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153-495: The French Frigate Shoals ( Hawaiian : Kānemilohaʻi ) is the largest atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . Its name commemorates French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse , who nearly lost two frigates when attempting to navigate the shoals . It consists of a 20-mile-long (32 km) crescent -shaped reef , twelve sandbars , and the 120-foot-high (37 m) La Perouse Pinnacle ,

306-556: A 12 million dollar project to repair the seawall and conduct other maintenance. This project repaired 1200 feet of seawall. The project was managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. However, the budget was only enough for about half of what was needed thus leaving sections unrepaired. In 2005, a wreck was found, possibly the wreck of the schooner Churchill , which ran aground at the French Frigate Shoals in 1917. Maritime archeologists returned in 2007 and 2008 to try and identify

459-506: A Fiji heavily indebted to foreign creditors to the United Kingdom. It became independent on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September 1987. Fiji is classified as Melanesian and (less commonly) Polynesian. Beginning in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Polynesians began to migrate in waves to New Zealand via their canoes , settling on both the North and South islands as well as

612-655: A Hawaiian language news broadcast. Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola , as recently as 2010. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Advertiser , the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members. Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which

765-657: A Treaty of Friendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Within the British Empire , which posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901–1970), Tonga formed part of the British Western Pacific Territories (under a High Commissioner who residing in Fiji ) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being under the protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without interruption. On June 4, 1970,

918-670: A change in the movements of the Pacific Plate in relation to the Indo-Australian Plate . The Pacific plate had previously been subducted under the Australian Plate . When that changed, it had the effect of uplifting the portion of the continent that is modern-day New Zealand. The convergent plate boundary that runs northwards from New Zealand's North Island is called the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone . This subduction zone

1071-440: A critically endangered language. However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%. At

1224-498: A grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with

1377-582: A hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ā ē ī ō ū and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū . It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms. (See: Vowel length ) As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham , was using macrons (and breves ) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but

1530-591: A major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England , where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut . He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaiʻi, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaiʻi in 1819. Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with

1683-571: A minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture. Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s. Forming in 1983, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , meaning "language nest" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984. It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day. Efforts to promote

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1836-511: A native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany , before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ( Über die Hawaiische Sprache ) in 1837. Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with

1989-492: A new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaiʻi via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers. The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to

2142-557: A non- Polynesian language . Some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia remains a cultural term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania (the others being Melanesia and Micronesia ). The following islands and island groups are either nations or overseas territories of former colonial powers. The residents are native Polynesians or contain archaeological evidence indicating Polynesian settlement in

2295-509: A possibility that the early Lapita Austronesians were direct descendants of the early colonists of the Marianas (which preceded them by about 150 years), which is also supported by pottery evidence. The most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far is at Mulifanua on Upolu . The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a "true" age of c.  1000 BC based on radiocarbon dating and

2448-728: A region within Polynesia and the categorization of these language groups by Green in 1966 helped to confirm that Polynesian settlement generally took place from west to east. There is a very distinct "East Polynesian" subgroup with many shared innovations not seen in other Polynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are perhaps the source of the oldest Hawaiian speech which is overlaid by Tahitian-variety speech, as Hawaiian oral histories would suggest. The earliest varieties of New Zealand Maori speech may have had multiple sources from around central Eastern Polynesia, as Maori oral histories would suggest. The Cook Islands are made up of 15 islands comprising

2601-578: A significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836), grammar (1854), and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law

2754-645: A subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people . Tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in Island Melanesia , Maritime Southeast Asia , and ultimately, in Taiwan . Between about 3000 and 1000 BC, speakers of Austronesian languages spread from Taiwan into Maritime Southeast Asia . There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser et al. (2000) and are as follows: In

2907-494: A vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart. This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaiʻi, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones ( H, K, L, M, N, P, W ), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". The initial printing also showed

3060-629: A widespread Polynesian network or confederacy (or "empire") that was prehistorically ruled by the successive Tui Manuʻa dynasties. Manuan genealogies and religious oral literature also suggest that the Tui Manuʻa had long been one of the most prestigious and powerful paramount of Samoa. Oral history suggests that the Tui Manuʻa kings governed a confederacy of far-flung islands which included Fiji , Tonga as well as smaller western Pacific chiefdoms and Polynesian outliers such as Uvea , Futuna , Tokelau , and Tuvalu . Commerce and exchange routes between

3213-493: Is Palakila , but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila . Another example is Gibraltar , written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta . While [z] and [ɡ] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b] , [ɹ] , and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters ( b , r , and t ) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin. ʻOkina ( ʻoki 'cut' + -na '-ing')

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3366-462: Is a combination of charter, public, and private schools. K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , and the charter school. Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools. Hawaiian

3519-646: Is associated with the volcanism that gave rise to the Kermadec and Tongan islands. There is a transform fault that currently traverses New Zealand's South Island, known as the Alpine Fault . Zealandia's continental shelf has a total area of approximately 3,600,000 km (1,400,000 sq mi). The oldest rocks in Polynesia are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesian rocks outside Zealandia are to be found in

