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48-711: The Frascati Manual classifies budgets according to what is done, what is studied, and who is studying it. For example, an oral history project conducted by a religious organization would be classified as being basic research, in the field of humanities (the sub-category of history), and performed by a non-governmental, non-profit organization. The manual gives definitions for: basic research , applied research , Research and development ; research personnel: researchers , technicians , auxiliary personnel. The Frascati Manual classifies research into three categories: These involve novelty, creativity, uncertainty, systematic, and reproducibility and transferability. It also organizes

96-738: A diamond stylus. Beginning in 1915, new Edison cylinder issues consisted of re-recordings from Edison discs; they therefore had lower audio quality than the disc originals. Although his cylinders continued to be sold in steadily dwindling and eventually minuscule quantities, Edison continued to support the owners of cylinder phonographs by making new titles available in that format until the company ceased manufacturing all records and phonographs in November 1929. Cylinder phonograph technology continued to be used for Dictaphone and Ediphone recordings for office use for decades. In 1947, Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their Dictabelt technology, which cut

144-447: A central computer server and copies can be burned to optical media, or copied to USB flash drives owned by the researchers, scholars and students working with the material. Recordable compact discs are commonly used over magnetic tape for the preservation of oral histories over a long period of time. Compact Cassette tapes and Videotape were popular but have been almost completely replaced by optical media such as CD-R and DVD media. CD-R

192-434: A gearshift and a 'model K' reproducer with two different styli, which allowed it to play both two-minute and four-minute cylinders. Cylinder records continued to compete with the growing disc record market into the 1910s, when discs won the commercial battle. In 1912, Columbia Records , which had been selling both discs and cylinders, dropped the cylinder format, while Edison introduced his Diamond Disc format, played with

240-711: A growing number of oral history programs and classes in college and university campus across America. Although Indiana University does not offer academic degrees in oral history The Center for the Study of History and Memory offers students the opportunity to take classes on the topic. Some of the major universities that offer classes or degrees in oral history are Columbia University, University of Kentucky, and University of California Los Angeles. Many international universities and organizations are also enhancing their programs. The United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, have all established oral history associations and offer educational classes on

288-694: A harder (and more fragile) form of wax to withstand the smaller stylus used to play them. The longer playing time was achieved by reducing the groove size and placing them half as far apart. In 1912, the Edison company eventually acquired Lambert's patents to the celluloid technology, and almost immediately started production under a variation of their existing Amberol brand as Edison Blue Amberol Records . Edison designed several phonograph types, both with internal and external horns for playing these improved cylinder records. The internal horn models were called Amberolas . Edison marketed its "Fireside" model phonograph with

336-452: A mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. However, cylinders for older style dictating machines continued to be available for some years, and it was not unusual to encounter cylinder dictating machines into the 1950s. In the late 20th and early 21st century, new recordings have been made on cylinders for the novelty effect of using obsolete technology. Probably

384-407: A relatively soft wax formulation and would wear out after they were played a few dozen times. The buyer could then use a mechanism which left their surfaces shaved smooth so new recordings could be made on them. Cylinder machines of the late 1880s and the 1890s were usually sold with recording attachments. The ability to record as well as play back sound was an advantage of cylinder phonographs over

432-514: A standard PC case. One of the big advantages of doing this is that as the servers age and are retired, the files can simply be copied to newer, larger replacement servers making hardware obsolescence a thing of the past. Due to the growing importance of oral histories the United States, as well as the international community, have increased funding to produce more oral histories, preserve oral history collections, and train oral historians. There are

480-462: A standard for 24 bits when digitizing music. This creates "superb" sound and has a high level of detail (Danielson, 2001). The Library of Congress uses CD-R as one of its storage methods. The Library of Congress has a higher budget than many university or archives, therefore they are able to store materials in multiple places. But, the Library of Congress has stated that they do believe storing sound on CD-R

528-597: A thicker all-wax cylinder, the surface of which could be repeatedly shaved down for reuse. Both the Graphophone and Edison's " Perfected Phonograph " were commercialized in 1888. Eventually, a patent-sharing agreement was signed, and the wax-coated cardboard tubes were abandoned in favor of Edison's all-wax cylinders as an interchangeable standard format. Beginning in 1889, prerecorded wax cylinders were marketed. These have professionally made recordings of songs, instrumental music or humorous monologues in their grooves. At first,

