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140-609: The first traces of people living in the Fraser Valley date from 4,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Stó꞉lō called this area, their traditional territory, S'ólh Téméxw . The early inhabitants of the area were highly mobile hunter-gatherers . There is archeological evidence of a settlement in the lower Fraser Canyon (called "the Milliken site" after historian August 'Gus' Milliken) and a seasonal encampment ("the Glenrose Cannery site") near

280-498: A "Developed Oldowan" Period in which they believed they saw evidence of an overlap in Oldowan and Acheulean. In their species-specific view of the two industries, Oldowan equated to H. habilis and Acheulean to H. erectus . Developed Oldowan was assigned to habilis and Acheulean to erectus . Subsequent dates on H. erectus pushed the fossils back to well before Acheulean tools; that is, H. erectus must have initially used Mode 1. There

420-630: A covered picnic shelter in the park. The park is also home to the OMI cemetery where nun, students land and buildings of government–nun school were initially leased to the Coqualeetza Training Centre after 1985. In 2005, the park was returned to the Stó꞉lō and given Indian reserve status. The land formally regained its Stó꞉lō name of pekw’xe: yles (Peckquaylis) and it is used by 21 different first nations governments. The language traditionally spoken by

560-518: A day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day. Sahlins' theory has been criticized for only including time spent hunting and gathering while omitting time spent on collecting firewood, food preparation, etc. Other scholars also assert that hunter-gatherer societies were not "affluent" but suffered from extremely high infant mortality, frequent disease, and perennial warfare. Researchers Gurven and Kaplan have estimated that around 57% of hunter-gatherers reach

700-559: A diet high in protein and low in other macronutrients results in the body using the protein as energy, possibly leading to protein deficiency. Lean meat especially becomes a problem when animals go through a lean season that requires them to metabolize fat deposits. In areas where plant and fish resources are scarce, hunter-gatherers may trade meat with horticulturalists for carbohydrates . For example, tropical hunter-gatherers may have an excess of protein but be deficient in carbohydrates, and conversely tropical horticulturalists may have

840-510: A few. In Britain , there were numerous small quarries in downland areas where flint was removed for local use, for example. Many other rocks were used to make axes from stones, including the Langdale axe industry as well as numerous other sites such as Penmaenmawr and Tievebulliagh in Co Antrim, Ulster . In Langdale, there many outcrops of the greenstone were exploited, and knapped where

980-773: A more constant supply of sustenance. In 2018, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru . A 2020 study inspired by this discovery found that of 27 identified burials with hunter gatherers of a known sex who were also buried with hunting tools, 11 were female hunter gatherers, while 16 were male hunter gatherers. Combined with uncertainties, these findings suggest that anywhere from 30 to 50 percent of big game hunters were female. A 2023 study that looked at studies of contemporary hunter gatherer societies from

1120-500: A paper entitled, " Notes on the Original Affluent Society ", in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherers lives as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", as Thomas Hobbes had put it in 1651. According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more leisure than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from

1260-452: A process called reduction to sharpen or resharpen the flake. Across northern Australia, especially in Arnhem Land , the "Leilira blade", a rectangular stone flake shaped by striking quartzite or silcrete stone, was used as a spear tip and also as a knife, sometimes 30 cm (12 in) long. Tasmania did not have spears or stone axes, but the peoples there used tools which were adapted to

1400-524: A sharp edge. Such a tool is used for slicing; concussion would destroy the edge and cut the hand. Some Mode 2 tools are disk-shaped, others ovoid, others leaf-shaped and pointed, and others elongated and pointed at the distal end, with a blunt surface at the proximal end, obviously used for drilling. Mode 2 tools are used for butchering; not being composite (having no haft) they are not very effective killing instruments. The killing must have been done some other way. Mode 2 tools are larger than Oldowan. The blank

1540-567: A similar advantage over Acheulean technology which was worked from cores. As humans spread to the Americas in the Late Pleistocene, Paleo-Indians brought with them related stone tools, which evolved separately from Old World technologies. The Clovis point is the most widespread example of Late Pleistocene points in the Americas, dating to about 13,000 years ago. Mode 5 stone tools involve

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1680-578: A size of a few dozen people. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago, and after this was replaced only gradually with the spread of the Neolithic Revolution . The Late Pleistocene witnessed the spread of modern humans outside of Africa as well as the extinction of all other human species. Humans spread to the Australian continent and

1820-432: A slab knocked off a larger rock. From this blank he or she removes large flakes, to be used as cores. Standing a core on edge on an anvil stone, he or she hits the exposed edge with centripetal blows of a hard hammer to roughly shape the implement. Then the piece must be worked over again, or retouched, with a soft hammer of wood or bone to produce a tool finely knapped all over consisting of two convex surfaces intersecting in

1960-405: A smaller selection of (often larger) game and gathering a smaller selection of food. This specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as fishing nets , hooks, and bone harpoons . The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated as early as 12,000 years ago in

2100-516: A spherical hammerstone to cause conchoidal fractures removing flakes from one surface, creating an edge and often a sharp tip. The blunt end is the proximal surface; the sharp, the distal. Oldowan is a percussion technology. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the distal surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter, such as a bone or tuber. Experiments with modern humans found that all four Oldowan knapping techniques can be invented by knapping-naive participants, and that

2240-438: A splitting process known as lithic reduction . One simple form of reduction is to strike stone flakes from a nucleus (core) of material using a hammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator. If the goal is to produce flakes, the remnant lithic core may be discarded once too little remains. In some strategies, however, a flintknapper makes a tool from the core by reducing it to a rough unifacial or bifacial preform , which

2380-432: A surplus of carbohydrates but inadequate protein. Trading may thus be the most cost-effective means of acquiring carbohydrate resources. Hunter-gatherer societies manifest significant variability, depending on climate zone / life zone , available technology, and societal structure. Archaeologists examine hunter-gatherer tool kits to measure variability across different groups. Collard et al. (2005) found temperature to be