3672-416: Is considered to have lasted roughly 1,000 years. The cause of this gap in voyaging is contentious among archaeologists with a number of competing theories presented including climate shifts, the need for the development of new voyaging techniques, and cultural shifts. After the long pause, dispersion of populations into central and eastern Polynesia began. Although the exact timing of when each island group

3825-409: Is derived. This is due to new population being established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population which also causes a loss of genetic variation. Atholl Anderson wrote that analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA, female) and Y chromosome (male) concluded that the ancestors of Polynesian women were Austronesians while those of Polynesian men were Papuans . Subsequently, it

3978-462: Is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department. This law established English as the medium of instruction for

4131-480: Is no evidence of extensive human activity or presence in the area, the earliest human visitors to the French Frigate Shoals probably came from the main Hawaiian Islands, which were settled by Polynesians between 1100 and 1300 AD. The Hawaiian island chain lay outside the routes followed by early European explorers, and it was not until Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse 's near-disastrous discovery that

4284-413: Is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language. There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian. One of the main focuses of Hawaiian-medium schools

4437-576: Is pronounced. Elbert & Pukui's Hawaiian Grammar says "The glottal stop, ‘, is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English oh-oh ." As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published

4590-463: Is the marker of Austronesian expansions. The high frequencies of mtDNA Haplogroup B in the Polynesians are the result of founder effect and represents the descendants of a few Austronesian females who intermixed with Papuan males. A genomic analysis of modern populations in Polynesia, published in 2021, provides a model of the direction and timing of Polynesian migrations from Samoa to the islands to

4743-402: Is the modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) that represents the glottal stop . It was formerly known as ʻuʻina ("snap"). For examples of the ʻokina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (often simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced [hʌˈʋʌi.ʔi] and [oˈʔʌ.hu] , and are written with an ʻokina where the glottal stop

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4896-443: Is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951) . (See Hawaiian phonological processes ) Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by

5049-622: Is the oldest site yet discovered in Polynesia. This is mirrored by a 2010 study also placing the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 BC. Within a mere three or four centuries, between 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita archaeological culture spread 6,000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until reaching as far as Fiji , Tonga , and Samoa . A cultural divide began to develop between Fiji to

5202-489: Is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language. The isolated island of Niʻihau , located off the southwest coast of Kauai , is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect ) is still spoken as the language of daily life. Elbert & Pukui (1979 :23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau

5355-579: Is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language. Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language are known collectively as the "Hilo model" and has been imitated by the Cherokee immersion program and several other Indigenous revitalization programs. Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of

5508-877: Is thought that the Cook Islands were settled in two periods: the Tahitian Period, when the country was settled between 900 and 1300 AD, and the Maui Settlement, which occurred in 1600 AD, when a large contingent from Tahiti settled in Rarotonga, in the Takitumu district. The first contact between Europeans and the native inhabitants of the Cook Islands took place in 1595 with the arrival of Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña in Pukapuka , who called it San Bernardo (Saint Bernard). A decade later, navigator Pedro Fernández de Quirós made

5661-410: Is to teach the form and structure of the Hawaiian language by modeling sentences as a "pepeke", meaning squid in Hawaiian. In this case the pepeke is a metaphor that features the body of a squid with the three essential parts: the poʻo (head), the ʻawe (tentacles) and the piko (where the poʻo and ʻawe meet) representing how a sentence is structured. The poʻo represents the predicate, the piko representing

5814-541: The La Boussole . La Perouse was on a mission of exploration from the French Academy of Sciences, and they made many discoveries in across the Pacific. The expedition was lost at sea in 1788 while still on the expedition, but was able to send its logs home. In 1823, the whaling ship Two Brothers sank near Shark island. This wreck was discovered in the early 21st century. In 1841 the French Frigate Shoals were visited by

5967-647: The British Crown in 1836. In 1840, Royal Navy officer William Hobson and several Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi , which transformed New Zealand into a colony of the British Empire and granting all Māori the status of British subjects. However, tensions between Pākehā settlers and the Māori over settler encroachment on Māori lands and disputes over land sales led to the New Zealand Wars (1845–1872) between

6120-638: The Chatham Islands . Over the course of several centuries, the Polynesian settlers formed distinct cultures that became known as the Māori on the New Zealand mainland, while those who settled in the Chatham Islands became the Moriori people . Beginning the 17th century, the arrival of Europeans to New Zealand drastically impacted Māori culture. Settlers from Europe (known as " Pākehā ") began to colonize New Zealand in

6273-718: The College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo . The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee ( Kōmike Huaʻōlelo Hou ) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds. The Hawaiian medium education system

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6426-732: The English-speaking world ). Why was pronounced [ʍai] . The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents the sounds [hi] , or [i] . Putting the parts together, O-why-(h)ee reflects [o-hwai-i] , a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [ʔo həwɐiʔi] . American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaiʻi. They still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using

6579-680: The German Empire and the United States. The German-controlled Western portion of Samoa (consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory – Savaiʻi, Apolima, Manono and Upolu) was occupied by New Zealand in WWI, and administered by it under a Class C League of Nations mandate . After repeated efforts by the Samoan independence movement, the New Zealand Western Samoa Act of 24 November 1961 granted Samoa independence, effective on January 1, 1962, upon which