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576-699: Is a safe storage method (Danielson, 2001). One can assume if it is considered safe by the Library of Congress it is a relatively safe method of preservation. A huge challenge of oral history preservation today is the battle with digital obsolescence. There is an obvious link between oral history preservation and digital preservation . Oral histories are often recorded on an assortment of tapes which are ultimately transferred onto computerized, or digitized, formats in order to facilitate their longevity. These digitized formats then have to be preserved, along with their corresponding metadata, just as any other digital objects are. Technological advances are happening every day and it

624-406: Is a successful technology that has proven its reliability over period of time, but it should be viewed with caution for long term storage as the media is easily scratched. The safest way is to make a "gold master" CD that is not ever checked out for use from the library, and duplicate copies of this for use by people wishing to access it. The Folk Heritage Collections, at the Library of Congress, set

672-424: Is difficult to keep up with these changes. Emulation and migration are two ways in which formats can be changed in order to be of use for longer. Emulation focuses on designing hardware and software that will imitate the old system so that it can accept the old files while migration focuses on fitting preserved data into a smaller number of formats that can still encode the complexities of the structure and form of

720-511: Is hard to decide who holds the rights to the materials and how they should be handled. There are ways to combat copyright and ethical concerns and restrictions, however. One such way is through a letter of intent. Users sign this document before listening to an oral history recording in order to demonstrate that they understand and have agreed to the usage restrictions put in place by the institution. Early methods of recording sound included phonograph cylinders (a stylus would draw wax grooves on

768-450: Is the field that deals with the care and upkeep of oral history materials, whatever format they may be in. Oral history is a method of historical documentation, using interviews with living survivors of the time being investigated. Oral history often touches on topics scarcely touched on by written documents, and by doing so, fills in the gaps of records that make up early historical documents. The earliest method of collecting oral history

816-714: The Archéophone player, designed by Henri Chamoux and the "Endpoint Cylinder and Dictabelt Machine" by Nicholas Bergh. The Archéophone is used by the Edison National Historic Site, Bowling Green State University (Bowling Green, Ohio), the Department of Special Collections at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library , and many other libraries and archives, including the Endpoint by The New York Public Library for

864-504: The British musical group The Men That Will Not Be Blamed for Nothing released the track "Sewer", from their debut album, Now That's What I Call Steampunk! Volume 1 on a wax cylinder in a limited edition of 40, of which only 30 were put on sale. The box set came with instructions on how to make a cylinder player for less than £20. The BBC covered the release on Television on BBC Click , on BBC Online , and on Radio 5 Live . In June 2017

912-491: The Cthulhu Breakfast Club podcast released a special limited wax cylinder edition of a show. In April 2019, the podcast Hello Internet released ten limited edition wax cylinder recordings. In May 2023, Needlejuice Records released wax cylinder singles for Lemon Demon songs "Touch-Tone Telephone" and "The Oldest Man On MySpace", from albums Spirit Phone and Dinosaurchestra , respectively. Because of

960-604: The Indestructible Record Company in 1906 and Columbia Phonograph Company in 1908. The Edison Bell company in Europe had separately licensed the technology and were able to market Edison's titles in both wax (popular series) and celluloid (indestructible series). In late 1908, Edison had introduced wax cylinders that played for nominally four minutes (instead of the usual two) under the Amberol brand. They were made from

1008-497: The Performing Arts . In an attempt to preserve the historic content of the recordings, cylinders can be read with a confocal microscope and converted to a digital audio format. The resulting sound clip in most cases sounds better than stylus playback from the original cylinder. Having an electronic version of the original recordings enables archivists to open access to the recordings to a wider audience. This technique also has

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1056-420: The competition from cheaper disc record phonographs, which began to be mass-marketed at the end of the 1890s, as the disc system machines could be used only to play back prerecorded sound. In the earliest stages of phonograph manufacturing, various incompatible, competing types of cylinder recordings were made. A standard system was decided upon by Edison Records , Columbia Phonograph , and other companies in

1104-494: The correct temperature to store oral history materials and trained professionals are there to ensure that the formats of the materials are kept up to date. Archivists, Preservationists and Conservators are in a unique position to appraise the shortcomings of existing archival records and to subsequently know what value can be made by oral history materials. Phonograph cylinder Phonograph cylinders (also referred to as Edison cylinders after its creator Thomas Edison ) are