2520-622: A sustainable manner for centuries. California Indians view the idea of wilderness in a negative light. They believe that wilderness is the result of humans losing their knowledge of the natural world and how to care for it. When the earth turns back to wilderness after the connection with humans is lost then the plants and animals will retreat and hide from the humans. Stone technology Paleolithic Epipalaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Stone tools have been used throughout human history but are most closely associated with prehistoric cultures and in particular those of

2660-568: A technique known as microtomy . Freshly cut blades are always used since the sharpness of the edge is very great. These knives are made from high-quality manufactured glass, however, not from natural raw materials such as chert or obsidian . Surgical knives made from obsidian are still used in some delicate surgeries, as they cause less damage to tissues than surgical knives and the resulting wounds heal more quickly. In 1975, American archaeologist Don Crabtree manufactured obsidian scalpels which were used for surgery on his own body. In archaeology,

2800-441: A wide geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 25 to 50 members of an extended family. The Archaic period in

2940-465: Is 1745. Furthermore, 667 phrases have been archived on the website in Halq'eméylem. Coast Salish towns and villages were located along the waterways in watersheds , both for access to water for cooking and drinking, and for salmon fishing. Its importance in their culture was reflected in ceremonies dedicated to it. The various tribes, sometimes named by Europeans for the river they were located near, fished on

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3080-443: Is about 2.4–2.3 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools. The stone tools may have been made by Australopithecus afarensis , the species whose best fossil example is Lucy , which inhabited East Africa at the same time as the date of the oldest stone tools, a yet unidentified species, or by Kenyanthropus platyops (a 3.2 to 3.5-million-year-old Pliocene hominin fossil discovered in 1999). Dating of

3220-455: Is further reduced by using soft hammer flaking or by pressure flaking the edges. More complex forms of reduction may produce highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into a variety of tools such as scrapers , knives , sickles , and microliths . Archaeologists classify stone tools into industries (also known as complexes or technocomplexes ) that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics. In 1969 in

3360-678: Is inhospitable to large scale economic exploitation and maintain their subsistence based on hunting and gathering, as well as incorporating a small amount of manioc horticulture that supplements, but is not replacing, reliance on foraged foods. Evidence suggests big-game hunter-gatherers crossed the Bering Strait from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land bridge ( Beringia ), that existed between 47,000 and 14,000 years ago. Around 18,500–15,500 years ago, these hunter-gatherers are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between

3500-409: Is never total but is striking when viewed in an evolutionary context. One of humanity's two closest primate relatives, chimpanzees , are anything but egalitarian, forming themselves into hierarchies that are often dominated by an alpha male . So great is the contrast with human hunter-gatherers that it is widely argued by paleoanthropologists that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving

3640-456: Is not necessarily a one-way process. It has been argued that hunting and gathering represents an adaptive strategy , which may still be exploited, if necessary, when environmental change causes extreme food stress for agriculturalists. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies, especially since the widespread adoption of agriculture and resulting cultural diffusion that has occurred in

3780-432: Is obtained by foraging , that is, by gathering food from local naturally occurring sources, especially wild edible plants but also insects , fungi , honey , bird eggs , or anything safe to eat, and/or by hunting game (pursuing and/or trapping and killing wild animals , including catching fish ). This is a common practice among most vertebrates that are omnivores . Hunter-gatherer societies stand in contrast to

3920-405: Is the field of study whereby food plants of various peoples and tribes worldwide are documented. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available. Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the indigenous peoples of

4060-535: Is usually plentiful, and they are easy to transport and sharpen. The study of stone tools is a cornerstone of prehistoric archaeology because they are essentially indestructible and therefore a ubiquitous component of the archaeological record . Ethnoarchaeology is used to further the understanding and cultural implications of stone tool use and manufacture. Knapped stone tools are made from cryptocrystalline materials such as chert , flint , radiolarite , chalcedony , obsidian , basalt , and quartzite via

4200-582: The Acheulean Industry , named after the site of Saint-Acheul in France. The Acheulean was characterised not by the core, but by the biface , the most notable form of which was the hand axe . The Acheulean first appears in the archaeological record as early as 1.7 million years ago in the West Turkana area of Kenya and contemporaneously in southern Africa. The Leakeys, excavators at Olduvai, defined

4340-469: The Fertile Crescent , Ancient India , Ancient China , Olmec , Sub-Saharan Africa and Norte Chico . As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas unsuitable for agricultural use. Archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Ethnobotany

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4480-548: The Georgia Strait in 1791 and 1792, respectively, they did not reach the Fraser River or Stó꞉lō territory. The first contact between the Stó꞉lō and Europeans was indirect, through the transmission of infectious disease via other Indigenous peoples. There are two main theories for how the smallpox virus first reached the Stó꞉lō in late 1782. The first is that the disease came up from Mexico spreading with overland travelers,

4620-559: The Ju'/hoansi people of Namibia, women help men track down quarry. In the Australian Martu, both women and men participate in hunting but with a different style of gendered division; while men are willing to take more risks to hunt bigger animals such as kangaroo for political gain as a form of "competitive magnanimity", women target smaller game such as lizards to feed their children and promote working relationships with other women, preferring

4760-802: The Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats , they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Hunter-gatherers would eventually flourish all over the Americas, primarily based in the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, with offshoots as far east as the Gaspé Peninsula on the Atlantic coast , and as far south as Chile , Monte Verde . American hunter-gatherers were spread over

4900-639: The Levallois technique to produce smaller and sharper knife-like tools as well as scrapers. Also known as the "prepared core technique", flakes are struck from worked cores and then subsequently retouched. The Mousterian Industry was developed and used primarily by the Neanderthals , a native European and Middle Eastern hominin species, but a broadly similar industry is contemporaneously widespread in Africa. The widespread use of long blades (rather than flakes) of

5040-585: The Middle East , and also independently originated in many other areas including Southeast Asia , parts of Africa , Mesoamerica , and the Andes . Forest gardening was also being used as a food production system in various parts of the world over this period. Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in