6732-551: The Kingdom of Tonga became independent from the British Empire. The reef islands and atolls of Tuvalu are identified as being part of West Polynesia. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as Polynesian navigation skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes . Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus

6885-582: The Solomon Islands . The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs and language throughout most of Polynesia. The empire began to decline in the 13th century. After a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga eventually fell under the Tuʻi Kanokupolu dynasty in the 16th century. In 1845, the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator Tāufaʻāhau united Tonga into a more Western-style kingdom. He held

7038-456: The Tovata confederacy of Fiji. This is where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interactions occurred. In the chronology of the exploration and first populating of Polynesia, there is a gap commonly referred to as the long pause between the first populating of Fiji ( Melanesia ), Western Polynesia of Tonga and Samoa among others and the settlement of the rest of the region. In general this gap

7191-492: The United States Department of Agriculture . In 1917 the four-masted schooner Churchill wrecked on the French Frigate Shoals. The crew of 12 survived. The Tanager Expedition visited the French Frigate Shoals in 1923 and did a survey of the islands. The United States Revenue Cutter Service sent many patrols to this region in the early 20th century. The U.S. Revenue Cutter Service vessel USRC Thetis visited

7344-499: The United States Exploring Expedition authorized by President Andrew Jackson. The shoals were visited by the sailing ships, brigs Oregon and Porpoise . In 1859 the barque Gambia (a) and clipper Modern Times visited the French Frigate Shoals. That same year the whaler South Seaman wrecked on the shoals. About a dozen of its crew were rescued by another vessel in the area, but about 30 were left on

7497-489: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service . The French Frigate Shoals are about 487 nautical miles (902 km; 560 mi) northwest of Honolulu . Among the shoals are Tern, which is unique in having an airstrip and is protected by a seawall, and La Perouse Pinnacle, a tall and rocky island in the center of the shoals. The two largest islands after Tern, East and Trig have mostly washed away, with East being about half

7650-521: The colonial government and the Māori. In response to the conflict, the colonial government initiated a series of land confiscations from the Māori. This social upheaval, combined with epidemics of infectious diseases from Europe, devastated both the Māori population and their social standing in New Zealand. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the Maori population began to recover, and efforts were made to redress social, economic, political and economic issues facing

7803-449: The ' Australo-Papuans ' of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands . The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that they lack Australian or Papuan affinities and instead have affinities to mainland Asian populations. A 2017 DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage resulting in a mixed Austronesian-Papuan ancestry of

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7956-522: The 19th century, leading to tension with the indigenous Māori. On October 28, 1835, a group of Māori tribesmen issued a declaration of independence (drafted by Scottish businessman James Busby ) as the " United Tribes of New Zealand ", in order to resist potential efforts at colonizing New Zealand by the French and prevent merchant ships and their cargo which belonged to Māori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. The new state received recognition from

8109-514: The Bismarck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians still show human genetic results of a Melanesian culture which allowed indigenous men, but not women, to "marry in" – useful evidence for matrilocality. Although matrilocality and matrilineality receded at some early time, Polynesians and most other Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands were and are still highly "matricentric" in their traditional jurisprudence. The Lapita pottery for which

8262-442: The French Frigate Shoals billet as "isolated duty," thereby entitling Coast Guard members serving at the station to additional monthly "isolated duty pay." Because of the billet's remoteness, a duty term was limited to one year. In December 1969, a tsunami devastated the islands, forcing the crew on Tern Island to evacuate the station, which was destroyed. The station was off the air from 1 to 6 December. The USCGC Kukui (WAK-186)

8415-615: The French Frigate Shoals during World War II, typically flying reconnaissance missions. After the Battle of Midway , the United States Navy built a naval air station on Tern Island, enlarging the island sufficiently to support a 3,300-foot (1,000 m) landing strip, increasing its land area to 26.014 acres (10.527 ha). The station's main function was as an emergency landing site for planes flying between Hawaii and Midway Atoll . French Frigate Shoals Airport comprises what remains of

8568-584: The French Frigate Shoals in 1912, 1914, 1915, and 1916. In 1918 the shoals were inspected by the United States Navy ship USS Hermes . Shoal inspections in the 1920s and 1930s include ones by USS  Pelican in 1924, USRC Itasca in 1931 and 1934, and the United States Coast Guard vessel USCGC  Reliance in 1936. In 1932, the minesweeper USS  Quail visited the shoals, anchoring near East Island. A seaplane tendered from

8721-500: The French Frigate Shoals. In 2020, the Papahanaumokuakea Marine Debris Project, working in conjunction with government agencies, removed tens of thousands of pounds of debris from the region. In the 2020s, concerns about the decaying seawall on Tern Island trapping turtles and seals were brought to light. The double steel wall on the island has not been maintained; as a result, holes have rusted out. In 2023

8874-621: The French writer Charles de Brosses , who originally applied it to all the islands of the Pacific . In 1831, Jules Dumont d'Urville proposed a narrower definition during a lecture at the Société de Géographie of Paris. By tradition, the islands located in the southern Pacific have also often been called the South Sea Islands , and their inhabitants have been called South Sea Islanders . The Hawaiian Islands have often been considered to be part of

