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55-909: Norway was neutral in World War I and tried to remain neutral in World War II . Neutrality was maintained until the German invasion began on 9 April 1940. With the help of the Allied forces, the Norwegian defense initially saw a number of successes. For instance, troops were able to take over most of the French line north of the Rombaksfjord and were poised for a major offensive, which was scheduled on June 8. The attack was, however, canceled by General Antoine Bethouart , following an Allied pullout from Norway. Despite reservations on

110-503: A mutual defense pact (under TIAR and NATO respectively). For many states, such as Ireland, neutrality does not mean the absence of any foreign interventionism. Peacekeeping missions for the United Nations are seen as intertwined with it. The Swiss electorate rejected a 1994 proposal to join UN peacekeeping operations. Despite this, 23 Swiss observers and police have been deployed around

165-514: A convoy to Gibraltar and sunk, killing 89 of her crew. The Norwegian navy had commissioned five new Flower-class corvettes , which also saw action in the Atlantic. One was torpedoed in November 1942, resulting in the loss of 47 of her crew. Another sank in 1944 after colliding with a destroyer. One Castle-class corvette, HNoMS  Tunsberg Castle , struck a mine off the coast of Finnmark in 1944 and

220-509: A convoy was attacked by several German E-boats , and Eskdale was hit by two torpedoes and sunk, resulting in the loss of 25 of her crew. Throughout this period, Norwegian minesweeper boats continued working to clear mines from convoy routes and planned offensive channels. The Norwegian navy acquired a British U-class submarine named HNoMS  Uredd in December 1941. Uredd joined the 9th Submarine Flotilla, and participated in operations in

275-471: A fellow member that is the victim of armed aggression. It accords "an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in [other member states'] power" but would "not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States" (neutral policies), allowing members to respond with non-military aid. Ireland's constitution prohibits participating in such a common defence. With

330-570: A political alliance within the European Union . Sweden 's traditional policy was not to participate in military alliances, with the intention of staying neutral in the case of war . Immediately before World War II , the Nordic countries stated their neutrality, but Sweden changed its position to that of non-belligerent at the start of the Winter War . Sweden would uphold its policy of neutrality until

385-575: A post-war Norway, 1,442 were flown in early to assist in the Liberation of Finnmark . Neutrality (international relations) A neutral country is a state that is neutral towards belligerents in a specific war or holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts (including avoiding entering into military alliances such as NATO , CSTO or the SCO ). As a type of non-combatant status, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under

440-452: Is soundproofed to reduce its acoustic signature and often constructed using wood, fiberglass , or non-ferrous metal , or is degaussed to reduce its magnetic signature . Mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper and use a towed body (e.g., oropesa , paravane ) to maintain

495-404: Is already in port, in which case it must have a 24-hour head start. A prize ship captured by a belligerent in the territorial waters of a neutral power must be surrendered by the belligerent to the neutral, which must intern its crew. Neutrality has been recognised in different ways, and sometimes involves a formal guarantor. For example, Switzerland and Belgium's neutrality was recognized by

550-494: Is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the friendly ship that is about to transit the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines. However, mines directed at other ships might remain. The minesweeper differs from a minehunter ; the minehunter actively detects and neutralizes individual mines. Minesweepers are in many cases complementary to minehunters, depending on

605-930: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . During the Cold War , former Yugoslavia claimed military and ideological neutrality from both the Western and Eastern Bloc , becoming a co-founder of the Non-Aligned Movement . There have been considerable changes to the interpretation of neutral conduct over the past centuries. Belligerents may not invade neutral territory, and a neutral power's resisting any such attempt does not compromise its neutrality. A neutral power must intern belligerent troops who reach its territory, but not escaped prisoners of war . Belligerent armies may not recruit neutral citizens, but they may go abroad to enlist. Belligerent armies' personnel and materiel may not be transported across neutral territory, but

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660-521: The Donegal Corridor , making it possible for British planes to attack German U-boats in the mid-Atlantic. On the other hand, both Axis and Allied pilots who crash landed in Ireland were interned. Sweden and Switzerland, surrounded by possessions and allies of Nazi Germany similarly made concessions to Nazi requests as well as to Allied requests. Sweden was also involved in intelligence operations with

715-489: The Russo-Japanese War , using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers. In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nation's shipping and began efforts to counter the threat. Sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was a blockade aided by mines and not an invasion. The function of the fishing fleet's trawlers with their trawl gear

770-481: The U.S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. The Royal Navy also has four minesweepers stationed in the Persian Gulf as part of the 9th Mine Counter-Measures Squadron . Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as "sweeps", for disabling mines. The modern minesweeper is designed to reduce the chances of it detonating mines itself; it