5180-667: The Neolithic period, large axes were made from flint nodules by knapping a rough shape, a so-called "rough-out". Such products were traded across a wide area. The rough-outs were then polished to give the surface a fine finish to create the axe head. Polishing increased the strength and durability of the product. There were many sources of supply, including Grimes Graves in Suffolk, Cissbury in Sussex and Spiennes near Mons in Belgium to mention but

5320-509: The Southwest , Arctic , Poverty Point , Dalton and Plano traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish , seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods. Scholars like Kat Anderson have suggested that the term Hunter-gatherer is reductive because it implies that Native Americans never stayed in one place long enough to affect

5460-467: The Stone Age . Stone tools may be made of either ground stone or knapped stone , the latter fashioned by a craftsman called a flintknapper . Stone has been used to make a wide variety of tools throughout history, including arrowheads, spearheads, hand axes, and querns . Knapped stone tools are nearly ubiquitous in pre-metal-using societies because they are easily manufactured, the tool stone raw material

5600-740: The Sts'ailes people on the Harrison River , while ethnically and linguistically similar, is among a number of First Nations governments in the region who have distanced themselves from Stó꞉lō collective governance. Others include the Musqueam Indian Band ( Xwməθkwəy̓əm/X'Muzk'I'Um people), Tsleil-Waututh First Nation (historic: Burrard [Inlet] Indian Band, Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh people), Tsawwassen First Nation ( Sc̓əwaθən Məsteyəx people), and Semiahmoo First Nation ( Semyome people). The Stó꞉lō Declaration included twenty-four First Nations when it

5740-585: The Upper Palaeolithic Mode 4 industries appeared during the Upper Palaeolithic between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago, although blades were produced in small quantities much earlier by Neanderthals. The Aurignacian culture seems to have been the first to rely largely on blades. The use of blades exponentially increases the efficiency of core usage compared to the Levallois flake technique, which had

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5880-739: The Yewal Síyá꞉m (high leaders). The primary shelter for the Stó꞉lō people was in the form of a longhouse . Although some modern longhouses were built with gabled roofs, most Stó꞉lō longhouses were built with a single flat, but slanted roof, similar to the Xá꞉ytem Longhouse. Entire extended families would live in a longhouse, and the structure could be extended as the family expanded. Pit houses (or Quiggly hole houses) also were used during earlier generations. Although river and lake canoes were built within Stó꞉lō, larger ocean-going canoes were primarily acquired through trade with indigenous people of

6020-444: The invention of agriculture , hunter-gatherers who did not change were displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Across Western Eurasia, it was not until approximately 4,000 BC that farming and metallurgical societies completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser woodlands. Only

6160-548: The 1800s to the present day found that women hunted in 79 percent of hunter gatherer societies. However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies". At the 1966 " Man the Hunter " conference, anthropologists Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore suggested that egalitarianism

6300-664: The 2nd edition of World Prehistory , Grahame Clark proposed an evolutionary progression of flint-knapping in which the "dominant lithic technologies" occurred in a fixed sequence from Mode 1 through Mode 5. He assigned to them relative dates: Modes 1 and 2 to the Lower Palaeolithic , 3 to the Middle Palaeolithic , 4 to the Upper Paleolithic , and 5 to the Mesolithic , though there were other lithic technologies outside these Modes. Each region had its own timeline for

6440-799: The Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers entered North America from the North Asian mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge. During the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that early humans obtained food via scavenging , not hunting . Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands , which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by predators or that had died of natural causes. Scientists have demonstrated that

6580-401: The Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers. Individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, however, and thus archaeologists have identified a pattern of increasing regional generalization, as seen with

6720-474: The Americas for the first time, coincident with the extinction of numerous predominantly megafaunal species. Major extinctions were incurred in Australia beginning approximately 50,000 years ago and in the Americas about 15,000 years ago. Ancient North Eurasians lived in extreme conditions of the mammoth steppes of Siberia and survived by hunting mammoths , bison and woolly rhinoceroses. The settlement of

6860-620: The Fraser River and its tributaries, including the Chilliwack and the Harrison . Important parts of the community life of the people were related to the life cycle of the salmon. Ceremonies such as the First Salmon ceremony, performed when the first fish was caught each year, reflected its importance in Stó꞉lō culture. The First Salmon Ceremony was held when the first salmon were brought back from

7000-651: The Northwest Coast of North America and the Calusa in Florida ) are an exception to this rule. For example, the San people or "Bushmen" of southern Africa have social customs that strongly discourage hoarding and displays of authority, and encourage economic equality via sharing of food and material goods. Karl Marx defined this socio-economic system as primitive communism . The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers

7140-857: The Pacific Northwest Coast and the Yokuts , lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary. Amongst the earliest example of permanent settlements is the Osipovka culture (14–10.3 thousand years ago), which lived in a fish-rich environment that allowed them to be able to stay at the same place all year. One group, the Chumash , had the highest recorded population density of any known hunter and gatherer society with an estimated 21.6 persons per square mile. Hunter-gatherers tend to have an egalitarian social ethos, although settled hunter-gatherers (for example, those inhabiting

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7280-653: The Sisters of St. Ann. That school later moved in 1882 so that construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway could take place. The boys and girls lived separately. There was emphasis on the catechism of the Roman Catholic Church and academics. Later, there was a shift to agriculture and industrial vocations including woodworking, attending mass, ironing and sewing. Parents were allowed to visit and some camped around school. Students were given permission to visit

7420-569: The Stó꞉lō Nation. Eight others formed the Stó꞉lō Tribal Council. The eight members — Chawathil, Cheam, Kwantlen First Nation, Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt, Scowlitz, Seabird Island, Shxw'ow'hamel First Nation, and Soowahlie — are not participating in the treaty process. Hunter-gatherers A hunter-gatherer or forager is a human living in a community, or according to an ancestrally derived lifestyle , in which most or all food

7560-400: The Stó꞉lō and miners by creating separate territories for each group to occupy. This began the long history of land disputes between the Stó꞉lō and settlers. As the miners left in large numbers by 1860 the whiskey peddlers came in selling their "fire water" to the Stó꞉lō. Shortly after this more permanent immigrants arrived and began to establish farms. Because no treaties had been signed between

