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100-688: In the Indian Ocean  (light blue) The French Southern and Antarctic Lands ( French : Terres australes et antarctiques françaises , TAAF ) is an overseas territory ( French : Territoire d'outre-mer or TOM ) of France . It consists of: The territory is sometimes referred to as the French Southern Lands ( French : Terres australes françaises ) or the French Southern Territories , usually to emphasize non-recognition of French sovereignty over Adélie Land as part of

200-518: A US sealing schooner , General Jackson . John Balleny in command of the exploration and sealing vessel Eliza Scott (154 tons) visited the island in November 1838 in search of seals. He returned with a few fish and reported having seen the remains of a hut and the carcass of a whale. The islands of Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were first claimed by France in June 1843. A decree of 8 June 1843 mandated

300-462: A global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases . Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to

400-569: A hot spot. This is either the Kerguelen hotspot or a potentially separate Amsterdam-Saint Paul hotspot but resolution of this issue is complicated by the recent volcanism on the island due to it being adjacent to the Southeast Indian Ridge. Recent authors have favoured a separate Amsterdam and St. Paul hotspot. There has been evidence at Boomerang Seamount to the north east of the island that Kerguelen-type source mantle exists beneath

500-530: A key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and geopolitical concerns in the region include the effects of climate change , piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ( lit.   ' Indian Eastern Ocean ' )

600-630: A low forest, although the trees are also found on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island . It was called the Grand Bois ("Great Forest"), which covered the lowlands of the island until forest fires set by sealers cleared much of it in 1825. Only eight fragments remain. Sailors from HMS Raleigh , who visited the island on 27 May 1880, described the vegetation as: "Rough ground, grass several feet high, myrtle 10–15 feet [3–5 m] high in sheltered ravines, sedge, ferns (principally polypodium ) and cabbages, grown into bushes with stumps several inches thick in

700-723: A maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east , passes through the Ninety East Ridge . Within these waters are a number of islands. These include those controlled by surrounding countries, and independent island states and territories. Of the non-coastal islands, there are two broad clusters: one around Madagascar, and one south of India. A few other oceanic islands are scattered elsewhere. In contrast to

800-472: A mean annual temperature of 14 °C (57.2 °F), annual rainfall of 1,100 mm (43 in), persistent westerly winds and high levels of humidity. Under the Trewartha climate classification the island is well inside the maritime subtropical zone due to its very low diurnal temperature variation keeping means high. Phylica arborea trees occur on Amsterdam, which is the only place where they form

900-528: A meteorological station . Iles Crozet contains the Alfred Faure research station that contains about 20-30 people. One of the most populous research stations is the Iles Kerguelen which contains 50-100 researchers at Port-aux-Francais. The Iles Eparses contains a French military garrison and is a spot for meteorology. The Dumont d’Urville station is a vital area for studying wildlife, the atmosphere and

1000-463: A period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in

1100-787: A process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), cheetah ( Acynonix jubatus ), elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), and lion ( Panthera leo ). This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area")

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1200-464: A strong coastal and open ocean upwelling , which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to

1300-532: Is Martin-de-Viviès on Amsterdam Island . The capital and headquarters of the territorial administrator lies beyond the TAAF, in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. Each district is headed by a district chief, who has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being an officer of judicial police ). Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does

1400-537: Is a potentially active volcano . It has an area of 56.6 km (21.9 sq mi), measuring about 10 km (6 mi) on its longest side, and reaches as high as 867 m (2,844 ft) at the Mont de la Dives. The high central area of the island, at an elevation of over 500 metres (1,600 ft), containing its peaks and caldera, is known as the Plateau des Tourbières ( Plateau of Bogs ). The cliffs that characterise

1500-464: Is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands ,

1600-894: Is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal , which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz . In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in

1700-700: Is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean , a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean ( Atlantic ) before the Pacific was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used. The Hindi name for the Ocean is हिंद महासागर ( Hind Mahāsāgar ; lit. transl.  Ocean of India ). Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during

1800-803: Is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean , or Antarctica , depending on the definition in use. The Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as the Andaman Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Laccadive Sea . Once called the Eastern Ocean, it is now named after India , which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It

