data storage is typically used for offline, archival data storage. Tape media generally has a favorable unit cost and long archival stability. A tape drive provides sequential access storage, unlike

7938-414: The seeming luxury of sensitivity to red – a rare color in nature and uncommon even in human-made objects – rather than be forced to abandon the traditional red darkroom safelight and process their exposed film in complete darkness. Kodak's popular Verichrome black-and-white snapshot film, introduced in 1931, remained a red-insensitive orthochromatic product until 1956, when it

8036-470: The short exposure time limits the total light received). The benefit of slower film is that it usually has finer grain and better color rendition than fast film. Professional photographers of static subjects such as portraits or landscapes usually seek these qualities, and therefore require a tripod to stabilize the camera for a longer exposure. A professional photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or in low-light conditions will inevitably choose

8134-416: The silver halide crystals leaving only the dye clouds: this means that developed color films may not contain silver while undeveloped films do contain silver; this also means that the fixer can start to contain silver which can then be removed through electrolysis. Color films also contain light filters to filter out certain colors as the light passes through the film: often there is a blue light filter between

8232-650: The silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step . It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate (hypo or fixer). Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II , have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer. Photographic film and film stock tend to be similar in composition and speed, but often not in other parameters such as frame size and length. Silver halide photographic paper

8330-519: The speed of the film; since films contain real silver (as silver halide), faster films with larger crystals are more expensive and potentially subject to variations in the price of silver metal. Also, faster films have more grain, since the grains (crystals) are larger. Each crystal is often 0.2 to 2 microns in size; in color films, the dye clouds that form around the silver halide crystals are often 25 microns across. The crystals can be shaped as cubes, flat rectangles, tetradecadedra, or be flat and resemble

8428-534: The tape speed level to the computer's data rate. Example speed levels could be 50 percent, 75 percent and 100 percent of full speed. A computer that streams data slower than the lowest speed level (e.g., at 49 percent) will still cause shoe-shining. Magnetic tape is commonly housed in a casing known as a cassette or cartridge —for example, the 4-track cartridge and the Compact Cassette . The cassette contains magnetic tape to provide different audio content using

8526-437: The tungsten filament of incandescent and halogen lamps) or fluorescent lighting in mind, recommending the use of lens filters, light meters and test shots in some situations to maintain color balance, or by recommending the division of the ISO value of the film by the distance of the subject from the camera to get an appropriate f-number value to be set in the lens. Examples of Color films are Kodachrome , often processed using

8624-492: The use of an internal data buffer to somewhat reduce start-stop situations. These drives are often referred to as tape streamers . The tape was stopped only when the buffer contained no data to be written , or when it was full of data during reading. As faster tape drives became available, despite being buffered, the drives started to suffer from the shoe-shining sequence of stop, rewind, start. Some newer drives have several speeds and implement algorithms that dynamically match

8722-475: The visibility of the clouds, by manually retouching their negatives to adjust problematic tonal values, and by heavily powdering the faces of their portrait sitters. In 1873, Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the spectral sensitivity could be extended to green and yellow light by adding very small quantities of certain dyes to the emulsion. The instability of early sensitizing dyes and their tendency to rapidly cause fogging initially confined their use to

8820-705: Was a dedicated data version using the same media. Elimination of the capstan and pinch-roller system Manufacturers often specify the capacity of tapes using data compression techniques; compressibility varies for different data (commonly 2:1 to 8:1), and the specified capacity may not be attained for some types of real data. As of 2014 , tape drives capable of higher capacity were still being developed. In 2011, Fujifilm and IBM announced that they had been able to record 29.5 billion bits per square inch with magnetic-tape media developed using Barium Ferrite (BaFe) particles and nanotechnologies, allowing drives with true (uncompressed) tape capacity of 35 TB. The technology

8918-411: Was expensive and not sensitive enough for hand-held "snapshot" use. Film-based versions were introduced in the early 1930s and the sensitivity was later improved. These were "mosaic screen" additive color products, which used a simple layer of black-and-white emulsion in combination with a layer of microscopically small color filter elements. The resulting transparencies or "slides" were very dark because

9016-404: Was not expected to be commercially available for at least a decade. In 2014, Sony and IBM announced that they had been able to record 148 billion bits per square inch with magnetic tape media developed using a new vacuum thin-film forming technology able to form extremely fine crystal particles, allowing true tape capacity of 185 TB. On December 15, 2020, Fujifilm and IBM announced

9114-438: Was of better optical quality than early transparent plastics and was, at first, less expensive. Glass plates continued to be used long after the introduction of film, and were used for astrophotography and electron micrography until the early 2000s, when they were supplanted by digital recording methods. Ilford continues to manufacture glass plates for special scientific applications. The first flexible photographic roll film

9212-418: Was played out and pulled by a suction fan down into two deep open channels on either side of the tape head and capstans . The long thin loops of tape hanging in these vacuum columns had far less inertia than the two reels and could be rapidly started, stopped and repositioned. The large reels would move as required to keep the slack tape in the vacuum columns. Later, most tape drives of the 1980s introduced

9310-448: Was replaced by Verichrome Pan. Amateur darkroom enthusiasts then had to handle the undeveloped film by the sense of touch alone. Experiments with color photography began almost as early as photography itself, but the three-color principle underlying all practical processes was not set forth until 1855, not demonstrated until 1861, and not generally accepted as "real" color photography until it had become an undeniable commercial reality in

9408-481: Was resolved with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, when adsorbed onto the silver halide crystals made them respond to other colors as well. First orthochromatic (sensitive to blue and green) and finally panchromatic (sensitive to all visible colors) films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness. By similar techniques, special-purpose films can be made sensitive to

9506-464: Was sold by George Eastman in 1885, but this original "film" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and attached to a sheet of hardened clear gelatin. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable cellulose nitrate film . Although cellulose acetate or " safety film " had been introduced by Kodak in 1908, at first it found only

9604-420: Was the daguerreotype ; it was introduced in 1839 and did not use film. The light-sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a silver-plated copper sheet. The calotype process produced paper negatives. Beginning in the 1850s, thin glass plates coated with photographic emulsion became the standard material for use in the camera. Although fragile and relatively heavy, the glass used for photographic plates

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