7700-562: The Stó꞉lō and the government, the settlement of this land was not in accordance with the Royal Proclamation of 1763 that stated that all land acquisition from the Aboriginals had to be done legally through a treaty process. No treaties were ever made in BC, and although Governor Douglas planned to create them, the gold rush and subsequent immigration rush hindered this. The main goal of his plan

7840-429: The Stó꞉lō fair compensation for all the land outside of the reserves being occupied by settlers. While setting up the reserves the Stó꞉lō were asked to help mark the territories themselves as it was recognized that only they would know what lands needed to be included such as berry patches, transformer sites, and burial grounds (although many spiritual sites were not revealed to ensure their secrecy). Sergeant William McColl

7980-453: The Stó꞉lō had little interest in beaver. The Hudson Bay Company then began to ask for salmon after seeing the impressive hauls that were being made. In August 1829 the Stó꞉lō traded Fort Langley 7000 Salmon. Since European settlement in Stó꞉lō territory the salmon have been experiencing decreases in numbers. Major contributions to this include the building of the CPR, agriculture, and forestry. One of

8120-639: The Stó꞉lō people is Halq'eméylem, the "Upriver dialect" of Halkomelem . Halq'eméylem is primarily spoken in Harrison Lake , lower Fraser Canyon, and the upper and central Fraser Valley. The dialect is included in the Coast Salish language family. While there are 278 fluent speakers of the dialects of Halkomelem, there are fewer than five fluent speakers of Halq'eméylem. Of these, the speakers who have achieved fluency are of dotage. Because of this, several speakers have been lost in each successive year. In turn,

8260-462: The Stó꞉lō population. Soon after the 1782 epidemic, the Stó꞉lō encountered Europeans face to face. The first European to explore the region from overland was Simon Fraser , who travelled down the river that bears his name in 1808. The Hudson's Bay Company established trading posts at Fort Langley (in 1827) and Fort Yale (1848). Their involvement in trading with the British brought great changes to

8400-454: The Stó꞉lō were limited in comparison with many other indigenous people, because they had been inoculated with the smallpox vaccine . Although deadly smallpox epidemics broke out at least once more (and possibly in 1824 and 1862), it was, however, only one of a number of serious diseases that would be brought to the area by European colonizers. Measles , mumps , tuberculosis , influenza , and venereal diseases also caused high fatalities among

8540-525: The University of British Columbia. An additional effort the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqʼ;eméylem Language Program has partaken in their efforts to revitalize and document the language is by using technology. The language staff involved in the program established an ongoing language archive on the mobile and website application First Voices. The number of singular words archived from the Halq'eméylem

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8680-412: The age of 15. Of those that reach 15 years of age, 64% continue to live to or past the age of 45. This places the life expectancy between 21 and 37 years. They further estimate that 70% of deaths are due to diseases of some kind, 20% of deaths come from violence or accidents and 10% are due to degenerative diseases. Mutual exchange and sharing of resources (i.e., meat gained from hunting) are important in

8820-477: The arguments put forward by Wilmsen. Doron Shultziner and others have argued that we can learn a lot about the life-styles of prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers—especially their impressive levels of egalitarianism. There are nevertheless a number of contemporary hunter-gatherer peoples who, after contact with other societies, continue their ways of life with very little external influence or with modifications that perpetuate

8960-409: The central parties that has been involved in the preservation of the language is the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqʼeméylem Language Program. In 1994, the program originated under the wing of the education department of the Stó꞉lō Nation's Community Economic Development division. It was established in the efforts to teach members of the community the language and be able to have these community members teach

9100-529: The city of Mission until 1948. On arrival at the school students were assigned lockers, beds and dormitory. They were also checked for lice and given two sets of clothes to be worn and marked. Accounts of abuse at the school vary from person to person and at different eras. Terry Glavin writes that in the 1800s, there was no corporal punishment at all, but in later periods strapping became routine, and for some students, conditions were nightmarish. In 1952, 16 students graduated with full grade 12 diplomas. In 1961,

9240-463: The climate and environment, such as the use of spongolite . In north-western Australia, "Kimberley point", a small triangular stone point, was created using kangaroo bone which had been shaped with stone into an awl, to make small serrations in the blade. Apart from being used as weapons and for cutting, grinding ( grindstones ), piercing and pounding, some stones, notably ochres , were used as pigment for painting. Stone tools are still one of

9380-479: The coast and Vancouver island. In the late nineteenth century, the emphasis on water transportation was replaced first by horse and buggy , then by train and automobile. Traditionally, Stó꞉lō girls went through puberty rites at the time of their first menstruation . A pubescent girl would be brought to a pit lined with cedar boughs and told to remain there during daylight hours, leaving only to eat and sleep. Women would bring her fir boughs and instruct her to pick out

9520-466: The company and partly for protection from competitors. The fort repelled an attack by the Euclataws of Quadra Island , helping to bring an end to slave raids on the lower Fraser by northern tribes. But, slave raiding continued for several decades after the establishment of Ft. Langley. After Simon Fraser ’s arrival in 1808 and the establishment of Fort Langley in 1827 the gold rush began in 1858. With

9660-400: The country of Denmark in 2007. In addition, wealth transmission across generations was also a feature of hunter-gatherers, meaning that "wealthy" hunter-gatherers, within the context of their communities, were more likely to have children as wealthy as them than poorer members of their community and indeed hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate an understanding of social stratification. Thus while

9800-447: The decimation of the community, large amounts of important cultural information were lost. It is a testament to the strength of the Stó꞉lō people that they are still a strong culture and community after such devastation. By the late 19th century, the Stó꞉lō's by then extended contact with Europeans enabled them to learn about and get vaccinated for protection against smallpox. The effects of the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic on

9940-532: The developing world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were formerly available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America , for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by

10080-543: The diet until relatively recently, during the Late Stone Age in southern Africa and the Upper Paleolithic in Europe. Fat is important in assessing the quality of game among hunter-gatherers, to the point that lean animals are often considered secondary resources or even starvation food. Consuming too much lean meat leads to adverse health effects like protein poisoning , and can in extreme cases lead to death. Additionally,