9027-606: The Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle , although some islands inhabited by Polynesians are situated outside the Polynesian Triangle. Geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii , New Zealand , and Easter Island . The other main island groups located within

9180-738: The Hawaiian Islands, is relatively common there. Most of Hawaii's green sea turtles travel to the shoals to nest. The small islets of French Frigate Shoals provide refuge to the largest surviving population of Hawaiian monk seals , the second most endangered pinniped in the world. The islands are also an important seabird colony . Eighteen species of seabird , the black-footed albatross , Laysan albatross , Bonin petrel , Bulwer's petrel , wedge-tailed shearwater , Christmas shearwater , Tristram's storm petrel , red-tailed tropicbird , masked booby , red-footed booby , brown booby , great frigatebird , spectacled tern , sooty tern , blue-gray noddy , brown noddy , black noddy and white tern nest on

9333-442: The Hawaiian and Society Islands. Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages. The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan. In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawaiʻi, beginning

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9486-453: The Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory. Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence. One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah ( ʻŌpūkahaʻia ), had

9639-535: The Hawaiian islands is hula . Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past". The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century. He argues this

9792-481: The Hawaiian language in schools. The Hawaiian language was not again allowed to be used as a medium of instruction in Hawai’i’s public schools until 1987, a span of 91 years. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of

9945-471: The Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ʻokina , to better represent spoken Hawaiian. Nonetheless, excluding the ʻokina may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts. So there is variation today in the use of this symbol. The ʻokina is written in various ways for electronic uses: Because many people who want to write

10098-498: The Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction. The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi: The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it

10251-401: The Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". It is written "Oh-Why-hee" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter  [ de ] in 1781. Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. The initial "O" in

10404-525: The Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tongan prince, Enele Ma'afu , proclaimed the Lau islands as his kingdom, and took the title Tui Lau . Fiji had been ruled by numerous divided chieftains until Cakobau unified the landmass. The Lapita culture, the ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from about 3500 BC until they were displaced by the Melanesians about a thousand years later. (Both Samoans and subsequent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian painting and tattoo methods.) In 1873, Cakobau ceded

10557-482: The Māori in wider New Zealand society. Beginning in the 1960s, a protest movement emerged seeking redress for historical grievances . In the 2013 New Zealand census , roughly 600,000 people in New Zealand identified as being Māori. In the 9th century, the Tui Manuʻa controlled a vast maritime empire comprising most of the settled islands of Polynesia. The Tui Manuʻa is one of the oldest Samoan titles in Samoa. Traditional oral literature of Samoa and Manu'a talks of

10710-436: The NOAA visited the island for a research expedition along with other islands of the chain. The researchers camped on Tern island and took trips to East Island where many turtle breeding grounds were located. La Pèrouse Pinnacle , a rock outcrop in the center of the atoll, is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian chain. It stands 120 feet (37 m) tall and is surrounded by coral reefs. Because of its shape,

10863-399: The Northern and Southern groups. The islands are spread out across many kilometers of a vast ocean. The largest of these islands is called Rarotonga, which is also the political and economic capital of the nation. The Cook Islands were formerly known as the Hervey Islands, but this name refers only to the Northern Groups. It is unknown when this name was changed to reflect the current name. It

11016-627: The Polynesian Triangle are Samoa , Tonga , the Cook Islands , Tuvalu , Tokelau , Niue , Wallis and Futuna , and French Polynesia . Also, small Polynesian settlements are in Papua New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , the Caroline Islands , and Vanuatu . An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this great triangle is Rotuma , situated north of Fiji . The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits, but speak

11169-468: The Polynesians (as with other modern Austronesians, with the exception of Taiwanese aborigines ). Research at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites implies that the migration and intermarriage, which resulted in the mixed Austronesian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians, occurred after the first initial migration to Vanuatu and Tonga. A complete mtDNA and genome-wide SNP comparison (Pugach et al. , 2021) of

11322-716: The Service attempted to fill open billets with volunteers. If there were no volunteers for essential billets, the Coast Guard would at times fill open slots as a disciplinary measure. The LORAN station commanding officer was typically a lieutenant junior grade officer, the executive officer a chief petty officer enlisted rank. The station was staffed with USCG enlisted specialists such as Radioman, Electronic Technician, Fireman, Boatswain's Mates , plus seaman or seaman apprentice nonrated service members (assigned to perform maintenance and other generalized duties). The Coast Guard designated

11475-575: The South Sea Islands because of their relative proximity to the southern Pacific islands, even though they are in fact located in the North Pacific . Another term in use, which avoids this inconsistency, is "the Polynesian Triangle " (from the shape created by the layout of the islands in the Pacific Ocean). This term makes clear that the grouping includes the Hawaiian Islands, which are located at

11628-612: The Teouma Lapita site ( Efate Island , Vanuatu ) and the Talasiu Lapita site (near Nuku'alofa , Tonga ) published in 2016 supports the Express Train model; although with the qualification that the migration bypassed New Guinea and Island Melanesia . The conclusion from research published in 2016 is that the initial population of those two sites appears to come directly from Taiwan or the northern Philippines and did not mix with