825-527: The law of war from belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemy civilians and prisoners of war . Different countries interpret their neutrality differently: some, such as Costa Rica have demilitarized , while Switzerland holds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with a sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment. Not all neutral countries avoid any foreign deployment or alliances, as Austria and Ireland have active UN peacekeeping forces and

880-693: The navy and the army until the establishment of the Royal Norwegian Air Force in 1944. Some aircraft that were ordered prior to hostilities were delivered but few were ready for combat. After the flight to the United Kingdom a training base was established in Canada and many of the pilots joined the RAF in both bomber and fighter commands. Most notable are the two Spitfire squadrons, 331 and 332 . On 1 November 1944 these squadrons were incorporated into

935-528: The 30th MTB Flotilla. This unit worked to disrupt German shipping along the Norwegian coast. The Norwegian navy requisitioned many fishing and whaling ships from its merchant fleet for conversion into minesweepers, patrol ships, escort vessels, and various other naval auxiliary ships. From among these ships, the Norwegian Naval Independent Unit - which earned the nickname "Shetland bus" for its operations between Shetland and occupied Norway -

990-668: The Allies, including listening stations in Sweden and espionage in Germany. Spain offered to join the war on the side of Nazi Germany in 1940, allowed Axis ships and submarines to use its ports, imported war materials for Germany, and sent a Spanish volunteer combat division to aid the Nazi war effort. Portugal officially stayed neutral, but actively supported both the Allies by providing overseas naval bases, and Germany by selling tungsten . The United States

1045-595: The Axis and Allied powers alike, while still keeping to the rules of the Law of Neutrality . The Holy See has been criticized—but largely exonerated later—for its silence on moral issues of the war. Some countries may occasionally claim to be "neutral" but not comply with the internationally agreed upon definition of neutrality as listed above. Minesweeper A minesweeper is a small warship designed to remove or detonate naval mines . Using various mechanisms intended to counter

1100-704: The European states closest to the war, only Andorra , Ireland , Portugal , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland (with Liechtenstein ), and Vatican City (the Holy See ) remained neutral to the end. Their fulfillment to the letter of the rules of neutrality has been questioned: Ireland supplied important secret information to the Allies ; for instance, the date of D-Day was decided on the basis of incoming Atlantic weather information , some of it supplied by Ireland but kept from Germany. Ireland also secretly allowed Allied aircraft to use

1155-501: The North Cape . Shortly after Scharnhorst 's engagement with HMS Duke of York , Stord and three other S-class destroyers were ordered to position themselves for a torpedo strike on the battleship. Along with HMS Scorpion , Stord fired eight torpedoes, four of which hit, incapacitating Scharnhorst and allowing the rest of the Allied fleet to catch up and sink it. After the battle, the commanding officer of Duke of York said "...

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1210-612: The North Sea. She was sunk during her 8th mission, in February 1943; it was only later determined that she had struck a mine, south of the town of Bodø . Another U-class submarine, HNoMS  Ula , was acquired in November 1944, and was in service until the end of the war. The destroyer HNoMS  Stord played an integral role in the sinking of the German battleship Scharnhorst in the Battle of

1265-501: The Norwegian destroyer Stord carried out the most daring attack of the whole action..." By the start of 1943, the Norwegian navy had grown to 58 ships and more than 5000 officers and sailors. On D-Day (6 June 1944) the Norwegian navy attached to the invasion of Normandy numbered eleven ships and 1,000 sailors. One ship, the S-class destroyer HNoMS  Svenner , was struck by a German torpedo while en route to her bombardment position in

1320-532: The Soviet Union) but in other cases it is an active policy of the country concerned to respond to a geopolitical situation ( Ireland in the Second World War ). For the country concerned, the policy is usually codified beyond the treaty itself. Austria and Japan codify their neutrality in their constitutions, but they do so with different levels of detail. Some details of neutrality are left to be interpreted by

1375-654: The Swedes each have a long history of neutrality: they have not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 and 1814, respectively. Switzerland continues to pursue, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. According to Edwin Reischauer , "To be neutral you must be ready to be highly militarized, like Switzerland or Sweden." Sweden ended its policy of neutrality when it joined NATO in 2024. In contrast, some neutral states may heavily reduce their military and use it for

1430-660: The US pretense of neutrality. Sweden also made concessions to the German Reich during the war to maintain its neutrality, the biggest concession was to let the 163rd German Infantry Division to be transferred from Norway to Finland by Swedish trains, to aid the Finns in the Continuation War . The decision caused a political " Midsummer Crisis " of 1941, about Sweden's neutrality . Equally, Vatican City made various diplomatic concessions to