10220-412: The discovery of gold came the influx of over 30,000 miners with goals of striking it rich. These miners created many problems as they encroached closely to Stó꞉lō communities, resources, and homes. With the fierce competition over land many disputes arose concerning the ownership of land and the damage that was being caused by the miners. Governor James Douglas recognized these issues and tried to separate

10360-409: The economic systems of hunter-gatherer societies. Therefore, these societies can be described as based on a " gift economy ". A 2010 paper argued that while hunter-gatherers may have lower levels of inequality than modern, industrialised societies, that does not mean inequality does not exist. The researchers estimated that the average Gini coefficient amongst hunter-gatherers was 0.25, equivalent to

10500-541: The end of the Pleistocene —according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, one of several explanations offered for the Quaternary extinction event there. As the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion led to the development of the first forms of government in agricultural centers, such as

10640-461: The environment around them. However, many of the landscapes in the Americas today are due to the way the Natives of that area originally tended the land. Anderson specifically looks at California Natives and the practices they utilized to tame their land. Some of these practices included pruning, weeding, sowing, burning, and selective harvesting. These practices allowed them to take from the environment in

10780-473: The environment, and a more stable and increasingly complex culture . The now extinct Coast Salish woolly dog appeared for the first time during this period. Among the oldest archaeological digs in Canada is Xá:ytem , at Hatzic, just east of present-day Mission . Initial work on a suburban housing project around a transformer stone aroused the interests of Stó꞉lō archaeologist, Gordon Mohs . The land eventually

10920-535: The era of genus Homo are Mode 1 tools, and come from what has been termed the Oldowan Industry , named after the type of site (many sites, actually) found in Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania , where they were discovered in large quantities. Oldowan tools were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly using core forms. These cores were river pebbles, or rocks similar to them, that had been struck by

11060-399: The evidence for early human behaviors for hunting versus carcass scavenging vary based on the ecology, including the types of predators that existed and the environment. According to the endurance running hypothesis , long-distance running as in persistence hunting , a method still practiced by some hunter-gatherer groups in modern times, was likely the driving evolutionary force leading to

11200-456: The evolution of certain human characteristics. This hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis: both subsistence strategies may have been in use sequentially, alternately or even simultaneously. Starting at the transition between the Middle to Upper Paleolithic period, some 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherer bands began to specialize, concentrating on hunting

11340-613: The evolutionary emergence of human consciousness , language , kinship and social organization . Most anthropologists believe that hunter-gatherers do not have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed. Within a particular tribe or people, hunter-gatherers are connected by both kinship and band (residence/domestic group) membership. Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially. Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in

11480-544: The flakes and the hammerstones could be used as tools. The best types of stone for these tools are hard, brittle stones, rich in silica , such as quartzite , chert , flint, silcrete and quartz (the latter particularly in the Kimberleys of Western Australia ). These were quarried from bedrock or collected as pebbles from watercourses and beaches, and often carried for long distances. The flake could be used immediately for cutting or scraping, but were sometimes modified in

11620-629: The handle gives the user protection against the flint and also improves leverage of the device. In prehistoric Japan, ground stone tools appear during the Japanese Paleolithic period, that lasted from around 40,000 BC to 14,000 BC. Elsewhere, ground stone tools became important during the Neolithic period beginning about 10,000 BC. These ground or polished implements are manufactured from larger-grained materials such as basalt , jade and jadeite , greenstone and some forms of rhyolite which are not suitable for flaking. The greenstone industry

11760-400: The idea that they were satisfied with very little in the material sense. Later, in 1996, Ross Sackett performed two distinct meta-analyses to empirically test Sahlin's view. The first of these studies looked at 102 time-allocation studies, and the second one analyzed 207 energy-expenditure studies. Sackett found that adults in foraging and horticultural societies work on average, about 6.5 hours

11900-527: The intrinsic mechanical strength of the axe. Polished stone axes were important for the widespread clearance of woods and forest during the Neolithic period, when crop and livestock farming developed on a large scale. They are distributed very widely and were traded over great distances since the best rock types were often very local. They also became venerated objects, and were frequently buried in long barrows or round barrows with their former owners. During

12040-412: The land in the statement "we have always been here." They tell of their arrival in S'ólh Téméxw as either Tel Swayel ("sky-born" people) or as Tel Temexw ("earth-born" people) and through the subsequent transformations of ancestral animals and fish such as the beaver , mountain goat , and sturgeon. Xexá:ls (transformers) fixed the world ("made it right") and the people and animals in it, creating

12180-625: The language is facing the threat of extinction. In residential schools, such as St. Mary's Residential School in Mission, BC, students were prohibited from speaking their language. If students did speak their language instead of the desired English, they would often be punished physically or mentally to reinforce which language was to be spoken – or not spoken. With a lack of opportunity to speak ʼeméylem in their environment and inability to go home in most cases, students in attendance at residential schools frequently lost their language. In present day,

12320-547: The language to others. In addition, the development of curriculum in Halq'eméylem was desired. The initial program has led to the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqʼeméylem Language Program working with post-secondary institutions in British Columbia to allow course offerings to students regardless of background. Among the post-secondary schools offering Halq'eméylem is the University of the Fraser Valley , Simon Fraser University, and

12460-655: The last 10,000 years. Nowadays, some scholars speak about the existence within cultural evolution of the so-called mixed-economies or dual economies which imply a combination of food procurement (gathering and hunting) and food production or when foragers have trade relations with farmers. Some of the theorists who advocate this "revisionist" critique imply that, because the "pure hunter-gatherer" disappeared not long after colonial (or even agricultural) contact began, nothing meaningful can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of modern ones (Kelly, 24–29; see Wilmsen ) Lee and Guenther have rejected most of

12600-444: The middle Holocene period (c. 5,500–3,000 years ago). Tools found indicate considerable continuity with the early period. One striking feature of this period is the introduction of permanent house sites, showing evidence of cultural transmission from a nomadic to a more sedentary lifestyle between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago. Characteristic of this period were decorative and sculpted stone items, an increasingly complex relationship with