11781-659: The Trusteeship Agreement terminated. The new Independent State of Samoa was not a monarchy, though the Malietoa titleholder remained very influential. It effectively ended however with the death of Malietoa Tanumafili II , the country's head of state, on May 11, 2007. In the 10th century, the Tuʻi Tonga Empire was established in Tonga, and most of the Western Pacific came within its sphere of influence, up to parts of

11934-605: The United States on 14 January 1859, in accordance with the Guano Islands Act . In 1894, French Frigate Shoals, Kure Atoll , Midway Atoll , and Pearl and Hermes Reef were leased for 25 years by the Republic of Hawaii to the North Pacific Phosphate and Fertilizer Company; however, guano and phosphate deposits at French Frigate Shoals were found to be impractical to mine. The Republic did not formally claim possession of

12087-537: The University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit. The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as Duolingo . Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols. The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi , is based on the Latin script . Hawaiian words end only in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by

12240-535: The approach of Hurricane Neki by landing a USCG C-130 on Tern's coral airstrip. In 2000/1 the United States Congress approved US$ 10 million to repair the islands, one of the major issues being that the double-wall steel sea wall around Tern island had deteriorated and was trapping sea life such as seals. By 2004, Army Corps of Engineers, with additional funding from the Fish & Wild Life service conducted

12393-891: The archaeological record, there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC, " Lapita peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of northwest Melanesia . This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence "Out of Taiwan ". They had given up rice production, for instance, which required paddy field agriculture unsuitable for small islands. However, they still cultivated other ancestral Austronesian staple cultigens like Dioscorea yams and taro (the latter are still grown with smaller-scale paddy field technology), as well as adopting new ones like breadfruit and sweet potato . The results of research at

12546-625: The archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa - Tonga . Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands. Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between

12699-541: The area before, including many that were new to science. The French Frigate Shoals project was part of the Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Census of Marine Life . In addition to scientific analysis, a National Geographic photographer was also on board. The photographer noted the range of vibrant colors and shapes among the coral life. Jim Maragos, an expert on coral life in this region of ocean estimated they discovered 11 new species of coral. The shark population and type

12852-424: The barracks. The US Fish & Wildlife service closed its field station on Tern island at the end of 2012. Since then, the island has only been visited periodically. In 2016, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ship conducted a 33-day survey expedition of the French Frigate Shoals, including reporting on the condition of the reefs. In October 2018, Hurricane Walaka eroded away most of East Island,

13005-459: The breakers. At daybreak, the ships returned and mapped the southeastern half of the atoll, as well as finding the rock that would later be named after La Pérouse. La Pérouse named the shoals Basse des Frégates Françaises , the "Shoal of the French Frigates". The expedition went on to discover the nearby Necker Island . His ships were L'Astrolabe (under command of Fleuriot de Langle ) and

13158-402: The central and southern Pacific Ocean . The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are called Polynesians . They have many things in common, including linguistic relations , cultural practices , and traditional beliefs . In centuries past, they had a strong shared tradition of sailing and using stars to navigate at night. The term Polynésie was first used in 1756 by

13311-426: The chiefly title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji ("George") in 1831. In 1875, with the help of the missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker , he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy, formally adopted the western royal style, emancipated the "serfs", enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom of the press, and limited the power of the chiefs. Tonga became a British protectorate under

13464-411: The creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children. In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played

13617-401: The decline of the Tui Manuʻa's power, with the western isles of Savaiʻi and Upolu rising to prominence in the post-Tongan occupation period and the establishment of the tafaʻifa system that dominated Samoan politics well into the 20th century. This was disrupted in the early 1900s due to colonial intervention, with east–west division by Tripartite Convention (1899) and subsequent annexation by

13770-438: The department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools . This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui , who

13923-484: The east. This model presents consistencies and inconsistencies with models of Polynesian migration that are based on archaeology and linguistic analysis. The 2021 genomic model presents a migration pathway from Samoa to the Cook Islands (Rarotonga), then to the Society Islands (Tōtaiete mā) in the 11th century AD, the western Austral Islands (Tuha'a Pae) and the Tuāmotu Archipelago in the 12th century AD, with

14076-575: The efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family. In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch. Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than

14229-423: The exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite

14382-424: The first European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, calling it Gente Hermosa (Beautiful People). Cook Islanders are ethnically Polynesians or Eastern Polynesia. They are culturally associated with Tahiti, Eastern Islands, NZ Maori and Hawaii. The Lau Islands were subject to periods of Tongan rulership and then Fijian control until their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau of

14535-422: The five vowel letters ( A, E, I, O, U ) and seven of the short diphthongs ( AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU ). In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one- phoneme , and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn

14688-545: The general archaeological complex of the earliest "Oceanic" Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands are named also lapsed in Western Polynesia. Language, social life and material culture were very distinctly "Polynesian" by 1000 BC. Early European observers detected theocratic elements in traditional Polynesian government. Linguistically, there are five sub-groups of the Polynesian language group . Each represents

14841-525: The god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival. In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore

14994-416: The government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at

15147-477: The initial settlement of individual islands; although Professor Matisoo-Smith of the Otago study said that the founding Māori population of New Zealand must have been in the hundreds, much larger than previously thought. The Polynesian population experienced a founder effect and genetic drift. The Polynesian may be distinctively different both genotypically and phenotypically from the parent population from which it