1485-596: The United Kingdom by 7 June 1940. Thirteen ships, five aircraft and 500 men from the Royal Norwegian Navy followed. There were about 25,000 Norwegian soldiers who escaped and eventually served in the Free Norwegian forces overseas. On 10 June, Ruge signed the treaty of capitulation for the Norwegian Army. The Germans occupied Norway until the German capitulation on 8 May 1945. Unlike the navy and air force,

1540-468: The approval and support of the British government and navy, the Norwegian navy set to work repairing and re-equipping their ships, with the goal of remaining an effective force of resistance against Germany. Of the thirteen ships that escaped to Britain, only one was a modern combat ship: HNoMS Sleipner . Another ship was a much older and nearly obsolete destroyer, HNoMS Draug , launched in 1908. Sleipner

1595-616: The army was not able to easily escape, and almost all remained in Norway after the German invasion . Some of these men would form part of the Norwegian resistance forces during the rest of the war until Norway regained freedom in May 1945. Norwegian soldiers in the United Kingdom formed units including the Norwegian Independent Company 1 , and 5 Troop of the No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando . During

1650-676: The benefit to a belligerent of entering the country by force not worth the cost. This may include: The term derives from the historic maritime neutrality of the First League of Armed Neutrality of the Nordic countries and Russia under the leadership of Catherine the Great , which was invented in the late 18th century but has since been used only to refer to countries' neutralities. Sweden and Switzerland are independently of each other famed for their armed neutralities, which they maintained throughout both World War I and World War II . The Swiss and

1705-399: The dawn of 6 June and sank, becoming the first Allied ship to be lost that day. On 26 June HNoMS Glaisdale was badly damaged when she struck a mine off the coast of Normandy. She was towed to port, where she remained out of commission for the rest of the war. The captain of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla spoke well of Glaisdale and her crew, for their 2 years of service in the unit: "...I take

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1760-412: The express purpose of home defense and the maintenance of their neutrality, while other neutral states may abandon military power altogether (examples of states doing this include Liechtenstein ). However, the lack of a military does not always result in neutrality: Countries such as Costa Rica and Iceland replaced their standing army with a military guarantee from a stronger power or participation in

1815-506: The extent to which they are, or should be, neutral is debated. For example, Ireland, which sought guarantees for its neutrality in EU treaties, argues that its neutrality does not mean that Ireland should avoid engagement in international affairs such as peacekeeping operations. Since the enactment of the Lisbon Treaty , EU members are bound by TEU, Article 42.7 , which obliges states to assist

1870-656: The first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop . By the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove mines. Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II . Combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australia's 35 civilian ships that became auxiliary minesweepers . Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout

1925-445: The government to flee the capital, and eventually make their way to the United Kingdom. The Norwegian Army was forced northwards from the capital towards Lillehammer where they were joined by two British brigades. It was decided that the Allies should concentrate on the recapture of Narvik , which was entered by the Norwegian 6th Division on 28 May. However, the Allied garrison of the port was unsustainable and it had been evacuated to

1980-490: The government while others are explicitly stated; for example, Austria may not host any foreign bases, and Japan cannot participate in foreign wars. Yet Sweden, lacking formal codification, was more flexible during the Second World War in allowing troops to pass through its territory. Armed neutrality is the posture of a state or group of states that has no alliance with either side of a war but asserts that it will defend itself against resulting incursions from any party, making

2035-510: The launch of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in defense at the end of 2017, the EU's activity on military matters has increased. The policy was designed to be inclusive and allows states to opt in or out of specific forms of military cooperation. That has allowed most of the neutral states to participate, but opinions still vary. Some members of the Irish Parliament considered Ireland's joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. It

2090-453: The navy in exile were two motor torpedo boats (MTBs), simply named "5" and "6." These were deployed with the British 11th MTB Flotilla, and performed defensive operations in the English channel. Five more MTBs were commissioned and put into service, but were found to be not very seaworthy, and were retired by mid-summer 1942. They were replaced by eight Fairmile D MTBs , which were organized into

2145-543: The new Royal Norwegian Air Force and were renamed as such along with new squadrons: 330 ( Northrop N-3PB , Catalina , Sunderlands ), 333 ( Catalina , Mosquito ) and later 334 ( Mosquitos ). Norwegian police troops, known as Rikspoliti, were recruited from refugees in Sweden during the war. They were funded by the Norwegian government in exile , and trained by the Swedish military. Originally intended to help maintain order in

2200-506: The opportunity of expressing my high appreciation of the work done by [HNoMS] Glaisdale while serving with the First Destroyer Flotilla. She has always been a happy and efficient ship..." By the end of the war, the Norwegian navy had 52 combatant ships and 7,500 men in service. During the fleet-in-exile period, the navy lost 27 ships, and around 25% of all men on ship crews lost their lives. Norway retained separate air forces for