1152-407: The cylinders after purchase. Their general appearance allowed bandleader John Philip Sousa to deride their contents as "canned music", an epithet he borrowed from Mark Twain . On March 20, 1900, Thomas B. Lambert was granted a US patent (645,920) that described a process for mass-producing cylinders made from celluloid , an early hard plastic. ( Henri Jules Lioret  [ fr ] of France

1200-432: The earliest commercial medium for recording and reproducing sound . Commonly known simply as "records" in their heyday (c. 1896–1916), a name which has been passed on to their disc-shaped successor , these hollow cylindrical objects have an audio recording engraved on the outside surface which can be reproduced when they are played on a mechanical cylinder phonograph . The first cylinders were wrapped with tin foil but

1248-573: The expenditure and personnel resources devoted to R&D in the industry sectors performing it: higher education , government , business , and private non-profit organisations . In June 1963, OECD experts met with the NESTI group (National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators) at the Villa Falconieri in Frascati , Italy . Based on a background document by Christopher Freeman they drafted

1296-458: The fields of scholarly research endeavors, from mathematics to literature, into main and sub-categories. The 2002 Frascati Manual included a 'Field of Science' (FOS) classification. After several reviews, a Revised Fields of Science and Technology (FOS) classification was published in February 2007 consisting of the following high-level groupings: The Frascati Manual deals primarily with measuring

1344-599: The first version of Frascati Manual, which is officially known as The Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development . In 2002 the 6th edition was published. The definitions provided in the Frascati Manual have been adopted by many governments and serve as a common language for discussions of science and technology policy and economic development policy. Originally an OECD standard, it has become an acknowledged standard in R&;D studies all over

1392-402: The improved version made of wax was created a decade later, after which they were commercialized. In the 1910s, the competing disc record system triumphed in the marketplace to become the dominant commercial audio medium. In December 1877, Thomas Edison and his team invented the phonograph using a thin sheet of tin foil wrapped around a hand-cranked, grooved metal cylinder. Tin foil

1440-607: The last a song about the site of the recording. These recordings were officially released online as MP3 files in 2001. Small numbers of cylinders have been manufactured in the 21st century out of modern long-lasting materials. Two companies engaged in such enterprise are the Vulcan Cylinder Record Company of Sheffield , England, and the Wizard Cylinder Records Company in Baldwin, New York . In 2010

1488-421: The late 1880s. The standard cylinders are about 4 inches (10 cm) long, 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (5.7 cm) in diameter, and play about two minutes of recorded material. Originally, all cylinders sold needed to be recorded live on the softer brown wax, which wore out after as few as 20 plays. Later cylinders were reproduced either mechanically or by linking phonographs together with rubber tubes. Over

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1536-624: The most famous of these are by They Might Be Giants , who in 1996 recorded "I Can Hear You" and three other songs, performed without electricity, on an 1898 Edison wax recording studio phonograph at the Edison National Historic Site in West Orange, New Jersey . This song was released on Factory Showroom in 1996 and re-released on the 2002 compilation Dial-A-Song: 20 Years of They Might Be Giants . The other songs recorded were "James K. Polk", "Maybe I Know", and "The Edison Museum",

1584-415: The nature of the recording medium, playback of many cylinders can cause degradation of the recording. The replay of cylinders diminishes their fidelity and degrades their recorded signals. Additionally, when exposed to humidity, mold can penetrate a cylinder's surface and cause the recording to have surface noise. Currently, the only professional machines manufactured for the playback of cylinder recordings are

1632-402: The only customers for them were proprietors of nickelodeons —the first jukeboxes —installed in arcades and taverns, but within a few years, private owners of phonographs were increasingly buying them for home use. Unlike later, shorter-playing high-speed cylinders, early cylinder recordings were usually cut at a speed of about 120 rpm and can play for as long as three minutes. They were made of

1680-458: The original format. With the recent cost decreases in hard disk drives, oral archivists are considering moving many of their popular holdings to permanent storage in a server farm. For example, a single terabyte disk drive costing under $ 100 USD can hold 1,900 hours of uncompressed audio. A CD-R by contrast can only hold 76 minutes of uncompressed audio. Disk drive array cards such as the 3ware 9650SE can field 8TB of redundantly protected data in

1728-496: The outside of a cylinder), gramophone records (grooves on the flat side of a disk) and magnetic recordings. While reel-to-reel audio tape recordings are still used, video recordings have become standard. This allows the researcher to take body language and facial expressions (both important means of communication in themselves) into account. There is also an emerging trend to use the telephone to make audio journals when distance prevents face-to-face contact. In order to ensure