1900-604: Is divided into five districts: According to new law 2007-224 of February 21, 2007, the Scattered Islands constitute the TAAF's fifth district. The TAAF website does not mention their population. The data are not included in the totals. The Îles Éparses principal station is on Tromelin Island . The headquarters of the district chief lies beyond the TAAF, in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. The Territory's principal station

2000-426: Is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts a significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution , including a significant garbage patch . Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played

2100-483: Is located on the mainly undersea Amsterdam–Saint Paul Plateau which is of volcanic hotspot origin. There is a magma chamber located at between 20–36 km (12–22 mi) depth below Amsterdam Island. The plateau which extends north west towards the Nieuw Amsterdam Fracture Zone (Amsterdam Fracture Zone) and south to beyond the island of St Paul with its presently known active area being delimited by

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2200-474: Is mainly visited by military personnel, officials, scientific researchers, and support staff. In 2019, the Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, and Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their pristine wilderness, biodiversity, and enormous bird colonies. The islands were officially recognized by law on 6 August 1956. This overruled the law passed in 1924 that tied

2300-528: Is now the Martin-de-Viviès research station, named after Paul de Martin de Viviès who, with twenty-three others, spent the winter of 1949 on the island. The station was originally named Camp Heurtin and has been in operation since 1 January 1981, superseding the first station, La Roche Godon. The Global Atmosphere Watch still maintains a presence on Île Amsterdam. From 1987 to 1998, there were frequent amateur radio operations from Amsterdam Island. There

2400-464: Is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during

2500-558: Is the only ocean named after a country. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere . Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf . In terms of geology,

2600-541: The Antarctic Plate . The research station at Martin-de-Viviès , first called Camp Heurtin and then La Roche Godon , is the only settlement on the island and is the seasonal home to about thirty researchers and staff studying biology, meteorology, and geomagnetics . The first person known to have sighted the island was the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián de Elcano , on 18 March 1522, during his circumnavigation of

2700-650: The Antarctic Treaty System . The entire territory has no known permanently settled inhabitants. Approximately 150 (in the winter) to 310 (in the summer) people are usually present in the French Southern and Antarctic Lands at any time, but they are mainly made up of military personnel, officials, scientific researchers and support staff. On 5 July 2019, the Crozet Islands , the Kerguelen Islands , and

2800-711: The Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to

2900-560: The East African Rift valley , the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) and Speke's gazelle ( Gazella spekei ); the Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) and hamadryas baboon ( Papio hamadryas ). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia,

3000-608: The Malacca , Sunda and Torres Straits . The Gulf of Carpentaria is located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents

3100-773: The Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves . Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre,

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3200-703: The Ming dynasty ) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography , the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea . The borders of the Indian Ocean , as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002

3300-488: The Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as the "French Austral Lands and Seas" because of their pristine wilderness, biodiversity, and enormous bird colonies. The French Southern and Antarctic Lands are an overseas territory of France that consist of the following: The islands became known in the 16th century, when the Spanish discovered Amsterdam Island on 18 March 1522, which

3400-720: The Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb . In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez . The Indian Ocean

3500-562: The runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow . This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36  PSU ) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In

3600-423: The "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica ." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones . The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for

3700-520: The 1790s (which has been lost), but this was either extinct by 1800 or was a straggler of an extant species. The common waxbill has been introduced. Both the Plateau des Tourbières and Falaises d'Entrecasteaux have been identified as Important Bird Areas by BirdLife International , the latter for its large breeding colony of Indian yellow-nosed albatrosses . There are no native land mammals. Subantarctic fur seals and southern elephant seals breed on

3800-454: The Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands ecoregion. The highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Kerguelen Island, standing at 1,850 m (6,070 ft). Notably, there are very few airstrips on the islands, existing only on islands with weather stations. The 1,232 km (766 mi) of coastline lacks ports or harbors, offering only offshore anchorages. The islands in