15300-446: The island until another ship could retrieve them. In December 1859 the brig Wanderer was also lost on the shoals, but the crew was rescued. During the late 19th century American and European companies became interested in the possibility of mining guano in the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Navy Lieutenant John M. Brooke , sailing on the naval schooner USS  Fenimore Cooper , formally took possession of French Frigate Shoals for

15453-600: The islands, most of them (16) on Tern Island. Two species, the blue-gray noddy and the brown booby, nest only on La Pèrouse Pinnacle . The island also is the wintering ground for several species of shorebird . After the Battle of Midway in WWII, Tern island was made into airstrip, nicknamed the "coral carrier" and would be between Midway Island and the main Hawaiian island. Tern was protected by thousands of feet of double wall steel sea wall, which has kept its stable in size. However, by 2000

15606-456: The language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations. The ʻAha Pūnana Leo 's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii , have received international recognition. The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and

15759-465: The language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language , Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawaiʻi than Hawaiian. Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English. Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines,

15912-482: The language was "soon destined to extinction." When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen Kapiʻolani , and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliʻuokalani , took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition " Aloha ʻOe " was already a famous song in the U.S. The decline of

16065-551: The largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed . Hawaiian, along with English , is an official language of the US state of Hawaiʻi . King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. In 1896, the Republic of Hawaii passed Act 57, an English-only law which subsequently banned Hawaiian language as the medium on instruction from publicly funded schools and promoted strict physical punishment for children caught speaking

16218-630: The main Hawaiian Island chain. More than 600 species of marine invertebrates , many of which are endemic , are found there as well. More than 150 species of algae live among the reefs. Especially diverse algal communities are found immediately adjacent to La Pèrouse Pinnacle . This has led to speculation that an influx of additional nutrients – in the form of guano – is responsible for the diversity and productivity of algae in this environment. The reef waters support large numbers of fish . The masked angelfish ( Genicanthus personatus ), endemic to

16371-472: The marine nature reserve, and along with other islands are visited periodically for research. The highest point in the shoals is on La Perouse Pinnacle which is a volcanic rock that rises 122 ft (37 m) above the surrounding lagoon. In the 20th century, the shoals were used by the Imperial Japanese Navy as part of an operation to attack Hawaii. Afterwards, a small United States Navy base

16524-471: The migrant pathway branching to the north to the Marquesas (Te Henua 'Enana), to Raivavae in the south, and to the easternmost destination on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), which was settled in approximately 1200 AD via Mangareva . The Polynesians were matrilineal and matrilocal Stone Age societies upon their arrival in Tonga , Samoa and the surrounding islands, after having spent at least some time in

16677-474: The name "Oh-Why-hee" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, ʻo , immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying ʻO Hawaiʻi , which means "[This] is Hawaiʻi." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti". The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [ ʍ ] pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of

16830-478: The northern vertex of the referenced "triangle". Polynesia is characterized by a small amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid- and southern Pacific Ocean . It comprises approximately 300,000 to 310,000 square kilometres (117,000 to 118,000 sq mi) of land, of which more than 270,000 km (103,000 sq mi) are within New Zealand . The Hawaiian archipelago comprises about half

16983-516: The ocean. The reefs are noted for having survived many Pacific storms, although these storms have damaged facilities, wildlife, and significantly reduced the area of some islands. The island was discovered by the French in the late 18th century and was formally claimed by the United States in 1859 under the Guano Islands Act . The main focus of the USA was to administer it as a wildlife refuge, but it became involved in military events during WW2, and one island

17136-508: The only remnant of its volcanic origins. The total land area of the islets is 61.508 acres (24.891 ha), while the total coral reef area of the shoals is over 232,000 acres (94,000 ha). Tern Island , with an area of 26.014 acres (10.527 ha), has a landing strip and permanent habitations for a small number of people. It is maintained as a field station in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge by

17289-625: The original naval air station. The ship YHB-10 arrived at French Frigate Shoals in August 1942, carrying staff to help establish the naval base there. It was moored on the north side of Tern island and used as a floating barracks . On March 26, 1945, it was sunk as a torpedo practice target near the shoals. The United States Coast Guard operated a LORAN navigation station on East Island until 1952, and Tern Island until 1979. At any one time, 15 to 20 military personnel were billeted to French Frigate Shoals. As with all Coast Guard isolated duty stations,

17442-661: The past. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the region. The Line Islands and the Phoenix Islands , most of which are parts of Kiribati , had no permanent settlements until European colonization, but are often considered to be parts of the Polynesian Triangle . Polynesians once inhabited the Auckland Islands , the Kermadec Islands , and Norfolk Island in pre-colonial times, but these islands were uninhabited by

17595-530: The phrase "Hawaiian Language". In Hawaiian, the language is called ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , since adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family . It is closely related to other Polynesian languages , such as Samoan , Marquesan , Tahitian , Māori , Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island ) and Tongan . According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized

17748-415: The pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations. Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the luna , or overseers, found a way to communicate among themselves. Pidgin eventually made its way off the plantation and into the greater community, where it is still used to this day. The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii ( Hawaiʻi in