12740-571: The middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace hunter-gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their Bronze and Iron Age counterparts, Neolithic societies could not establish themselves in dense forests, and Copper Age societies had only limited success. In addition to men, a single study found that women engage in hunting in 79% of modern hunter-gatherer societies. However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in

12880-455: The millennia to adapt to changing environments. Oral traditions carried the skills down through the ages. Complex stone tools were used by the Gunditjmara of western Victoria until relatively recently. Many examples are now held in museums. Flaked stone tools were made by extracting a sharp fragment of stone from a larger piece, called a core, by hitting it with a "hammerstone". Both

13020-414: The more sedentary agricultural societies , which rely mainly on cultivating crops and raising domesticated animals for food production, although the boundaries between the two ways of living are not completely distinct. Hunting and gathering was humanity's original and most enduring successful competitive adaptation in the natural world, occupying at least 90 percent of human history . Following

13160-469: The most successful technologies used by humans. The invention of the flintlock gun mechanism in the sixteenth century produced a demand for specially shaped gunflints . The gunflint industry survived until the middle of the twentieth century in some places, including in the English town of Brandon . Threshing boards with lithic flakes are used in agriculture from Neolithic, and are still used today in

13300-495: The mouth of the Fraser River. Remains of this latter campsite show that in spring and early summer, the people came here to hunt land and sea mammals , such as deer , elk , and seals and, to a lesser extent, to fish for salmon , stickleback , eulachon , and sturgeon and to gather shellfish . Their lives depended on their success at harvesting the resources of the land and the rivers through fishing, foraging, and hunting. Contemporary Stó꞉lō elders describe their connection to

13440-650: The needles one at a time, but this was the only work she would be allowed to do; other women would feed and wash the girl until her first menstrual period was over. This custom was practiced widely, at least until youth were sent to residential schools . The Stó꞉lō have two elected tribal councils: the Sto꞉lo Nation Chiefs Council and the Stó꞉lō Tribal Council . Several bands belong to each council and some to both. Six bands belong to neither council (see below for list). The Chehalis Indian Band of

13580-404: The newer major issues is the expanding farmed salmon industry. The farmed salmon are transferring lice and disease to the wild salmon. This is further harming the already dwindling numbers. Stó꞉lō society was organized into classes: the sí꞉yá꞉m (or upper classes), the ordinary people, and the slaves, who were usually captives taken from enemy tribes in raids or warfare. A person's family status

13720-410: The only hominin to leave Africa; European fossils are sometimes associated with Homo ergaster , a contemporary of H. erectus in Africa. In contrast to an Oldowan tool, which is the result of a fortuitous and probably unplanned operation to obtain one sharp edge on a stone, an Acheulean tool is a planned result of a manufacturing process. The manufacturer begins with a blank, either a larger stone or

13860-423: The only statistically significant factor to impact hunter-gatherer tool kits. Using temperature as a proxy for risk, Collard et al.'s results suggest that environments with extreme temperatures pose a threat to hunter-gatherer systems significant enough to warrant increased variability of tools. These results support Torrence's (1989) theory that the risk of failure is indeed the most important factor in determining

14000-565: The period of the Palaeolithic are divided into four "modes", each of which designates a different form of complexity, and which in most cases followed a rough chronological order. Stone tools found from 2011 to 2014 at the Lomekwi archeology site near Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genus Homo by about one million years. The oldest known Homo fossil

14140-438: The practice was dying out there was a settlement of former slaves called Freedom Village ( Halkomelem : Chiʼckim). In some bands, the memory of which families descend from slaves may persist. The Síyá꞉m (leader) were the most influential members of each family. Expert hunters were referred to as Tewit and led during the hunting season. Leaders with influence over entire villages or tribal groups were sometimes known as

14280-532: The present landscape. As Carlson notes: There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by First Nations people dating from the early Holocene period, 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. Two archaeological sites referred to in the Origins section are well documented. Additional archaeological evidence from the early period has been found throughout the region, including sites at Stave Lake , Coquitlam Lake , and Fort Langley . Many more sites exist that date from

14420-452: The production of microliths , which were used in composite tools, mainly fastened to a shaft. Examples include the Magdalenian culture. Such a technology makes much more efficient use of available materials like flint, although required greater skill in manufacturing the small flakes. Mounting sharp flint edges in a wood or bone handle is the key innovation in microliths, essentially because

14560-518: The regions where agriculture has not been mechanized and industrialized. Glassy stones (flint, quartz, jasper , agate ) were used with a variety of iron pyrite or marcasite stones as percussion fire starter tools . That was the most common method of producing fire in pre-industrial societies. Stones were later superseded by use of steel, ferrocerium and matches. For specialist purposes glass knives are still made and used today, particularly for cutting thin sections for electron microscopy in

14700-479: The relationships of the Stó꞉lō with each other and with the land. Although the HBC built the posts with the fur trade in mind, trade in salmon soon took over as the primary item of exchange. Between 1830 and 1849, Fort Langley's purchases of salmon increased from 200 barrels to 2610 barrels. The Kwantlen branch of the Stó꞉lō relocated their main village to the proximity of the fort, partly to maintain primacy in trade with

14840-660: The researchers agreed that hunter-gatherers were more egalitarian than modern societies, prior characterisations of them living in a state of egalitarian primitive communism were inaccurate and misleading. This study, however, exclusively examined modern hunter-gatherer communities, offering limited insight into the exact nature of social structures that existed prior to the Neolithic Revolution. Alain Testart and others have said that anthropologists should be careful when using research on current hunter-gatherer societies to determine

14980-503: The reserves. He felt that the Stó꞉lō did not need most of the land promised to them by Douglas and McColl. Trutch believed that if the land was not being used for agrarian purposes it was not required. He reduced the reserves by 91% in 1867, siding with the settlers who had begun to build homes and farms in the area. Trutch also took away many of the rights that Douglas had given to the Stó꞉lō. They no longer were allowed to participate in government or able to pre-empt or purchase land outside of