3900-545: The Amsterdam and St. Paul Plateau. Which ever hot spot is responsible is moving south as Île Amsterdam rocks are older than St. Paul rocks. The Amsterdam–St. Paul Plateau while formed in the last 10 million years, started this formation beneath the Australian Plate so the island is built on the components of two tectonic plates. Île Amsterdam has a mild, oceanic climate , Cfb under the Köppen climate classification , with

4000-694: The Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans . Marginal seas , gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while

4100-529: The Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of

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4200-482: The Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of

4300-569: The Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspots nine (or 25%) are located on

4400-409: The Crozet Islands and Amsterdam Island, respectively. Other threatened bird species with important populations on the islands include Eaton's pintail , MacGillivray's prion , and the Amsterdam albatross , which is one of four bird species endemic to the island group. The French Southern Lands also hold the second largest population of southern elephant seals on Earth, numbering roughly 200,000, and

4500-403: The East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre , this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel , and back to Australia in

4600-457: The Examiner of Sea-Journals for the East India Company , when the British government was considering New South Wales and Norfolk Island for such a settlement. An investigation of those islands was subsequently undertaken in December 1792 and January 1793 by George Lord Macartney , Britain's first ambassador to China, during his voyage to that country, who established that they were not suitable for settlement. Sealers are said to have landed on

4700-438: The French Polar Institute Paul-Émile Victor (IPEV) and the French Navy jointly operate the icebreaker Astrolabe which is based out of Reunion. The vessel is used both to bring personnel and supplies to the Dumont d'Urville Station and for research and patrol duties. The French armed forces also maintain small troop contingents on some of the Scattered Islands in order to protect the French territorial claim. The territory

4800-460: The French register, allowing French-owned ships to benefit from more liberal taxation and manning regulations than those permissible under the main French register. However, this register is expected to be replaced by the International French Register (Registre International Français, RIF) in the future. Due to their isolation, the French islands in the southern Indian Ocean comprise one of the last remaining large wilderness areas on Earth. Furthermore,

4900-457: The IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally , the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian , running south from Cape Agulhas , South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia. The northernmost extent of

5000-447: The Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf . The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and

5100-405: The Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break ) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of

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5200-457: The Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries . Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina , are important to bird life. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are

5300-470: The Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots . The climate of the Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons . It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation , resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean

5400-648: The Indian Ocean receive supplies via the special ship Marion Dufresne, which sails out of Le Port in Réunion Island. Terre Adélie, the Antarctic sector claimed by France, is supplied by L’Astrolabe, which sails out of Hobart in Tasmania. Regarding maritime activity, the territory maintains a merchant marine fleet totaling (as of 1999) 2,892,911 GRT/5,165,713 tonnes deadweight (DWT). This fleet includes seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquefied gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on/roll-off (RORO) carriers. Notably, this fleet operates under

5500-424: The Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in

5600-666: The Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems : the Agulhas Current , Somali Coastal Current , Red Sea , Arabian Sea , Bay of Bengal , Gulf of Thailand , West Central Australian Shelf , Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf . Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of

5700-432: The Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude , similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24  Gt . Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes

5800-411: The Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming

5900-401: The Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when

6000-408: The Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming , Heinrich , and Younger Dryas . The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in

6100-399: The Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are ( order 5 ) the Zambezi , Ganges - Brahmaputra , Indus , Jubba , and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab , Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on

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6200-413: The Polish captain Adam Mieroslawski to take into possession and administer in the name of France both islands. The decree as well as the ship's log from the Olympe ship from 1 and 3 July 1843, stating that the islands had been taken into possession by Mieroslawski, are still preserved. However, the French government renounced its possession of the islands in 1853. In January 1871 an attempt to settle

6300-441: The Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by

6400-411: The Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone . North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude , temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of

6500-399: The Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth , was discovered off Sulawesi Island , Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in

6600-425: The St. Paul Fracture Zone, is a 250 by 200 km (160 by 120 mi) feature of the sea floor near the Southeast Indian Ridge , which is an active spreading center between the Antarctic plate that the island lies on, and the Australian Plate . Helium isotopic compositional studies are consistent with its formation from the combined effects of accretion at the mid-ocean ridge ridge and mantle plume activity of