17901-403: The pinnacle is often mistaken for a ship from a distance. Whale-Skate Island is a submerged island in the French Frigate Shoals. These islands suffered considerably from erosion starting in the 1960s, and by the late 1990s, Whale-Skate Island was completely washed over. The reef system at French Frigate Shoals supports 41 species of stony corals , including several species that are not found in

18054-513: The reading and writing of Hawaiian. For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r ), the word is spelled only as pule . However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac. Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized , they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized

18207-560: The remainder. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos , including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa , are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots (volcanoes). The other land masses in Polynesia — New Zealand , Norfolk Island , and Ouvéa , the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia — are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia . Zealandia is believed to have mostly sunk below sea level 23 million years ago, and recently partially resurfaced due to

18360-541: The remains of early settlers of the Mariana Islands and early Lapita individuals from Vanuatu and Tonga also suggest that both migrations originated directly from the same ancient Austronesian source population from the Philippines . The complete absence of "Papuan" admixture in the early samples indicates that these early voyages bypassed eastern Indonesia and the rest of New Guinea . The authors have also suggested

18513-459: The same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910. In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with

18666-475: The seawall was trapping marine life and Congress authorized some repair work. The seawall is noted for trapping seals and seals because there are holes where life gets into the gap between the two walls but cannot escape. In 2023, the entrapment of seals in the decayed seawall was noted during a visit to the island. A three-week research mission in October 2006 by the NOAA led to the discovery of 100 species never seen in

18819-441: The second largest island of the French Frigate Shoals. About 11 acres of East Island were eliminated, which was thought to be caused by the large storm surge that Walaka caused in the area. The hurricane damaged many of the shoal's islands, and underwater many coral reefs were stripped of sea life. Following the destruction of East Island, researchers have been forced to make camp at the smaller Tern Island when conducting field work in

18972-410: The ship took some of the first aerial photographs of the islands. In 1936, the seaplane tender USS  Wright came to the shoals, and established a base on East island to support a month of seaplane operations. In 1937, a member of a USN seaplane crew died at the French Frigate Shoals while his PK-1 seaplane was moored there. In March 1942, Imperial Japanese Navy planners took advantage of

19125-469: The shoal's isolation to use its protected waters as an anchorage and refueling point for the long-range flying boats employed in Operation K , a reconnaissance operation that aimed to disrupt salvage and repair operations following the attack on Pearl Harbor . The operation involved three IJN submarines and two Kawanishi H8K flying boats . The H8K flying boats stopped to refuel in the shoals from two of

19278-551: The shoals so they sailed the boats to Hawaii. In 1902 the Albatross expedition visited the French Frigate Shoals and studied the birds. Several naturalists visited and published an ornithological report. In 1903 the ship Connétable de Richemont wrecked on the shoals, but its crew escaped on boats to mainland Hawaii. In 1909 the French Frigate Shoals became part of the Hawaiian Island Reservation and administered by

19431-504: The shoals until 13 July 1895. French Frigate Shoals was included among the lands and waters acquired by the United States on 7 July 1898, when Hawaii became a United States territory . In 1909 it was made a part of the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation. In 1896 the seal hunting ship Mattie E. Dyer wrecked on the shoals, and the crew abandoned ship in whaleboats . There was no water on the island they landed on among

19584-451: The shoals were known to the outside world. La Pérouse, aboard the frigate Boussole , was sailing westward from Monterey en route to Macau . During the night of 6 November 1786, sailors sighted breakers directly in their path, about a thousand feet ahead. Both the Boussole and her companion vessel, the frigate Astrolabe , were immediately brought about, passing within a few hundred feet of

19737-406: The size from storms, but are famed as breeding grounds for turtles. East was also home to Coast Guard base in the late 20th century. The islands are surrounded by a coral reef, and the islands themselves are noted breeding ground for turtles, seals, and birds. Habitation is difficult with little vegetation and no fresh water. In the 20th century the French Frigate Shoals are also called Lalo as part of

19890-443: The sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to. Polynesia Polynesia ( UK : / ˌ p ɒ l ɪ ˈ n iː z i ə / POL -in- EE -zee-ə , US : /- ˈ n iː ʒ ə / -⁠ EE -zhə ) is a subregion of Oceania , made up of more than 1,000 islands scattered over

20043-517: The statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However,

20196-589: The subject and the ʻawe representing the object. Hawaiian immersion schools teach content that both adheres to state standards and stresses Hawaiian culture and values. The existence of immersion schools in Hawaiʻi has developed the opportunity for intergenerational transmission of Hawaiian at home. The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language is a college at the University of Hawaii at Hilo dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian. It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools. It

20349-518: The submarines, I-15 and I-19 . After the operation, United States Pacific Fleet Commander Chester W. Nimitz ordered a permanent United States Navy presence at the shoals. It was the combat debut of the H8K. Some U.S. Navy ships that were stationed at the Shoals in 1942 were the seaplane tender USS  Thornton and the mine warfare ship USS  Preble . Over twenty flying boats were operated from