15120-544: The reserves. In the years following these events the federal and provincial governments have paid very little attention to the problems that First Nations people have been experiencing in British Columbia. In 1990 British Columbia acknowledged that Aboriginal rights to land and resources needed to be extinguished by treaty as stated in the 1763 Royal Proclamation . They created the BC Treaty Commission to help deal with these issues. St. Mary's Indian Residential School

15260-646: The resulting Oldowan tools were used by the experiment participants to access a money-baited box. The earliest known Oldowan tools yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during the Lower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered at Gona in Ethiopia. After this date, the Oldowan Industry subsequently spread throughout much of Africa, although archaeologists are currently unsure which Hominan species first developed them, with some speculating that it

15400-422: The river. It was then shared with either the entire community or more privately in a family setting. After the salmon meat was eaten the bones of the fish were then returned to the river. This was to show respect to the salmon people. If the ceremony was not performed and the fish not shared it was said that the fisher would experience bad luck for the rest of the year and the salmon run may not be as strong. Salmon

15540-452: The same camp. The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be matrilineal . The conventional assumption has been that women did most of the gathering, while men concentrated on big game hunting. An illustrative account is Megan Biesele's study of the southern African Ju/'hoan, 'Women Like Meat'. A recent study suggests that

15680-646: The same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies". Only a few contemporary societies of uncontacted people are still classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with horticulture or pastoralism . Hunting and gathering was presumably the subsistence strategy employed by human societies beginning some 1.8 million years ago, by Homo erectus , and from its appearance some 200,000 years ago by Homo sapiens . Prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived in groups that consisted of several families resulting in

15820-408: The second and more likely theory is that it was brought to the coast through trade routes with Europeans. It is estimated that the epidemic killed two thirds of the Stó꞉lō population, approximately 61%, within six weeks. During the epidemic traditional responses to illness may have made the outbreak worse. One method was gathering around the sick person’s bed to sing and pray. This exposed more people to

15960-503: The sexual division of labor was the fundamental organizational innovation that gave Homo sapiens the edge over the Neanderthals, allowing our ancestors to migrate from Africa and spread across the globe. A 1986 study found most hunter-gatherers have a symbolically structured sexual division of labor. However, it is true that in a small minority of cases, women hunted the same kind of quarry as men, sometimes doing so alongside men. Among

16100-537: The stone was extracted. The sites exhibit piles of waste flakes, as well as rejected rough-outs. Polishing improved the mechanical strength of the tools, so increasing their life and effectiveness. Many other tools were developed using the same techniques. Such products were traded across the country and abroad. Stone axes from 35,000 years ago are the earliest known use of a stone tool in Australia. Other stone tools varied in type and use among various Aboriginal Australian peoples, dependent on geographical regions and

16240-403: The structure of hunter-gatherer toolkits. One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is by their return systems. James Woodburn uses the categories "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for egalitarianism and "delayed return" for nonegalitarian. Immediate return foragers consume their food within a day or two after they procure it. Delayed return foragers store the surplus food. Hunting-gathering

16380-765: The structure of societies in the paleolithic era, emphasising cross-cultural influences, progress and development that such societies have undergone in the past 10,000 years. As one moves away from the equator , the importance of plant food decreases and the importance of aquatic food increases. In cold and heavily forested environments, edible plant foods and large game are less abundant and hunter-gatherers may turn to aquatic resources to compensate. Hunter-gatherers in cold climates also rely more on stored food than those in warm climates. However, aquatic resources tend to be costly, requiring boats and fishing technology, and this may have impeded their intensive use in prehistory. Marine food probably did not start becoming prominent in

16520-557: The students moved to a new government-run residential school of the same name on the eastern border of Mission, and the Roman Catholic School was closed. In 1985, all buildings of the former schools were destroyed, making it the last residential school in British Columbia. The grounds of the school are now part of Fraser River Heritage Park. New Bell Tower, built in 2000, also housed the 1875 original bell from Mission. The Mission Indian Friendship Centre in 2001 provided funds to build

16660-506: The succession of the Modes: for example, Mode 1 was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa. Clark's scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community. One of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology; for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest. Consequently, in the literature the stone tools used in

16800-518: The tools was done by dating volcanic ash layers in which the tools were found and dating the magnetic signature (pointing north or south due to reversal of the magnetic poles) of the rock at the site. Grooved, cut and fractured animal bone fossils, made by using stone tools, were found in Dikika , Ethiopia near (200 yards) the remains of Selam , a young Australopithecus afarensis girl who lived about 3.3 million years ago. The earliest stone tools in

16940-507: The trend of individuals not being able to speak their language continues. English has still been taking precedence over the speaking of Halq'eméylem. With those who have fluency in the language passing away, and children not being raised in environments in which Halq'eméylem is learned and utilized as English has. As the Stó꞉lō people, like other Aboriginal groups, consider their language to be an important aspect of their culture, there have been efforts made to revitalize Halq'eméylem. One of

17080-473: The type and structure of the tools varied among the different cultural and linguistic groups. The locations of the various artefacts, as well as whole geologic features, demarcated territorial and cultural boundaries of various linguistic and cultural groups' lands. They developed trade networks, and showed sophistication in working many different types of stone for many different uses, including as tools, food utensils and weapons, and modified their stone tools over

17220-813: The viability of hunting and gathering in the 21st century. One such group is the Pila Nguru (Spinifex people) of Western Australia , whose land in the Great Victoria Desert has proved unsuitable for European agriculture (and even pastoralism). Another are the Sentinelese of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean , who live on North Sentinel Island and to date have maintained their independent existence, repelling attempts to engage with and contact them. The Savanna Pumé of Venezuela also live in an area that

17360-429: The virus. Other practices included cleansing sweats and cold morning baths which would have shocked the infected person’s body causing more harm. Those who survived were affected with blindness and other permanent disabilities making hunting and other activities difficult. This caused many people to suffer from hunger along with the emotional damage from debilitation. Stó꞉lō culture is based on an oral tradition, and with