6700-416: The absence of predators. The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and crustaceans. Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The main fish resources are Patagonian toothfish and spiny lobster . Both are poached by foreign fleets; because of this, the French Navy , and occasionally other services, patrol

6800-442: The austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud ) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to

6900-400: The bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea , and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in

7000-534: The centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia - Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut ( Cordeauxia edulus ) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen ( Cyclamen somalense ), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet ( Carduelis johannis ) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of

7100-400: The continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of the Shelf break , also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that

7200-541: The continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude ) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes . Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by

7300-602: The eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in

7400-407: The garden..." The island is home to the endemic Amsterdam albatross , which breeds only on the Plateau des Tourbières. Other rare species are the brown skua , Antarctic tern and western rockhopper penguin . The Amsterdam duck is now extinct , as are the local breeding populations of several petrels . There was once possibly a species of rail inhabiting the island, as a specimen was taken in

7500-406: The ice caps. The French Southern Territories (i.e. the TAAF excluding Adélie Land) have been given the following country codes : FS ( FIPS ) and TF ( ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 ). Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth's surface . It

7600-483: The island was made by a party led by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion . After seven months, their attempts to raise cattle and grow crops were fruitless, and they returned to Réunion, abandoning the cattle on the island. In May 1880 HMS  Raleigh circumnavigated the island searching for a missing ship the Knowsley Hall . A cutter and gig were despatched to the island to search for signs of habitation. There

7700-554: The island, for the first time, in 1789. Between that date and 1876, 47 sealing vessels are recorded at the island, 9 of which were wrecked. Relics of the sealing era can still be found. The island was a stop on the British Macartney Embassy on its voyage to China in 1793. On 11 October 1833, the British barque Lady Munro was wrecked at the island. Of the 97 persons aboard, 21 survivors were picked up two weeks later by

7800-448: The island. Introduced mammals include the house mouse , brown rat , and feral cats . An eradication campaign of these invasive species was started in 2023, which plans to eradicate all cats and rats from the island by late 2024. A distinct breed of wild cattle, Amsterdam Island cattle , also inhabited the island from 1871 to 2010. They originated from the introduction of five animals by Heurtin during his brief attempt at settlement of

7900-505: The islands are positioned along the Antarctic Convergence , where upwelling creates nutrient-rich waters. As a result, birds and marine mammals gather on the islands in great abundance. More than 50 million birds of 47 species breed on the islands, including more than half the breeding population of 16 different species. The largest populations of king penguins and the endangered Indian yellow-nosed albatross on Earth are found on

8000-580: The islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles , day geckos , and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation . Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird ( Raphus cucullatus ) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests

8100-481: The margins of the Indian Ocean. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons , for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on

8200-457: The monsoon. Two large gyres , one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current ), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between

8300-602: The monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan , and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys . The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11  Sv , most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In

8400-524: The most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. Martin-de-Vivi%C3%A8s The island is roughly equidistant to the land masses of Madagascar , Australia , and Antarctica – as well as the British Indian Ocean Territory and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (about 3,200 km; 1,700 nautical miles from each). It is the northernmost volcanic island within

8500-535: The most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean ;— coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in

8600-617: The northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of

8700-490: The oldest basalt sampled is no more than 720,000 years old. There are two stratovolcanoes being Mont De La Dives which dominates and is younger and Le Mount du Fernand. Vents manifest as either cones or craters include Cratere Antonelli, Le Brulot, Le Chaudron, Le Cyclope, Crateres Dumas, Le Forneau, Cratere Inferieur, Grande Marmite, Cratere Hebert, Museau De Tanche, Cratere de l'Olympe, Cratere Superieur, Crateres Venus, and Cratere Vulcain (see map on this page). The island

8800-531: The ship L'Eure in 1893, again took possession of Saint-Paul and Amsterdam Island in the name of the French government. The island was attached to the French colony of Madagascar from 21 November 1924 until 6 August 1955 when the French Southern and Antarctic Lands was formed. (Madagascar gained independence in 1958.) The first French base on Île Amsterdam was established in 1949, and was originally called Camp Heurtin. It