20502-648: The time European explorers arrived. The oceanic islands to the east of Easter Island, such as Clipperton Island , the Galápagos Islands , and the Juan Fernández Islands , were in the past formerly categorized on rare occasion as part of Polynesia. No evidence of prehistoric contact with either Polynesians or the indigenous peoples of the Americas has been found. The Polynesian people are considered, by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic evidence,

20655-419: The time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by

20808-550: The voyage with, Martha . Captain Pollard is noted for inspiring the novel Moby Dick when his sailing ship the Essex was rammed by a whale. The discovery was important in the field of maritime archeology for various reasons; there is only one surviving whaling ship from this period, and the wreck of the Two Brothers had been lost for nearly two centuries. The finding of the Two Brothers

20961-485: The west, and the distinctive Polynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga and Samoa to the east. Where there was once faint evidence of uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polynesian speech, most of this is now called "borrowing" and is thought to have occurred in those and later years more than as a result of continuing unity of their earliest dialects on those far-flung lands. Contacts were mediated especially through

21114-467: The western Polynesian societies are well documented and it is speculated that the Tui Manuʻa dynasty grew through its success in obtaining control over the oceanic trade of currency goods such as finely woven ceremonial mats, whale ivory " tabua ", obsidian and basalt tools, chiefly red feathers, and seashells reserved for royalty (such as polished nautilus and the egg cowry ). Samoa's long history of various ruling families continued until well after

21267-473: The wreck site, which included items like anchors and equipment. In 2008 a shipwreck of a 19th-century whaling ship was found near Shark island. The wreck was identified in 2011 as the whaling sailing ship Two Brothers . The ship wrecked the night of February 11, 1823, under the command of Captain George Pollard Jr. (of Essex fame). The crew was able to be rescued by another whaling ship they were on

21420-434: The ʻokina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters: A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahakō ( kaha 'mark' + kō 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron ). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like

21573-498: Was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival , which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god Lono . The celebration lasts for the entirety of the rainy season . It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing. The islanders' story foretold of

21726-551: Was enacted for the first time in any of the United States. Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his Report to the Legislature for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong , the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that

21879-416: Was established there to prevent it from being used again. After the war it was used by the United States Coast Guard for a LORAN radio navigation station. By the 21st century, it was primarily used for oceanographic and biological study as a nature reserve. Studies at the island helped establish the nature of plastic pollution , and in 2020 one island was designated as contaminated by plastic pollution from

22032-453: Was found that 96% (or 93.8%) of Polynesian mtDNA has an Asian origin, as does one-third of Polynesian Y chromosomes; the remaining two-thirds from New Guinea and nearby islands; this is consistent with matrilocal residence patterns. Polynesians existed from the intermixing of few ancient Austronesian-Melanesian founders, genetically they belong almost entirely to the Haplogroup B (mtDNA), which

22185-473: Was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian. Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered

22338-417: Was made into an airstrip and base. In addition, East Island also had a base on it. After the war, the shoals were used for a radio location base called Loran, and the airstrip was used for fishing. A coast guard base was on the island until 1979, and then the Fish and Wildlife Service until 2012. One issue was the large Pacific storms that affected the islands. In the 21st century, the decayed Tern island seawall

22491-407: Was partially repaired, and in 2018 East Island was nearly washed away. In the 2020s, the shoals are a noted nature reserve and routinely visited for research. Issues that are studied include marine life, including coral, sharks, fish, seals, sea turtles, and many types of birds. There is also marine archeology conducted on sea wrecks, and a rare whaling vessel wreck was discovered here. Although there

22644-604: Was sent to help support repairs. Whale-Skate Island washed away in the 1990s. A United States Fish and Wildlife Service field station was active at the island from 1979 to 2012. In 2000, the atoll became part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, which was incorporated into the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument in 2006. In 2009 the islands were evacuated during

22797-409: Was settled is debated, it is widely accepted that the island groups in the geographic center of the region (i.e. the Cook Islands , Society Islands , Marquesas Islands , etc.) were settled initially between 1000 and 1150 AD, and ending with more far flung island groups such as Hawaii , New Zealand , and Easter Island settled between 1200 and 1300 AD. Tiny populations may have been involved in

22950-419: Was studied in 2009, and it was determined that some of the species in the area include galapagos sharks , gray reef sharks , and tiger sharks . Hawaiian language 2nd: 22,000–24,000 Hawaiian ( ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , pronounced [ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐjʔi] ) is a Polynesian language and critically endangered language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaiʻi ,

23103-452: Was the first discovery of a wrecked Nantucket whaling ship. At least five other vessels are recorded to have wrecked on the French Frigate Shoals between 1859 and 1917. In December 2012, five people were evacuated from the FFS in advance of a severe storm. They departed by boat from Tern island and travelled back to Honolulu. The storm caused damage to some of the facilities on the island including

23256-454: Was transformed into an airbase. After World War II, the island was turned over to Hawaii, and it served several different purposes. The shoals were used by the Empire of Japan as a staging point for their surprise attack on the Hawaiian Islands , but were then occupied by U.S. forces. A few months later, it was again near the front lines in the battle of Midway . After that battle, one island, Tern,

23409-444: Was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niʻihau , native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. Niʻihau

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