1776-512: The preservation of oral histories it is important that all work is properly transcribed and stored on reliable media. It is important to preserve oral histories in modern digital format to ensure longevity and usability. The simplest and easiest way to do this for audio histories is to purchase a "personal MP3 player" that has recording capabilities, and record directly to the flash chip in the player. These are very inexpensive and can hold many hours of interviews. The files should then be uploaded to

1824-464: The production of several hundred cylinders to be made from the mold. The process was labeled "Gold Moulded" because of the gold vapor that was given off by gold electrodes used in the process. The earliest soft wax cylinders were sold wrapped in thick cotton batting . Later, molded hard-wax cylinders were sold in boxes with a cotton lining. Celluloid cylinders were sold in unlined boxes. These protective boxes were normally kept and used to house

1872-510: The public. There are a few basic rules for paper (transcript) preservation of an oral history collection: There are a few basic rules for magnetic recording preservation of an oral history collection: There are many different digital preservation strategies, but no one strategy has been agreed upon as appropriate for all data types or institutions. Oral history materials are often stored in archival repositories that facilitate their preservation and longevity. Archival repositories are kept at

1920-528: The recording medium, and engraving, rather than indenting, as the recording method. In 1887, their " Graphophone " system was being put to the test of practical use by official reporters of the US Congress , with commercial units later being produced by the Dictaphone Corporation . After this system was demonstrated to Edison's representatives, Edison quickly resumed work on the phonograph. He settled on

1968-500: The subject. These programs are aimed at educating future oral historians on key issues relating to oral history, such as preservation. This is a highly debated subject matter, due to increasing technology and funding. The basic preservation rule for oral histories is that the repository must make three copies each of the oral history, of the transcript, and of all accompanying paperwork (summaries and copyright statements). Transcripts of oral histories can facilitate their dissemination to

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2016-658: The world and is widely used by various organisations associated with the United Nations and European Union . As of 2000, approximately 75% of countries used this method to share information about their budgets. Over the past 40 years, the NESTI group has developed a series of documents, known as the "Frascati Family", that includes manuals on R&D (Frascati Manual), innovation ( Oslo Manual ), human resources (Canberra Manual), technology, balance of payments, and patents as indicators of science and technology. Oral history preservation Oral history preservation

2064-419: The years, the type of wax used in cylinders was improved and hardened, so that cylinders could be played with good quality over 100 times. In 1902, Edison Records launched a line of improved, hard wax cylinders marketed as "Edison Gold Moulded Records". The major development of this line of cylinders is that Edison had developed a process that allowed a mold to be made from a master cylinder, which then permitted

2112-500: Was augmented with the invention of different methods to record sound. Spoken word can now be recorded on audio or video tape, or through newer digital methods. While new media allows for richer histories to be saved, it also comes with greater issues for preservationists, one such issue being that of copyright and the ethical concerns that come along with it. For all intents and purposes, copyright does not exist in oral testimonies, at least not as clearly as it does in written documents. It

2160-505: Was not a practical recording medium for either commercial or artistic purposes, and the crude hand-cranked phonograph was only marketed as a novelty, to little or no profit. Edison moved on to developing a practical incandescent electric light , and the next improvements to sound recording technology were made by others. Following seven years of research and experimentation at their Volta Laboratory , Charles Sumner Tainter , Alexander Graham Bell , and Chichester Bell introduced wax as

2208-460: Was producing celluloid cylinders as early as 1893, but they were individually recorded rather than molded.) That same year, the Lambert Company of Chicago began selling cylinder records made of the material. They would not break if dropped and could be played thousands of times without wearing out. The color was changed to black in 1903, but brown and blue cylinders were also produced. The coloring

2256-463: Was purportedly because the dyes reduced surface noise . Unlike wax, the hard, inflexible material could not be shaved and recorded over, but it had the advantage of being nearly permanent. A 1905 Edison Phonograph may be seen and heard playing a celluloid cylinder at the Musical Museum , Brentford, England and the quality of the sound is surprisingly good. This superior technology was licensed by

2304-513: Was through memory. (see: oral tradition ) With the loss of elders who were willing to preserve and pass along these histories, cultural memories began to vanish. With the advent of the written word, it became possible for cultures to preserve their history without the memory of a select few. Spoken word was transcribed, and the eyewitness accounts of those who lived through both significant and everyday events were able to be saved for future generations to study. This method of historical preservation

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