8900-823: The territory send representatives to the national parliament. The territory includes the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Islands, and the Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with Adélie Land, the sector of Antarctica claimed by France. Adélie Land, named by the French explorer Jules Dumont d’Urville after his wife, covers about 432,000 km (167,000 sq mi). The islands, totaling 7,781 km (3,004 sq mi), have no indigenous inhabitants, although in 1997 there were approximately 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January). Amsterdam Island and Saint Paul Island are both extinct volcanoes and have been delineated as

9000-626: The territory with the Government General of France in Madagascar. The French Southern and Antarctic Lands have formed a territoire d'outre-mer (an overseas territory) of France since 1955. Formerly, they were administered from Paris by an administrateur supérieur assisted by a secretary-general; since December 2004, however, their administrator has been a préfet , currently Florence Jeanblanc-Risler , with headquarters in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. The TAAF administration,

9100-560: The third largest population of the Antarctic fur seal . Because of their isolation and subpolar location, the French Southern Lands are relatively depauperate of vegetation, with both Saint-Paul and Crozet having no native tree or shrub species. However, eight of the 36 higher plant species are endemic. Some species of endemic invertebrates have also been recorded on the islands, including moths and flies which have lost their wings in

9200-579: The ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline . That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon , the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current . Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and

9300-528: The western coastline of the island, rising to over 700 metres (2,300 ft), are known as the Falaises d'Entrecasteaux after the 18th-century French navigator Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux . No historical eruptions are known, although the fresh morphology of the latest volcanism at Dumas Craters on the NE flank suggests it may have occurred as recently as the late 19th century. All the rocks are tholeiitic basalt and

9400-478: The world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming , and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole ), events are a trigger to this strong warming in

9500-586: The world. Elcano called it Desesperanza (Despair), because he couldn't find a safe place to land and his crew was desperate for water after 40 days of sailing from Timor. On 17 June 1633, Dutch colonial governor and mariner Anthonie van Diemen sighted the island, and named it after his ship, Nieuw Amsterdam . The first recorded landing on the island occurred in December 1696, led by the Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh . French mariner Pierre François Péron wrote that he

9600-539: The zone and arrest poaching vessels. Such arrests can result in heavy fines or the seizure of the ship. France previously sold licenses to foreign fisheries to fish the Patagonian toothfish; because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island . The territory takes in revenues of about € 16 million a year. In the territory there is no permanent population but there are some areas that contain research stations. Ile Amsterdam has

9700-449: Was a flagpole on Hoskin Point and 45–65 m (50–70 yards) north were two huts, one of which had an intact roof and contained three bunks, empty casks, an iron pot and the eggshells and feathers of sea-birds. There was also an upturned serviceable boat in the other hut, believed to belong to the fishermen who visited the island. In 1892, the crew of the French sloop Bourdonnais , followed by

9800-496: Was a resident radio amateur operator in the 1950s, using callsign FB8ZZ. In January 2014 Clublog listed Amsterdam and St Paul Islands as the seventh most-wanted DXCC entity. On 25 January 2014 a DX-pedition landed on Amsterdam Island using MV Braveheart and began amateur radio operations from two separate locations using callsign FT5ZM. The DX-pedition remained active until 12 February and achieved over 170,000 two-way contacts with amateur radio stations worldwide. The island

9900-550: Was later claimed and named by the Dutch. Saint Paul Island was discovered in 1559 by the Portuguese. The Crozet islands were discovered on 24 January 1772 by French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne during an expedition. Adelie Land was the last to be discovered, in 1840 by the French during an expedition led by Jules Dumont d'Urville , who would later have a research station on the island named after him. The entire territory has no known permanently settled inhabitants. It

10000-415: Was marooned on the island between 1792 and 1795. Péron's Memoires , in which he describes his experiences, were published in a limited edition, now an expensive collectors' item. However, Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were often confused at the time, and Péron may have been marooned on Saint-Paul. Amsterdam and St. Paul islands were recommended in 1786 for a convict settlement by Alexander Dalrymple ,

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