17500-721: The weight of the mound. Because they are distinct from any other structures anywhere else in the region, the people who made them may not have been forebears of the Stó꞉lō peoples. This period extends from 3,000 years ago to first contact with European people. New forms of ground stone technology , including slate knives , slate points, hand mauls , nephrite chisels , and nephrite adzes , are evidence of an increasingly specialized society evolving during this period. Social class distinctions were accompanied by changing house forms that indicated expanding households. Warfare became increasingly widespread. Although Captains José María Narváez of Spain and George Vancouver of England explored

17640-624: Was Australopithecus garhi , and others believing that it was in fact Homo habilis . Homo habilis was the hominin who used the tools for most of the Oldowan in Africa, but at about 1.9-1.8 million years ago Homo erectus inherited them. The Industry flourished in southern and eastern Africa between 2.6 and 1.7 million years ago, but was also spread out of Africa and into Eurasia by travelling bands of H. erectus , who took it as far east as Java by 1.8 million years ago and Northern China by 1.6 million years ago. Eventually, more complex Mode 2 tools began to be developed through

17780-472: Was directed in 1864 by Douglas to create the reserves. The surveyors outlined 15,760 hectors through present day Abbotsford, Chilliwack, and Mission. This may seem like a large amount of land, but was small in comparison to the land available to settlers. Soon after the survey was completed Douglas retired and McColl died. Joseph Trutch , the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, was placed in charge of

17920-652: Was eventually abandoned and covered by flooding and sediment during the ongoing evolution of the Fraser delta. In the early 21st century, a group of structures known variously as the Fraser Valley Pyramids or Scowlitz Mounds at Harrison Bay, near Chehalis, are under investigation by a joint task force of the Scowlitz First Nation and archaeologists. Little is known about the mounds, which appear to be burial mounds and which contain timber structures to sustain

18060-462: Was important in determining their role within Stó꞉lō society, and within Longhouse ceremonies, though this has faded over time. Slaves may have been treated relatively well, but they were not permitted to eat with others at the Longhouse fire. They were primarily responsible for daily tasks such as gathering nuts, fruits and other foods, or firewood. The use of slaves died out in the nineteenth century. As

18200-638: Was important in the English Lake District , and is known as the Langdale axe industry . Ground stone implements included adzes , celts , and axes , which were manufactured using a labour-intensive, time-consuming method of repeated grinding against an abrasive stone, often using water as a lubricant. Because of their coarse surfaces, some ground stone tools were used for grinding plant foods and were polished not just by intentional shaping, but also by use. Manos are hand stones used in conjunction with metates for grinding corn or grain. Polishing increased

18340-492: Was no reason to think, therefore, that Developed Oldowan had to be habilis ; it could have been erectus . Opponents of the view divide Developed Oldowan between Oldowan and Acheulean. There is no question, however, that habilis and erectus coexisted, as habilis fossils are found as late as 1.4 million years ago. Meanwhile, African H. erectus developed Mode 2. In any case a wave of Mode 2 then spread across Eurasia, resulting in use of both there. H. erectus may not have been

18480-429: Was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population. Therefore, no surplus of resources can be accumulated by any single member. Other characteristics Lee and DeVore proposed were flux in territorial boundaries as well as in demographic composition. At the same conference, Marshall Sahlins presented

18620-530: Was ported to serve as an ongoing source of flakes until it was finally retouched as a finished tool itself. Edges were often sharpened by further retouching. Eventually, the Acheulean in Europe was replaced by a lithic technology known as the Mousterian Industry , which was named after the site of Le Moustier in France, where examples were first uncovered in the 1860s. Evolving from the Acheulean, it adopted

18760-731: Was signed in 1977. Twenty-one of these nations entered the BC Treaty Process as the Sto꞉lo Nation Chiefs Council in August 1995. Four First Nations withdrew from the treaty process, leaving seventeen to reach Stage Four of the six-stage process. In 2005, an internal reorganization of the nineteen Stó꞉lō First Nations divided them into two tribal councils. Eleven of these First Nations — Aitchelitz, Leq'a:mel, Matsqui, Popkum, Shxwhá:y Village, Skawahlook, Skowkale, Squiala, Sumas, Tzeachten, and Yakweakwioose — chose to remain in

18900-497: Was smoked, this was traditionally done for a week or two but with modern refrigeration technology smoking is only done for a few days. Dried salmon was then either boiled or steamed before eating. Salmon was not only used for food, it was also crucial for trading. This began when the Hudson’s Bay Company set up trading posts in Stó꞉lō territory. They originally wanted the Stó꞉lō to hunt beaver for them but quickly learned that

19040-416: Was the assimilation of the Stó꞉lō into European culture. He hoped to have Stó꞉lō pre-empt crown land for agricultural development and have them lease out parts of the reserves to non-Aboriginal farmers to aid in assimilation. While waiting to be able to negotiate treaties, which were a very expensive process, he attempted to create large Indian reserves of at least 40 hectares per family. Douglas also promised

19180-459: Was the common human mode of subsistence throughout the Paleolithic , but the observation of current-day hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect Paleolithic societies; the hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have had much contact with modern civilization and do not represent "pristine" conditions found in uncontacted peoples . The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture

19320-580: Was the name of two Indian residential schools in Mission , British Columbia. It was first operated by the Roman Catholic Church of Canada and secondly by the Canadian federal government. The school had approximately 2000 children in attendance with most of them Stó꞉lō. Opened in 1863 as a school of boys housing 42 students in its first year a girls section was added in 1868, but was split off and operated by

19460-457: Was the preferred food of the Stó꞉lō and was seen as superior to other types of meat. Meat and salmon were classified differently and salmon was said to give individuals energy while meat makes you feel heavy and lazy. In order to have salmon through the off seasons it was preserved through two different methods. In the summer salmon was wind dried with salt in the Fraser Canyon. In the fall salmon

19600-434: Was transferred to Stó꞉lō governance for heritage purposes. The focus of the site is a large transformer stone which bears the name Xá:ytem. This has come to be used for the ancient village site that has been excavated in the surrounding field. There are two major eras found in the dig, one 3000BP and the other from 5000-9000BP . Both indicate posthole and timber-frame construction and advanced social and economic life. The site

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