2255-563: The part of the Norwegians, an evacuation plan was put in effect that involved the exile of the King of Norway to Britain and the withdrawal of free Norwegian forces, which would be commanded by General Carl Gustav Fleischer . General Ruge stayed, refusing to abandon the remaining troops. He instead supervised an orderly withdrawal, successfully demobilizing the back areas before the Germans found out what

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2310-514: The signatories of the Congress of Vienna , Austria has its neutrality guaranteed by its four former occupying powers, and Finland by the Soviet Union during the Cold War . The form of recognition varies, often by bilateral treaty (Finland), multilateral treaty (Austria) or a UN declaration (Turkmenistan). These treaties can in some ways be forced on a country (Austria's neutrality was insisted upon by

2365-452: The sweep at the desired depth and position. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, thereby causing a mine to detonate. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep: MSM (mine setting mode) and TSM (target simulation mode or target setting mode). MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence

2420-512: The threat posed by naval mines, minesweepers keep waterways clear for safe shipping. The earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty . Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appeared many centuries later during the Crimean War , when they were deployed by the British. The Crimean War minesweepers were rowboats trailing grapnels to snag mines. Minesweeping technology picked up in

2475-683: The war. Historian Gordon Williamson wrote that "Germany's minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine ." Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, and minesweeping crews were still active after VJ Day . After the Second World War, Allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized mechanized landing craft to sweep shallow harbors in and around North Korea . As of June 2012 ,

2530-441: The world in UN projects. The legitimacy of whether some states are as neutral as they claim has been questioned in some circles, although this depends largely on a state's interpretation of its form of neutrality. There are three members of the European Union that still describe themselves as a neutral country in some form: Austria , Ireland , and Malta . With the development of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy ,

2585-416: The wounded may be. A neutral power may supply communication facilities to belligerents, but not war materiel, although it need not prevent export of such materiel. Belligerent naval vessels may use neutral ports for a maximum of 24 hours, though neutrals may impose different restrictions. Exceptions are to make repairs—only the minimum necessary to put back to sea —or if an opposing belligerent's vessel

2640-666: The years in exile in Britain the bulk of the Norwegian Army consisted of a brigade in Dumfries , and smaller units stationed in Iceland, Jan Mayen , Svalbard and South Georgia . Some units were sent to take part in the liberation of Finnmark . The navy was the largest of the three Norwegian armed services that had evacuated to Britain. A new naval headquarters was established in London in June 1940, and with

2695-601: Was formed. Norway had at one point five destroyers, four corvettes, and three patrol/escort vessels deployed with the Liverpool Escort Forces and Western Local Escort Force, to engage in the Battle of the Atlantic . These included five Town-class destroyers operated by the Royal Navy which had been transferred to the Norwegians. One of these, HNoMS  Bath , was struck by a German torpedo in August 1941 while escorting

2750-459: Was going on. The evacuation involved a British battalion stationed at Dombås to cover the withdrawing troops while the Norwegians provided the transport. Britain sent the light cruiser HMS Glasgow as transport of King Haakon VII, the royal family, and his government. Norwegian coastal artillery sufficiently delayed the German capture of Oslo to permit the King of Norway , the Royal family and

2805-513: Was incorporated into the Royal Navy , and assigned to the protection of coastal shipping convoys, a task she performed until 1944. Draug stayed in British coastal waters, serving variously as a guard ship, convoy escort, and depot ship . The other 11 ships consisted of smaller patrol and fishery-protection ships, which were mainly converted into minesweepers and put into service along coastal convoy routes The first combatant ships commissioned for

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2860-658: Was initially neutral and bound by the Neutrality Acts of 1936 not to sell war materials to belligerents. Once war broke out, US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt persuaded Congress to replace the act with the Cash and carry program that allowed the US to provide military aid to the allies, despite opposition from non-interventionist members. The "Cash and carry" program was replaced in March 1941 by Lend-Lease , effectively ending

2915-619: Was passed with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity and peacekeeping... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets". Malta, as of December 2017, is the only neutral state not to participate in PESCO. The Maltese government argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality. Many countries made neutrality declarations during World War II . However, of

2970-561: Was recognized as having a natural connection with mine clearance and, among other things, trawlers were used to keep the English Channel clear of mines. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and equipment to follow. These reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, and uniforms, and paid as

3025-438: Was sunk. Two Hunt-class destroyers built by the Royal navy were transferred to the Norwegian navy, as HNoMS  Eskdale and HNoMS Glaisdale  [ fr ] . They served alongside four other British Hunt-class destroyers in the 1st Destroyer Flotilla, conducting offensive operations along the coast of France, and providing defensive support for shipping convoys and minesweeping/minelaying operations. On 14 April 1943,

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